TIME | EVENT DESCRIPTION | LOCATION | IMAGES |
UNIVERSE | |||
1,000,000,000,000 YBN | 1) We are a tiny part of a universe made of an infinite amount of space, matter and time. | ||
995,000,000,000 YBN | 11) There is no time I can identify as the start of the universe, the universe has no beginning and no end; perhaps the same photons that have always been in the universe continue to move in the space that has always been. | ||
990,000,000,000 YBN | 2) There is more space than matter. | ||
980,000,000,000 YBN | 3) All of the matter is made of particles of light humans have named "photons". Photons are the base unit of all matter from the tiniest particles to the largest galaxies. The basic order of matter from smaller to largest is photons, electrons, positrons, muons, protons, neutrons, atoms, molecules, living objects, planets, stars, globular clusters, galaxies, galaxtic clusters. | ||
960,000,000,001 YBN | 5) Photons generally move 300 million meters every second in a line, but as pieces of matter, can be slightly slowed from the force of gravity, and stop for an instant when they collide. Photons move 300 million meters every second in a line but as pieces of matter their velocity changes slightly because of gravity, and theoretically photons bounce off each other, at which time they come to a complete stop relative to the rest of the universe for an instant before bouncing and accelerating away from each other in the opposite direction. | ||
950,000,000,000 YBN | 6) Matter is attracted to other matter and so photons form structures such as protons, atoms, molecules, molecule groups (like all of life of earth), planets, stars, galaxies, and clusters of galaxies. Gravity is responsible for photons forming Hydrogen, Hydrogen forming nebulas, nebulas forming stars, and stars forming galaxies. | ||
940,000,000,000 YBN | 7) All of the hundreds of billions of galaxies we can see are only a tiny part of the universe. Most of the galaxies in the universe we will never see because they are too far away for even 1 particle of light from them to be going in the exact direction of our tiny location, or are captured by atoms between here and there. One estimate has 70e21 (sextillion) stars in only the universe we can see. That is 10 times more stars than grains of sand on all the earth. | ||
935,000,000,000 YBN | 4) The patterns in the universe are clear. Photons form gas clouds of Hydrogen and Helium, these gas clouds, called nebuli condense to form galaxies of stars. The stars emit photons back out into the rest of the universe, where they collect and form clouds again. Around each star are many planets and pieces of matter. On many of those planets intelligent life evolves. This life moves their stars out of spiral galaxies to form globular clusters, and ultimately to transform spiral galaxies into elliptical galaxies that travel the universe looking for more matter to fuel their movement. It may very well be that stars at this scale are photons, spiral galaxies charged particles, globular galaxies neutral particles, and galactic clusters atoms at a much larger scale in an infinite macro and micro scale. | ||
930,000,000,000 YBN | 8) That the frequency of photons from the most distant galaxies we can see have a lower frequency may be due to the effects of gravitation and/or particle collision in the large distance between source and observer. | ||
880,000,000,000 YBN | 13) The Milky Way Galaxy forms, perhaps from a gas cloud that formed by capturing matter in the form of light from other stars, from the remains of a previously destroyed galaxy, or some combination of the two. | ||
5,500,000,000 YBN | 16) The yellow star earth will eventually orbit forms, perhaps in a nebula, when matter in the nebula starts accumulating and rotating as a result of gravity, or from the remains of an exploded star that condensed again under the influence of gravity. My opinion is that stars contain molten iron in their center, similar to the earth. {check with supernova remnants} The density of the star the earth rotates is similar to that of a liquid. The most popular theory to explain how stars give off so many photons is that these photons exit as a result of Hydrogen atomically fusing into Helium, and I want to add my opinion that potentially the pressure of gravity simply separates atoms of Hydrogen and helium into their source photons. Perhaps the reaction is similar to the center of the earth where red hot liquid iron emits photons. We obviously do not explain that red hot molten metal as being the result of nuclear fusion, but yet it is clearly not oxygen combustion. Clearly there are many photons exiting stars every second, and each star is losing large amounts of matter in the form of photons. In addition, the most popular theory explains that most atoms heavier than Hydrogen and no heavier than Iron are made in stars, and atoms larger than iron can only be made in supernovae. The current view theorizes that the iron is made just before the supernova, in the gravitational collapse, but I find a liquid iron core being there for the lifetime of every star as a more logical explanation. | ||
5,000,000,000 YBN | 22) Heavier atoms in the star system move closer to the center and lighter atoms are sent farther out. | ||
4,600,000,000 YBN | 17) Planets form around star. Terrestrial planets are red hot, have surface of melted rock, all lighter atoms float to the surface of the molten planets. All the H2O from the first earth oceans and lakes is in the atmosphere in gas form. | ||
4,600,000,000 YBN | 30) Moon of earth is formed by 1 of 3 ways: 1) spherical planet collides with earth, moon forms from remaining matter in ring around earth. 2) spherical planet is caught in earth orbit 3) moon of earth forms naturally from original matter of star system in orbit around earth. The Moon orbiting 5 degrees from the axis of the Earth's orbit implies that the Moon was captured, although 5% is not a particularly large difference from the plane of the Earth's rotation. That the Moon orbits in the same direction as the Earth is evidence in favor of the Moon forming around the Earth. | ||
4,571,000,000 YBN | 31) Oldest meteorite yet found on earth 4,571 million years old. | ![]() [1] The ''Zag'' meteorite fell to Earth in 1988 COPYRIGHTED source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/t ech/783048.stm | |
4,530,000,000 YBN | 33) Oldest Moon rock returned from Apollo missions (4.53 billions old). | ![]() [1] http://www.nasm.si.edu/exhibitions/attm/ atmimages/S73-15446.f.jpg http://www.nasm.si.edu/exhibitions/attm/ nojs/wl.br.1.html source: | |
4,500,000,000 YBN | 24) Oldest meteor and moon (although no earth) rocks date from this time 4.5 billion years before now. | ||
LIFE | |||
4,500,000,000 YBN | 50) Start Precambrian Eon, Hadean Era. | ||
4,450,000,000 YBN | 21) Planet earth cools, molten rock cools into thin crust, H2O condenses from the atmosphere by raining, filling the lowest parts of land to make the first earth oceans, lakes, and rivers. | ||
4,404,000,000 YBN | 34) Oldest "terrestrial" (not from meteorite) zircon yet found on earth, 4.404 billion years old, from Gneiss in West Australia, is evidence that the crust and liquid water were on the surface of earth 4.4 billion years before now. | ![]() [1] http://www.geology.wisc.edu/zircon/Earli est%20Piece/Images/8.jpg source: | |
4,400,000,000 YBN | 18) Amino acids, phosphates, and sugars, the components of living objects are created on earth. These molecules are made in the oceans, fresh water, and or atmosphere of earth (or other planets) by lightning, photons with ultraviolet frequency from the star, or ocean floor volcanos. | ||
4,395,000,000 YBN | 19) How nucleic acids (polymers made of nucleotides), proteins (polymers made of amino acids), carbohydrates (polymers made of sugars) and lipids (glycerol attached to fatty acids) evolved is not clearly known. Some proteins and nucleic acids have been formed in labs by using clay which can dehydrate and which provides long linear crystal structures to build proteins and nucleic acids on. Amino acids join together to form polypeptides when an H2O molecule is formed from a Hydrogen (H) on 1 amino acid and a hydroxyl (OH) on the second. Are all proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and DNA the products of living objects? Is RNA the only molecule of these that was made without the help of living objects? The most popular theory now has RNA (and potentially lipids) evolving first before any living objects. There is still a large amount of experiment, exploration and education that needs to be done to understand the origins of living objects on planet earth. My opinion is that as soon as there was liquid water on the earth, 4.4 billion years before now, as zircon crystals show, the construction of living objects started on earth. | ||
4,390,000,000 YBN | 25) RNA duplication evolves. Perhaps RNA molecules, called "ribozymes" evolved which can make copies of RNA, by connecting free floating nucleotides that match a nucleotide on the same or a different RNA, without any proteins. But until such ribozyme RNA molecules are found, the only molecule known to copy nucleic acids are proteins called polymerases. If such ribozymes exist, then one of the first coded instructions on the RNA molecule that was the ancestor of every living species, must have been the code to make this ribozyme. These early RNA molecules may have been protected by liposomes (spheres of lipids). This process of RNA (and then later DNA) duplication is the most basic aspect of life on earth, and for all the diversity, the one common element of all life is this constant process of DNA duplication, which will later evolve to include cell division. This starts the unbroken thread of copying and division that connects the earliest ancestor, some RNA molecule, to all life on earth that has ever lived. | ||
4,385,000,000 YBN | 167) Protein assembly evolves with the creation of various Transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules. Random mutations in the copying (and perhaps even in the natural formation) of RNA molecules probably created a number of the necessary tRNAs (transfer RNA, an RNA molecule responsible for matching free floating amino acid molecules to 3 nucleotide sequences on other RNA molecules). This would be a precellular protein assembly system, where tRNA (transfer RNA) molecules can build polypeptide chains of amino acids by linking directly to other RNA strands. Part of each tRNA molecule bonds with a specific amino acid, and a 3 nucleotide sequence from a different part of the tRNA molecule bonds with the opposite matching 3 nucleotide sequence on an (m)RNA molecule. Since there are tRNA molecules for each amino acid (although some tRNAs can attach to more than one amino acid?), there must have been a slow accumulation of various tRNA molecules for each of the 20 amino acids used in constructing polypeptides in cells living now. Perhaps after the evolution of the first tRNA, the first polypeptides were chains of all the same one amino acid. With the evolution of a second tRNA polypeptides would have more variety because now two amino acids would be available to build polypeptides. This polypeptide assembly system may exist freely in water, or within a liposome. This sytem builds many more proteins than would be built without such a system. The mRNA with the code to make copier RNA, now also contains the code to produce various tRNA molecules. These molecules function as a unit, and proto-cell, with the rest of the mRNA initially containing random codes for random proteins. For the first time, RNA code represents a template for other RNA molecules, but also a template for building proteins with the help of tRNA molecules. There is some question of where the origin of the first cell took place, near volcanos on the ocean floor, or in fresh water lakes and tidal pools near volcanos on land, because unprotected nucleic acids cannot exist for much time in the ocean because of Sodium and Chlorine. What were the first amino acids connected as proteins? Were the first proteins all made with the same amino acid? | ||
4,380,000,000 YBN | 168) Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) evolves. Ribosomal RNA moves down mRNA molecules functioning as a platform for bringing the mRNA and tRNA molecules together to assemble polypeptides (proteins). This rRNA serves as an early ribosome; objects that serve as sites for building polypeptides and are found in every cell. As time continues the ribosome will grow to include two more RNA molecules, some protein molecules, and a second half that will make polypeptide construction more efficient. The rRNA serves the purpose of bringing amino acids close enough to bond with each other to form polypeptides. As an rRNA moves down an mRNA, tRNA molecules bond with the mRNA and on the opposite side of the tRNA, a matching amino acid (separates? from the tRNA and) attaches to a growing polypeptide chain. Now the mRNA that is the ancestral/progenitor of all of life, contains the code for the copier RNA, tRNAs, and the rRNA molecule. These nucleic acids function as a unit, and proto-cell. | ||
4,375,000,000 YBN | 211) The first protein of real importance is built, an RNA polymerase. A molecule that can more efficiently copy RNA. The first protein of real importance is evolved by RNA and assembled by the early ribosome, an RNA polymerase. A molecule that can more efficiently copy RNA. | ||
4,370,000,000 YBN | 41) A ribonucleotide reductase protein is built by the early ribosome protein making protocell. This protein changes ribonucleotides into deoxyribonucleotides. This allows the first DNA molecule on earth to be assembled. Ribonucleotide reductase may be the molecule that allowed DNA to be the template for the line of cells that survived to now. | ||
4,365,000,000 YBN | 212) A DNA polymerase protein evolves to copy DNA by assembling DNA nucleotides from other DNA molecules. | ||
4,360,000,000 YBN | 166) An RNA molecule evolves that causes the early ribosome to create reverse transcriptase, a protein that can assemble DNA molecules from an RNA molecule template. With this advance, a DNA molecule can be constructed that has all of the code that was stored on the long evolved RNA molecule. DNA now serves as a more stable template for making mRNA, each tRNA, rRNA, and the RNA and DNA polymerases. RNA polymerase proteins build RNA molecules using the new DNA template, that still perform their original polypeptide building function together with the tRNA and rRNA molecules, but are labeled "mRNA" (Messenger RNA) because they move from DNA to ribosome. Why DNA serves as the template for all cells and not mRNA is not fully understood, but DNA is a more stable molecule than the single stranded RNA. Perhaps the 2 legs of DNA serve some other important reasons, for example, two legs may allow two processes to happen at one time. | ||
4,355,000,000 YBN | 20) The first cell membrane evolves around DNA, made of proteins. This membrane holds water inside a cell. This is the first cell. rRNA comparison shows that this is most likely a eubacterium. DNA produces instructions for cytoplasm, the cytoplasm is assembled from proteins made by the ribosome. For the first time, DNA and ribosomes are building cell structure. The templates for each tRNA, rRNA, mRNA and DNA polymerase proteins are already coded in a central strand of DNA. DNA protected by cytoplasm is more likely to survive and copy. This cell is heterotrophic and has no metabolism to produce ATP. Amino acids, nucleotides, H2O, and other molecules enter and exit the cytoplasm only because of a difference in concentration from inside and outside the cell (passive transport) and represent the beginnings of the first digestive system. This either happens in fresh water lakes or in salty oceans, perhaps near lava vents on or under the ocean floor. As this line of DNA continues to make copies of itself, all copies now have cytoplasm. The DNA is composed mainly of instructions to assemble the nucleic acids and proteins needed to build ribosomes, polymerases and cytoplasm. This cell structure forms the basis of all future cells of every living object on earth. These first cells are anaerobic (do not require free oxygen) and heterotrophic, meaning that they do not make their own food: amino acids, nucleotides, phosphates, and sugars. These bacteria depend on these molecules and photons in the form of heat to reproduce and grow. A system of division must evolve which attaches the original and newly synthesized copy of DNA to the cytoplasm, so that as the cell grows, the two copies of DNA can be separated and the first membraned cells can divide into two cells. This is the beginning of the "binary fission" method of cell division. Division of the cell begins with the division of the DNA membrane-attachment site and separates by the growth of new cytoplasm. DNA has 2 functions, 1) to be copied by the polymerase protein, 2) to serve as a code for assembling proteins. Two important evolutionary steps evolve: DNA duplication in cytoplasm, and cell (DNA with cytoplasm) division. The process of DNA duplication is probably similar if not the same process using the same proteins that were used to duplicate DNA without cytoplasm. | ||
4,350,000,001 YBN | 26) Perhaps DNA that is connected in a circle allows the DNA polymerase to make continuous copies of the cell. In theory prokaryote cells do not deteroiate from the effect of aging, but they do endure mutations (from photons with ultraviolet frequency, for example), however, there are many other ways prokaryotes can be destroyed (loss of water, physically damaged by nonliving objects, eaten by other organisms, and other mechanisms). | ||
4,345,000,000 YBN | 195) Proteins that actively transport molecules into and out of the cytoplasm (facilitative diffusion) evolve. | ![]() [1] Uniporters are transport proteins that transport a substance across a membrane down a concentration gradient from an area of greater concentration to lesser concentration. The transport is powered by the potential energy of a concentration gradient and does not require metabolic energy. source: http://www.cat.cc.md.us/~gkaiser /biotutorials/eustruct/cmeu.html ![]() [2] Channel proteins transport water or certain ions down a concentration gradient from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. In the case of water, the channel proteins are called aquaporins. Water molecules are small enough that they can also pass between the phospholipids in the cytoplasmic membrane by passive diffusion. source: | |
4,340,000,000 YBN | 23) The first viruses are made either from bacteria, or are initially bacteria. These cells depend on the DNA duplicating and protein producing systems of other cells to reproduce themselves. Over time, more effective, and efficient virus designs will survive. | ||
4,335,000,000 YBN | 28) Glycolysis evolves in the cytoplasm. Cells can now make ATP from glucose and eventually other monosaccharides, the end product is pyruvate. The glycolysis equation is: C6H12O6 (glucose) + 2 NAD+ + 2 ADP + 2 P -----> 2 pyruvic acid, (CH3(C=O)COOH + 2 ATP + 2 NADH + 2 H+ | ||
4,330,000,000 YBN | 44) Fermentation evolves in the cytoplasm. Cells (all anaerobic) can now make more ATP and convert pyruvate (the final product of glycolysis) to lactate (an ionized form of lactic acid). | ||
4,325,000,000 YBN | 213) A second kind of fermentation evolves in the cytoplasm. Cells (all anaerobic) can now convert pyruvate (the final product of glycolysis) to ethanol. | ||
4,320,000,000 YBN | 183) Cells evolve that make proteins that can assemble lipids. | ||
4,315,000,000 YBN | 196) Cells that use both proteins and metabolism (ATP) to transport molecules into and out of the cytoplasm (active transport) evolve. | ![]() [1] TP: not clear what the red circles are, some kind of molecule I guess. Antiporters are transport proteins that simultaneously transport two substances across the membrane in opposite directions; one against the concentration gradient and one with the concentration gradient. Antiporters typically use proton motive force to transport a substrate across the membrane. The movement of protons across the membrane (proton motive force) provides the energy for transporting the substrate across the membrane against its concentration gradient.. source: http://www.cat.cc.md.us/~gkaiser /biotutorials/eustruct/cmeu.html ![]() [2] Symporters are transport proteins that simultaneously transport two substances across the membrane in the same direction; one against the concentration gradient and one with the concentration gradient. Symporters often use proton motive force to transport a substrate across the membrane. The movement of protons across the membrane (proton motive force) provides the energy for transporting the substrate. source: | |
4,310,000,000 YBN | 40) One of the first useful proteins to be created with an early precellular protein production system must have been a protein (like RNA polymerase) that can make copies of RNA from mRNA molecules. This protein may have outperformed a ribozyme that was performing the copying function. Eventually mRNA that coded for tRNA molecules and mRNA that coded for rRNA molecules merged to form a template. Now the entire protein production system (the mRNA itself, tRNAs, rRNAs, and the RNA polymerase) could be copied many times by the RNA polymerase protein. This is before cytoplasm or any cell wall has evolved. RNA and DNA copying happens in water, the first cell has not evolved yet. | ||
4,310,000,000 YBN | 76) Pili, plasmids and conjugation evolves in prokaryotes. Now some prokaryotes can exchange circular pieces of DNA (plasmids), through tubes (pili). Conjugation may be the process that led to sex (cellular fusion) and also the transition from a circle of DNA to chromosomes in eukaryotes, since some protists (cilliates and some algae) reproduce sexually by conjugation. Archaeal flagellins are related to members of the type IV pilin/transport superfamily widespread in bacteria. In addition to pili and conjugation, proteins evolve that can assist in splitting DNA and also proteins that assist in merging two strands of DNA together, since some times the DNA in split and the new plasmid is connected and the DNA circle is sown back together. | ![]() [1] the fertility factor or F factor is a very large (94,500 bp) circular dsDNA plasmid; it is generally independent of the host chromosome. COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.mun.ca/biochem/course s/3107/images/Fplasmidmap.gif ![]() [2] conjugation (via pilus) COPYRIGHTED EDU source: http://www.bio.miami.edu/dana/16 0/conjugation.jpg | |
4,307,000,000 YBN | 292) Prokaryote flagella evolve. Perhaps pili evolved into flagella, flagella into pili, or the two systems are unrelated. Proteins in Archaebacteria flagella are related to pili in bacteria. This may be the beginning of motility. Now for the first time, cells are not completely controlled by surrounding matter, but can make limited choices about their location. | ||
4,305,000,000 YBN | 64) Operons, sequences of DNA that allow certain proteins coded by DNA to not be built, evolve. Proteins bind with these DNA sequences to stop RNA polymerase from building mRNA molecules which would be translated into proteins. Operons allow a bacterium to produce certain proteins only when necessary. Bacteria before now can only build a constant stream of all proteins encoded in their DNA. | ||
4,304,500,000 YBN | 322) Nitrogen fixation evolves in eubacteria. Without bacteria that convert N2 into nitrogen compounds, the supply of nitrogen necessary for much of life would be seriously limited and would drastically slow evolution on earth. Nitrogen fixation is the process by which nitrogen is taken from its relatively inert molecular form (N2) in the atmosphere and converted into nitrogen compounds useful for other chemical processes (such as, notably, ammonia, nitrate and nitrogen dioxide). Nitrogen fixation is performed naturally by a number of different prokaryotes, including bacteria, and actinobacteria certain types of anaerobic bacteria. Many higher plants, and some animals (termites), have formed associations with these microorganisms. The best-known are legumes (such as clover, beans, alfalfa and peanuts,) which contain symbiotic bacteria called rhizobia within nodules in their root systems, producing nitrogen compounds that help the plant to grow and compete with other plants. When the plant dies, the nitrogen helps to fertilize the soil. The great majority of legumes have this association, but a few genera (e.g., Styphnolobium) do not. | ![]() [1] This is an image of nitrogen cycle taken from this [1] EPA website. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Nitrogen_Cycle.jpg | |
4,304,000,000 YBN | 287) Multicellularity in the form of filment growth evolves in prokaryotes. Cyanobacteria grow in filaments. Unlike eukaryotes, there is no communication between cells in prokaryote filments. | ||
4,302,000,000 YBN | 316) Cell differentiation in prokaryotes evolve. Heterocysts evolve in cyanobacteria. Heterocysts are specialized nitrogen-fixing cells formed by some filamentous cyanobacteria during nitrogen starvation. What cell differentiation is first is unknown, perhaps cells that form spores, or cysts, or perhaps cell differentiation that is observes in cyanobacterial filamentous cells. Heterocysts are specialized nitrogen-fixing cells formed by some filamentous cyanobacteria, such as Nostoc punctiforme and Anabaena sperica, during nitrogen starvation. They fix nitrogen from dinitrogen (N2) in the air using the enzyme nitrogenase, in order to provide the cells in the filament with nitrogen for biosynthesis. Nitrogenase is inactivated by oxygen, so the heterocyst must create a microanaerobic environment. The heterocysts' unique structure and physiology requires a global change in gene expression. For example, heterocysts: * produce three additional cell walls, including one of glycolipid that forms a hydrophobic barrier to oxygen * produce nitrogenase and other proteins involved in nitrogen fixation * degrade photosystem II, which produces oxygen * up regulate glycolytic enzymes, which use up oxygen and provide energy for nitrogenase * produce proteins that scavenge any remaining oxygen Cyanobacteria usually obtain a fixed carbon (carbohydrate) by photosynthesis. The lack of photosystem II prevents heterocysts from photosynthesising, so the vegetative cells provide them with carbohydrates, which is thought to be sucrose. The fixed carbon and nitrogen sources are exchanged though channels between the cells in the filament. Heterocysts maintain photosystem I, allowing them to generate ATP by cyclic photophosphorylation. Single heterocysts develop about every 9-15 cells, producing a one-dimensional pattern along the filament. The interval between heterocysts remains approximately constant even though the cells in the filament are dividing. The bacterial filament can be seen as a multicellular organism with two distinct yet interdependent cell types. Such behaviour is highly unusual in prokaryotes and may have been the first example of multicellular patterning in evolution. Once a heterocyst has formed, it cannot revert to a vegetative cell, so this differentiation can be seen as a form of apoptosis. Certain heterocyst-forming bacteria can differentiate into spore-like cells called akinetes or motile cells called hormogonia, making them the most phenotyptically versatile of all prokaryotes. The mechanism of controlling heterocysts is thought to involve the diffusion of an inhibitor of differentiation called PatS. Heterocyst formation is inhibited in the presence of a fixed nitrogen source, such as ammonium or nitrate. The bacteria may also enter a symbiotic relationship with certain plants. In such a relationship, the bacteria do not respond to the availability of nitrogen, but to signals produced by the plant. Up to 60% of the cells can become heterocysts, providing fixed nitrogen to the plant in return for fixed carbon. The cyanobacteria that form heterocysts are divided into the orders Nostocales and Stigonematales, which form simple and branching filaments respectively. Together they form a monophyletic group, with very low genetic variability. | ![]() [1] Anabaena COPYRIGHTED EDU source: http://home.manhattan.edu/~franc es.cardillo/plants/monera/anabaena.gif ![]() [2] Anabaena smitthi COPYRIGHTED FRANCE source: http://www.ac-rennes.fr/pedagogi e/svt/photo/microalg/anabaena.jpg | |
4,300,000,000 YBN | 58) First autotrophic cells, cells that can produce some if not all of their own food (amino acids, nucleotides, sugars, phophates, lipids, and carbohydrates), but require phosphorus, nitrogen, CO2, water and light in the form of heat. There are only 2 kinds of autotrophy: Lithotrophy and Photosynthesis. These are lithotrophic cells that change inorganic (abiotic) molecules into organic molecules. These cells are archaebacteria, called methanogens that perform the reaction: 4H2 + CO2 -> CH4 + 2H2O. They convert CO2 into Methane. Methane is better than CO2 for trapping heat, and could have contributed to heating the earth. | ||
4,295,000,000 YBN | 49) First photosynthetic cells. These cells only have Photosystem I. Photosynthesis Photosystem I evolves in early anaerobic prokaryote cells. One of two photosythesis systems, photosystem I uses a pigment chlorophyll A, absorbs photons in 700 nm wave lengths best, breaking the bond betwenn H2 and S. They are anaerobic and perform the reaction: H2S (Hydrogen Sulfide) + CO2 + light -> CH2O (Formaldehyde) + 2S. Only 5 phyla of eubacteria can photosynthesize. | ||
4,290,000,000 YBN | 43) Photosynthesis Photosystem II evolves in early prokaryote cells. Photosystem 2 absorbs photons best at 680nm wavelengths, a higher frequency of light than Photosystem I. These cells can break the strong Hydrogen bonds between Hydrogen and Oxygen in water molecules (more abundant than Sulphur). This system emits free Oxygen. The simple equation of photosynthesis is: 6 H2O + 6 CO2 + photons = C6H12O6 (glucose) + 6O2. The detailed steps of photosynthesis are called the "Calvin Cycle". Prokaryote cells can now produce their own glucose to store and be converted to ATP by glycolysis and fermentation later. This sytem is the main system responsible for producing the Oxygen now in the air of earth. Of the 5 phyla of eubacteria that can photosynthesize, only 1, cyanobacteria, produces oxygen. | ||
4,280,000,000 YBN | 57) Cellular Respiration (also called the "Citric Acid Cycle", and the "Krebs Cycle") evolves, probably in cyanobacteria, as a substitute for fermentaton, by using oxygen to break down the products of glycolysis, pyruvic acid, to CO2 and H2O, producing 18 more ATP molecules. This is the first aerobic cell, a cell that has an oxygen based metabolism. This cell uses oxygen to convert glucose (and eventually other sugars and fats) into CO2, H2O and ATP. For example, cells that oxidize glucose perform the reaction: C6H12O6 + 6 O2 + 38 ADP + 38 phosphate -> 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + 38 ATP This reaction (with glycolysis) can produce up to 36 ATP molecules. Cellular respiration is the opposite (although the specific reactions differ) of photosynthesis which starts with H2O and CO2 and produces glucose. Steps are: Glycolysis preparatory phase Glycolysis pay-off phase Oxidative carboxylation Krebs cycle | ![]() [1] kreb cycle from http://people.unt.edu/~hds0006/tca/ source: | |
4,260,000,000 YBN | 27) DNA (or RNA) produces instructions for a cell wall. The cell wall only protects bacteria and does not filter any molecules as the cytoplasm does. is first gram-negative cell wall? 1. Only contain a few layers of peptidoglycan -- the building block for strong, rigid cell walls 2. Contain an outer membrane, external to the peptidoglycan, called the lipopolysaccharide 3. The space between the layers of peptidoglycan and the secondary cell membrane is called periplasmatic space 4. The S-layer is directly attached to the outer membrane, rather than the peptidoglycan 5. Any flagella, if present, have 4 supporting rings instead of two 6. No teichoic acids are present" | ![]() [1] one is indirectly from http://www.cvm.uiuc.edu/courses/vp 331/index.html source: file:/root/web/Structures_in_pat hogenesi1.html ![]() source: http://www.mansfield.ohio-state. edu/~sabedon/biol1080.htm | |
4,250,000,000 YBN | 29) There are many proteins and secondary processes in cells that are not fully understood yet. | ||
4,250,000,000 YBN | 42) More prokaryote cell fossils need to be found, more DNA needs to be sequenced, and more bacteria found and grown to fully understand when bacteria parts evolved. For example: flagella plasmids pili and "conjugation" the trade of pieces of plasmid DNA (this may be the earliest form of sex {or syngamy}) changing into spores When gram-stain positive cell walls evolved. When the various shapes evolved: spherical (coccus,cocci) rod (bacillus,bacilli) spiral (spirilla) other: short rods (coccobacilli). commas (vibrii). squares (rare) stars (rare) irregula r (rare) Which specific bacteria of the Archaea (if any) were first, which of the Eubacteria and Cyanobacteria came next. When the "Nitrogen Cycle" or "Nitrogen Fixing" evolved. Few cells can separate N2 into N, (needed for nucleic acids?). The waste product urea is converted by one bacteria to ammonia, a second bacteria converts the ammonia to N2. | ||
4,250,000,000 YBN | 77) There are many widely varying estimates of when the first Eubacteria and Archaea evolved. Eubacteria and Archaea (also called Archaebacteria) are the two major lines of Prokaryotes. Prokaryotes are the most primitive living objects ever found. In contrast to the later evolved Eukaryotes, Prokaryotes have a circle of DNA located in their cytoplasm (not chromosomes) and have no nucleus. At least one genetic comparison shows Eubacteria and Archaea evolving now. After the full genomes of all living species are known, and understood we will have more certainty about the history of evolution. Many genetic trees are based on DNA genes (sequences of DNA that define nucleic acids or proteins). In particular the genes for ribosomal RNA are thought to be very conserved over time, although perhaps genes for reproduction, or cytoplasm, for example may later prove to be more conserved over time. Only when the full genomes of all living species are known, and understood will we have strong certainty about the history of evolution. Many genetic trees are based on DNA genes (sequences of DNA that define nucleic acids or proteins), in particular ribosomal RNA which is thought to be highly conserved over the eons of time. Ribosomal RNA may be the best record of evolutionary history, but perhaps other genes, for example, those involved with reproduction, or cytoplasm will prove to be more conserved or better estimates of evolutionary history. For example, I think the method of reproduction would be the most conserved, since that process is the most necessary for survival, changes to those genes may stop continued existence, where changes to rrna may not be as serious. In addition, the vast diversity and change in reproductive method over time, should tell us that similar large scale changes could have happened for rrna, cytoplasm, and indeed any part of a cell. These early Archaea and Eubacteria are "thermophile" bacteria, bacteria that are found and grow best in hot water (80+ degrees Celsius). That genetic evidence puts these prokaryotes as the oldest living prokaryotes is evidence that the first prokaryotes on earth may have lived in hot water, perhaps near thermal springs or near ocean floor volcanos. Perhaps the water on the early earth was hot when these first prokaryotes evolved. Archaea are similar to other prokaryotes in most aspects of cell structure and metabolism. However, their genetic transcription and translation are very similar to those of eukaryotes. | ![]() [1] Figure 1) Changing views of the tree and timescale of life. a) An early-1990s view, with the tree determined mostly from ribosomal RNA (rRNA) sequence analysis. This tree emphasizes vertical (as opposed to horizontal) evolution and the close relationship between eukaryotes and the Archaebacteria. The deep branching (>3.5 Giga (109) years ago, Gya) of CYANOBACTERIA (Cy) and other Eubacteria (purple), the shallow branching (approx1 Gya) of plants (Pl), animals (An) and fungi (Fu), and the early origin of mitochondria (Mi), were based on interpretations of the geochemical and fossil record7, 8. Some deeply branching amitochondriate (Am) species were believed to have arisen before the origin of mitochondria44. Major symbiotic events (black dots) were introduced to explain the origin of eukaryotic organelles42, but were not assumed to be associated with large transfers of genes to the host nucleus. They were: Eu, joining of an archaebacterium host with a eubacterium (presumably a SPIROCHAETE) to produce an amitochondriate eukaryote; Mi, joining of a eukaryote host with an alpha-proteobacterium (Ap) symbiont, leading to the origin of mitochondria, and plastids (Ps), joining of a eukaryote host with a cyanobacterium symbiont, forming the origin of plastids on the plant lineage and possibly on other lineages. b) The present view, based on extensive genomic analysis. Eukaryotes are no longer considered to be close relatives of Archaebacteria, but are genomic hybrids of Archaebacteria and Eubacteria, owing to the transfer of large numbers of genes from the symbiont genome to the nucleus of the host (indicated by coloured arrows). Other new features, largely derived from molecular-clock studies16, 39 (Box 1), include a relatively recent origin of Cyanobacteria (approx2.6 Gya) and mitochondria (approx1.8 Gya), an early origin (approx1.5 Gya) of plants, animals and fungi, and a close relationship between animals and fungi. Coloured dashed lines indicate controversial aspects of the present view: the existence of a premitochondrial symbiotic event and of living amitochondriate eukaryotes, ancestors of which never had mitochondria. c) The times of divergence of selected model organisms from humans, based on molecular clocks. For the prokaryotes (red), because of different possible origins through symbiotic events, divergence times depend on the gene of interest. source: http://www.nature.com/nrg/journa l/v3/n11/full/nrg929_fs.html ![]() [2] Figure 2 A phylogeny of prokaryotes. The relationships of selected prokaryote model organisms based on recent studies14-19. Times of divergence (million years ago (Mya) plusminus one standard error) are indicated at nodes in the tree16, 39. Branch lengths are not proportional to time. Phyla and phylum-level groupings are indicated on the right. source: http://www.nature.com/nrg/journa l/v3/n11/full/nrg929_fs.html | |
4,112,000,000 YBN | 180) The Archaea Phylum, Euryarchaeotes evolve. Genetic comparison shows the Archaea Phylum, Euryarchaeotes evolving now. The Euryarchaeota are a major group of Archaea. They include the methanogens, which produce methane and are often found in intestines, the halobacteria, which survive extreme concentrations of salt, and some extremely thermophilic aerobes and anaerobes. They are separated from the other archaeans based mainly on rRNA sequences. Euryarchaeota may contain the most ancient DNA of any living object on earth. PHYLUM Euryarchaeota CLASS Archaeoglobi CLASS Halobacteria CLASS Methanobacteria CLASS Methanococci CLASS Methanomicrobia CLASS Methanopyri CLASS Methanosarcinae CLASS Thermococci CLASS Thermoplasmata | ![]() [1] tree of archaebacteria (archaea) COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.uni-giessen.de/~gf126 5/GROUPS/KLUG/Stammbaum.html ![]() [2] A phylogenetic tree of living things, based on RNA data, showing the separation of bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes. Trees constructed with other genes are generally similar, although they may place some early-branching groups very differently, thanks to long branch attraction. The exact relationships of the three domains are still being debated, as is the position of the root of the tree. It has also been suggested that due to lateral gene transfer, a tree may not be the best representation of the genetic relationships of all organisms. NASA source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:PhylogeneticTree.jpg | |
4,112,000,000 YBN | 181) The Archaea Phylum, Crenarchaeotes evolves. Genetic comparison shows Archaea Phylum, Crenarchaeotes evolving now. The phylum Crenarchaeota, commonly referred to as the crenarchaea, in the domain Archaea, contains many extremely thermophilic and psychrophilic organisms. They were originally separated from the other archaeons based on rRNA sequences, since then physiological features, such as lack of histones have supported this division. Until recently all cultured crenarchaea have been thermophilic or hyperthermophilic organisms, some of which have the ability to grow up to 113 degrees C. These organisms stain gram negative and are morphologically diverse having rod, cocci, filamentous and unusually shaped cells. PHYLUM Crenarchaeotes ORDER Caldisphaerales ORDER Cenarchaeales ORDER Desulfurococcales ORDER Sulfolobales ORDER Thermoproteales | ![]() [1] tree of archaea ? source: http://www.uni-giessen.de/~gf126 5/GROUPS/KLUG/Stammbaum.html ![]() [2] Microscopia elettronica a scansione dell'archeobatterio termoacidofilo Sulfolobus solfataricus COPYRIGHT ITALY source: http://www.area.fi.cnr.it/r&f/n6 /ingrand.htm | |
4,030,000,000 YBN | 35) Metamorphic rock, a Gneiss near Acasta and Great Slave Lake in the North West territories of Canada dates from this time, 4030 million years before now. | ![]() source: http://www.regione.emilia-romagn a.it/geologia/divulgazione/pianeta_terra /09_paesaggio/img/app/c09_a01_01.jpg ![]() source: | |
3,977,000,000 YBN | 193) Eubacteria "Hyperthermophiles" (Aquifex, Thermotoga, etc.) evolve now. Gene tic comparison shows that Eubacteria "Hyperthermophiles" (Aquifex, Thermotoga, etc.) evolve now. This may be the living object with the most primitive DNA found on earth (depending on the age of the archaea). This group of eubacteria includes the Phyla "Aquificae", "Thermodesulfobacteria", and "Thermotogae". The Aquificae phylum is a diverse collection of bacteria that live in harsh environmental settings. They have been found in hot springs, sulfur pools, and thermal ocean vents. Members of the genus Aquifex, for example, are productive in water between 85 to 95 °C. They are the dominant members of most terrestrial neutral to alkaline hot springs above 60 degrees celsius. They are autotrophs, and are the primary carbon fixers in these environments. They are true bacteria (domain eubacteria) as opposed to the other inhabitants of extreme environments, the Archaea. Thermotoga are thermophile or hyperthermophile bacteria whose cell is wrapped in an outer "toga" membrane. They metabolize carbohydrates. Species have varying amounts of salt and oxygen tolerance. Thermotoga subterranea strain SL1 was found in a 70°C deep continental oil reservoir in the East Paris Basin, France. It is anaerobic and reduces cystine and thiosulfate to hydrogen sulfide. | ![]() [1] Aquifex pyrophilus (platinum shadowed). © K.O. Stetter & Reinhard Rachel, University of Regensburg. source: http://biology.kenyon.edu/Microb ial_Biorealm/bacteria/aquifex/aquifex.ht m ![]() [2] Aquifex aeolicus. © K.O. Stetter & Reinhard Rachel, University of Regensburg. source: http://biology.kenyon.edu/Microb ial_Biorealm/bacteria/aquifex/aquifex.ht m | |
3,850,000,000 YBN | 36) The oldest sediment on earth is also the oldest Banded Iron Formation, on Akilia Island in Western Greenland. The oldest evidence for life on earth was found in this rock by measuring the ratio of carbon 12 to carbon 13 in grains of apatite (calcium phosphate) from this rock. Life uses the lighter Carbon-12 isotope and not Carbon-13 and so the ratio of carbon-12 to carbon-13 is different from a nonliving source (calcium carbonate or limestone). | ![]() source: nature 11/7/96 | |
3,850,000,000 YBN | 45) This marks the beginning of the Banded Iron Formation Rocks. These rocks are sedimentary. They are made of iron rich chert (silicates, like SiO2). These rocks have alternative bands of orange or yellow and black. In the red parts the iron is oxydized (contains iron oxides, either hematite {Fe2O3 = rust} or magnetite {Fe3O4]}). These bands may have formed because photosynthetic bacteria (in stromatolites found in shallow ocean shores, and purple bacteria floating in water) produce oxygen from CO2 during photosynthesis. When the level of oxygen in the water became too high, many bacteria died, and this cycle created the BIF. But BIF also may form naturally when photons in uv frequencies split H2O into H2 and O2. So perhaps the BIF bands represent cycles of more or less uv light reaching the earth. Perhaps the alternating phenomenon is similar to eukaryotic algal blooms. In any event, this free oxygen bonded with the many tons of iron dissolved in the water to form insoluable iron oxide which then fell to the ocean floor to form the orange layers of Banded Iron Formation. How these alternating bands are made is not clear and has not yet been duplicated in a lab. This cycle of alternating orange and black bands will continue for 2 billion years until 1,800 million years before now. This is the beginning of oxygen production on earth, the atmosphere of earth still has only small amounts of oxygen at this time. It is amazing that people are still not certain what was the cause of the oxygen, and the cycles that deposited the banded Iron Formation. | ![]() source: nature 11/7/96 | |
3,850,000,000 YBN | 189) Fossils from Isua Banded iron formation, SW Greenland. | ![]() [1] Fig. 5. (a) Carbonaceous microstructure from Isua Banded iron formation, SW-Greenland (ca 3.85 Ga). (b) Laser mass spectrum (negative ions) from similar specimen. Field of measurement ca 1 small mu, Greekm diameter. source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci ence?_ob=MiamiCaptionURL&_method=retriev e&_udi=B6VBP-42G6M5T-7&_image=fig7&_ba=7 &_user=4422&_coverDate=02%2F01%2F2001&_f mt=full&_orig=browse&_cdi=5932&view=c&_a cct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVersion=0& _userid=4422&md5=fe1052cbc18dba545ec95c2 e7ff3090b | |
3,800,000,000 YBN | 51) End Hadean Era, start Archean Era. | ||
3,800,000,000 YBN | 185) Isoprene compounds from Isua, Greenland Banded Iron Formation sediment are evidence of the existence of Archaea. | ||
3,760,000,000 YBN | 186) Sulfur isotope ratios (34S/32S) and Hydrocarbon molecules (alkanes) detected in 3760 billion year old Isua Banded Iron Formation, indicate the possibility of photosynthetic sulfate reducing bacteria (Archaea, for example Sulpholobus) and Cyanobacteria living at that time. | ||
3,700,000,000 YBN | 184) Amount of Uranium isotope measured in Isua, Greenland Banded Iron Formation evidence of prokaryote Oxygen photosynthesis. | ||
3,700,000,000 YBN | 215) C13/C12 ratio of 3700+ MYO sediment in Australia shown to be consistent with planktonic photosynthesizing organisms. | ![]() [1] Figure 1. (A) Turbidite sedimentary rocks from the Isua supracrustal belt, west Greenland. The notebook is 17 cm wide. (B) A close-up of finely laminated slate representing pelagic mud. The hammer is 70 cm long. (C) Photomicrograph of sample 810213, showing finely laminated pelagic mud. The variation in color is mainly due to variations in C abundance. (D) Photomicrograph of C grains arranged along a buckled stringer. (E) Backscattered electron image of a polished surface (sample 810213), showing the distribution of C grains as black areas. (F) Backscattered electron image of a polished surface (sample 810213), showing the rounded shape of C grains (black). source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co ntent/full/283/5402/674 | |
3,566,000,000 YBN | 78) Genetic comparison shows Archaebacteria (Archaea) Phylum, Korarchaeotes evolving now. | ![]() [1] DNA tree source: http://www.uni-giessen.de/~gf126 5/GROUPS/KLUG/Stammbaum.html ![]() [2] Scanning electron micrograph of the Obsidian Pool enrichment culture. Barns et al. discovered the Korarchaeota lineage in Obsidian Pool over a decade ago, using what were highly innovative methods for the time. Since their discovery, the Korarchaeota group of microorganisms still remains mostly uncharacterized. The group is primarily defined only by 16S ribosomal RNA sequences obtained from a variety of marine and terrestrial hydrothermal environments. The 16S-rRNA-based phylogeny of the Korarchaeota suggests that this group forms a very deep, kingdom-level, major lineage within the archaeal domain. PD source: http://www.jgi.doe.gov/sequencin g/why/CSP2006/korarchaeota.jpg | |
3,500,000,000 YBN | 37) The oldest fossil evidence of life yet found. Stromatolites made by photosynthetic bacteria found in both Warrawoona, Western Australia, and Fig Tree Group, South Africa. | ![]() [1] image on left is from swaziland source: nature feb 6 ![]() source: 1986 | |
3,500,000,000 YBN | 39) Oldest fossils of an organism, thought to be cyanobacteria, found in 3,500 Million Year old chert from South Africa and 3,465 Million year old Apex chert of north-western Australia. Oldest fossils of an organism, thought to be cyanobacteria, found in 3,500 Million Year old chert from South Africa and 3,465 Million year old Apex chert of the Pilbara Supergroup, Warrawoona Group, northwestern Western Australia. Some people argue that these are not fossils of bacteria but abiotic material. Most genetic timelines put the origin of cyanobacteria much later around 2,700mybn. Cyanobacteria evolved multicellularity where cellular differentiation occurs. | ![]() [1] Figure 1 Optical photomicrographs showing carbonaceous (kerogenous) filamentous microbial fossils in petrographic thin sections of Precambrian cherts. Scale in a represents images in a and c-i; scale in b represents image in b. All parts show photomontages, which is necessitated by the three-dimensional preservation of the cylindrical sinuous permineralized microbes. Squares in each part indicate the areas for which chemical data are presented in Figs 2 and 3. a, An unnamed cylindrical prokaryotic filament, probably the degraded cellular trichome or tubular sheath of an oscillatoriacean cyanobacterium, from the 770-Myr Skillogalee Dolomite of South Australia12. b, Gunflintia grandis, a cellular probably oscillatoriacean trichome, from the 2,100-Myr Gunflint Formation of Ontario, Canada13. c, d, Unnamed highly carbonized filamentous prokaryotes from the 3,375-Myr Kromberg Formation of South Africa14: the poorly preserved cylindrical trichome of a noncyanobacterial or oscillatoriacean prokaryote (c); the disrupted, originally cellular trichomic remnants possibly of an Oscillatoria- or Lyngbya-like cyanobacterium (d). e-i, Cellular microbial filaments from the 3,465-Myr Apex chert of northwestern Western Australia: Primaevifilum amoenum4,5, from the collections of The Natural History Museum (TNHM), London, specimen V.63164[6] (e); P. amoenum4 (f); the holotype of P. delicatulum4,5,15, TNHM V.63165[2] (g); P. conicoterminatum5, TNHM V63164[9] (h); the holotype of Eoleptonema apex5, TNHM V.63729[1] (i). source: Nature416 ![]() [2] Fig. 3 Filamentous microfossils: a, cylindrical microfossil from Hooggenoeg sample; b, threadlike and tubular filaments extending between laminae, Kromberg sample; c,d,e, tubular filamnets oriented subparallel to bedding, Kromberg sample; f, threadlike filament flattened parallel to bedding, Kromberg sample. source: 73 - 76 (07 Mar 2002) Letters to Nature http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v41 6/n6876/fig_tab/416073a_F1.html | |
3,500,000,000 YBN | 289) Some people think the origin of eukaryotes happened here at 3.5 bybn. | ||
3,470,000,000 YBN | 182) Sulphate fossil molecular marker evidence of moderate thermophile sulphur reducing prokaryotes from North Pole, Australia. | ![]() [1] get larger image source: file:///root/web/fossils_biomark er_science_v67_i22_nov_15_2003.html#bib9 9 | |
3,470,000,000 YBN | 216) Evidence of sulphate reduction by bacteria. | ![]() [1] The tree is modified from ref. 2, and abstracted from phylogenetic trees presented in refs 26 and 27. The time calibration points are from ref. 30, with our additional constraint of 3.47 Gyr placed in the Bacterial domain. Lineages housing sulphate-reducers metabolizing at temperatures > 70 °C are shown by broken black lines, while lineages supporting sulphate-reducers metabolizing at < 70 °C are shown by heavy black lines. source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou rnal/v410/n6824/fig_tab/410077a0_F4.html | |
3,430,000,000 YBN | 833) Stromatolites made by photosynthetic bacteria found in Pilbara Craton, Australia. | ![]() [1] a-c, 'Encrusting/domical laminites'; d-f, 'small crested/conical laminites'; g-i, 'cuspate swales'; j-l, 'large complex cones' (dashed lines in k trace lamina shape and show outlines of intraclast conglomerate piled against the cone at two levels). m-o, 'Egg-carton laminites'; p, q, 'wavy laminites'; r-t, 'iron-rich laminites' (t is a cut slab). The scale card in b, h and i is 18 cm. The scale card increments in c, e, k, l, n and s are 1 cm. The scale bar in o is about 1 cm. The scale bars in the remaining pictures are about 5 cm. COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou rnal/v441/n7094/fig_tab/nature04764_F1.h tml | |
3,416,000,000 YBN | 218) Fossil and molecular evidence of photosynthetic, probably anoxygenic, bacteria that lived in mats in the ocean date to this time. | ![]() [1] a, Dark carbonaceous laminations draping an underlying coarse detrital carbonaceous grain (a), showing internal anastomosing and draping character (b) and, at the top (c) draping irregularities in underlying carbonaceous laminations. b, Dark carbonaceous laminations that have been eroded and rolled up by currents. c, Bundled filaments in the rolled laminations in b [tp: they should have clearly indicated that they are saying that these filaments are bacteria]. source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou rnal/v431/n7008/fig_tab/nature02888_F4.h tml | |
3,400,000,000 YBN | 190) Fossils from Kromberg Formation, Swaziland System, South Africa. | ![]() [1] Fig. 3. (a,b) Organic microstructures from Kromberg Formation, Swaziland System, South Africa (ca 3.4 Ga). TEM-micrographs of demineralized specimens. (c) Portion of organic microstructure from Bulawaya stromatolite (see Fig. 2). (d) Portion of the mucilagenous sheath of recent Anabaena sp., cyanobacteria (Fig. d after Leak, 1967). For magnification of Fig. c see scale of Fig. a. source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci ence?_ob=MiamiCaptionURL&_method=retriev e&_udi=B6VBP-42G6M5T-7&_image=fig9&_ba=9 &_user=4422&_coverDate=02%2F01%2F2001&_f mt=full&_orig=browse&_cdi=5932&view=c&_a cct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVersion=0& _userid=4422&md5=27a45a0804747bb4b74eaac 305df2905 | |
3,260,000,000 YBN | 71) Budding evolves in prokayotes. Different from binary division, where a cell is split in half, in budding, a new complete cell is made in the original cell, and the new cell bursts through the cell wall, the original cell wall must then be repaired. Budding is the only other method of reproduction known in prokaryotes besides binary fission. The only major difference between prokaryote budding and binary division are that one or more new cells are completely formed inside the original cell, where in binary division part of the original cell wall is used to make the new cell. In budding, a complete new cell is synthesized from a DNA template, where in binary division only the DNA is duplicated and more cytoplasm and cell wall is synthesized. So, budding preserves organelles made by the main DNA template that cannot duplicate themselves and would not get duplicated or synthesized in binary division, for example, flagella. Although it is very unlikely, the possibility does exist that prokaryote budding evolved from a eukaryote that lost it's nucleus. | ![]() [1] Evolutionary relationships of model organisms and bacteria that show unusual reproductive strategies. This phylogenetic tree (a) illustrates the diversity of organisms that use the alternative reproductive strategies shown in (b). Bold type indicates complete or ongoing genome projects. Intracellular offspring are produced by several low-GC Gram-positive bacteria such as Metabacterium polyspora, Epulopiscium spp. and the segmented filamentous bacteria (SFB). Budding and multiple fission are found in the proteobacterial genera Hyphomonas and Bdellovibrio, respectively. In the case of the Cyanobacteria, Stanieria produces baeocytes and Chamaesiphon produces offspring by budding. Actinoplanes produce dispersible offspring by multiple fission of filaments within the sporangium. source: http://www.nature.com/nrmicro/jo urnal/v3/n3/full/nrmicro1096_fs.html (Nature Reviews Microbiology 3 ![]() [2] Electron micrograph of a Pirellula bacterium from giant tiger prawn tissue (Penaeus monodon). Notice the large crateriform structures (C) on the cell surface and flagella. From Fuerst et al. source: 214-224 (2005); doi:10.1038/nrmicro1096) | |
3,250,000,000 YBN | 191) Fossils from Swartkoppie chert, South Africa are oldest evidence of procaryotes that reproduce by budding and not binary fission. | ![]() [1] Fig. 4. (a-d) Organic microstructures from Swartkoppie chert, South Africa (ca 3.25 Ga). TEM-micrographs of demineralized specimen (a,b) Laser mass spectra (negative ions) from clusters of similar specimens. Field of measurement ca 1 small mu, Greekm diameter. (c,d) TEM-micrographs from demineralized Thin section. (e) Recent budding iron bacterium Pedomicrobium sp. (Fig. e from Ghiorse and Hirsch, 1979). source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci ence?_ob=MiamiCaptionURL&_method=retriev e&_udi=B6VBP-42G6M5T-7&_image=fig6&_ba=6 &_user=4422&_coverDate=02%2F01%2F2001&_f mt=full&_orig=browse&_cdi=5932&view=c&_a cct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVersion=0& _userid=4422&md5=801178ddb930bd041063bae 7a3e0e204 | |
3,235,000,000 YBN | 68) Thermophilic prokaryote fossils found in 3235 million year old deep-sea volcanogenic massive sulphide deposits from the Pilbara Craton of Australia may be oldest Archaea fossils. | ![]() [1] Photomicrographs of filaments from the Sulphur Springs VMS deposit. Scale bar, 10 µm. a-f, Straight, sinuous and curved morphologies, some densely intertwined. g, Filaments parallel to the concentric layering. h, Filaments oriented sub-perpendicular to banding. source: | |
2,923,000,000 YBN | 178) Eubacteria Phylum Firmicutes (low G+C {Guanine and Cytosine count} Gram positive) evolve. Genetic comparison shows Eubacteria Phylum Firmicutes (low G+C {Guanine and Cytosine count} Gram positive) evolving here. Firmicutes include the Classes: Bacillus (anthrax), Listeria, Mollicutes, and Stephylococcus. Firmicutes may be the first rod shaped bacteria, and first bacteria to have a gram positive cell wall. The peptidoglycan layer is thicker in Gram-positive bacteria (20 to 80 nm) than in Gram-negative bacteria (7 to 8 nm) Firmicultes form endospores, and is the only phlyum of bacteria that evolved the ability to build endospores. The Firmicutes are a division of bacteria, most of which have Gram-positive stains. A few, the Mollicutes or mycoplasmas, lack cell walls altogether and so do not respond to Gram staining, but still lack the second membrane found in other Gram-negative forms. Originally the Firmicutes were taken to include all Gram-positive bacteria, but more recently they tend to be restricted to a core group of related forms, called the low G+C group in contrast to the Actinobacteria. They have round cells, called cocci (singular coccus), or rod-shaped forms. Many Firmicutes produce endospores, which are resistant to desiccation and can survive extreme conditions. They are found in various environments, and some notable pathogens. Those in one family, the heliobacteria, produce energy through photosynthesis. Firmicutes include: CLASS Bacilli (rod shaped) ORDER Bacillales (anthrax) ORDER Lactobacillales CLASS Clostridia ORDER Clostridiales ORDER Halanaerobiales ORDER Thermoanaerobacteriales CLASS Mollicutes ORDER Mycoplasmatales ORDER Entomoplasmatales ORDER Anaeroplasmatales ORDER Acholeplasmatales | ![]() [1] Listeria monocytogenes is a Gram-positive bacterium, in the division Firmicutes, named for Joseph Lister. It is motile by means of flagella. Some studies suggest that 1 to 10% of humans may carry L. monocytogenes in their intestines. Researchers have found L. monocytogenes in at least 37 mammalian species, both domesticated and feral, as well as in at least 17 species of birds and possibly in some species of fish and shellfish. Laboratories can isolate L. monocytogenes from soil, silage, and other environmental sources. L. monocytogenes is quite hardy and resists the deleterious effects of freezing, drying, and heat remarkably well for a bacterium that does not form spores. Most L. monocytogenes are pathogenic to some degree. source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Listeria.jpg ![]() [2] These are bacteria (about 0.3 µm in diameter) that do not have outer walls, only cytoplasmic membranes. However, they do have cytoskeletal elements that give them a distinct non-spherical shape. They look like schmoos that are pulled along by their heads. How they are able to glide is a mystery. source: http://webmac.rowland.org/labs/b acteria/projects_glide.html | |
2,920,000,000 YBN | 288) Eubacteria firmicutes evolve the abililty to form endpospores. An endospore is any spore that is produced within an organism (usually a bacterium). Most bacterium produce only one spore, as this is not a reproduction process. This is in contrast to exospores, which are rather produced by growth or budding. The primary function of most endospores is to ensure the survival of a colony through periods of environmental stress. Endospores are therefore resistant to desiccation, temperature, starvation, ultraviolet and gamma radiation, and chemical disinfectants. One of the great questions of this time is: "what is the process behind cell differentiation and cell growth?" How is each stage initiated and stopped? There are a number of theories. One theory presumes the entire DNA strand is accessible at all times. In this view operons are used sequentially, while many proteins are supressed, some operons are active, which results in one set of proteins developing the cell, at some point, the first group of operons are inhibited and a different operon (or set of operons) is turned on, signalling a new set of proteins to be built which effects the growth and shape of the cell. An abundance of a first stage protein might initiate the second stage. A second theory is that DNA is read like a computer program with some proteins moving along the DNA strand, one part at a time. In this way, one portion of the DNA may reflect one life stage, while the next portion represents the next (and perhaps very different) life stage. The endospore-forming bacteria belong to the Firmicutes. | ![]() [1] Spore forming inside a bacterium. Stahly, MicrobeLibrary COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.microbe.org/microbes/ spores.asp | |
2,800,000,000 YBN | 177) Genetic comparison shows the ancestor of all Proteobacteria (Rickettsia {mitochondria}, gonorrhoea, Salmonella, E coli) evolving now. Proteobact eria include 5 Classes: CLASS Alpha Proteobacteria (Rickettsia Prowazekii {mitochondria/typhus}) CLASS Beta Proteobacteria (Neisseria gonorrhoeae {gonorrhoea}) CLASS Gamma Proteobacteria (Salmonella and Escherichia coli.) CLASS Delta Proteobacteria CLASS Epsilon Proteobacteria The Proteobacteria are a major group of bacteria. They include a wide variety of pathogens, such as Escherichia, Salmonella, Vibrio, Helicobacter, and many other notable genera. Others are free-living, and include many of the bacteria responsible for nitrogen fixation. The group is defined primarily in terms of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) sequences, and is named for the Greek god Proteus, who could change his shape, because of the great diversity of forms found in it. All Proteobacteria are Gram-negative, with an outer membrane mainly composed of lipopolysaccharides. Many move about using flagella, but some are non-motile or rely on bacterial gliding. The last include the myxobacteria, a unique group of bacteria that can aggregate to form multicellular fruiting bodies. There is also a wide variety in the types of metabolism. Most members are facultatively or obligately anaerobic and heterotrophic, but there are numerous exceptions. A variety of genera, which are not closely related, can photosynthesize. These are called purple bacteria, referring to their mostly reddish pigmentation. The delta-proteobacteria Myxobacteria is capable of colonial multicellularity and some view as possibly being the bacteria that formed the cytoplasm in eukaryotes. CLASS Alpha Proteobacteria (Rickettsia Prowazekii {mitochondria/typhus}) CLASS Beta Proteobacteria (Neisseria gonorrhoeae {gonorrhoea}) CLASS Gamma Proteobacteria (Salmonella, Escherichia coli., fireblight {Erwinia amylovora}, one form of dysentery {Shigella dysenteriae}, Legionaires' disease {Legionella pneumophilia}, Haemophilus influenzae {first free living organism to have entire genome sequenced}, Pseudomonas, the largest known bacteria {Thiomargarita namibiensis}, Cholera {Vibrio cholerae}) The number of individual E. coli bacteria in the feces that one human passes in one day averages between 100 billion and 10 trillion. CLA SS Delta Proteobacteria (Bdellovibrio {parasite on other bacteria}, Geobacter {can oxydize uranium, may be used as battery that runs on waste}, myxobacteria {form multicellular bodies that make spores, have large genome} CLASS Epsilon Proteobacteria (Helicobacter {spiral bacteria}) | ![]() [1] Figure 1. Transmission electron micrograph of the ELB agent in XTC-2 cells. The rickettsia are free in the cytoplasm and surrounded by an electron transparent halo. Original magnification X 30,000. CDC PD source: www.cdc.gov/ncidod/ eid/vol7no1/raoultG1.htm ![]() [2] Caulobacter crescentus. From http://sunflower.bio.indiana.edu/~ybrun/ L305.html COPYRIGHTED EDU was in wiki but appears to be removed source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/en/4/42/Caulobacter.jpg | |
2,784,000,000 YBN | 176) Genetic comparison shows Eubacteria Phylum, Planctomycetes (Planctobacteria) evolving now. Planctomycet es are a possible ancestor of all eukaryotes because the circle of DNA can sometimes be enclosed in a double membrane. Planctomycetes is a small phylum with only 4 Genera, require oxygen for growth (obligately aerobic), are found in fresh and salt water. They reproduce by budding. They have holdfast (stalk) at the nonreproductive end that helps them to attach to each other during budding. The life cycle involves alternation between sessile cells and flagellated swarmer cells. The sessile cells bud to form the flagellated swarmer cells which swim for a while before settling down to attach and begin reproduction. It is also possible, although unlikely, that planctomycetes are descended from a very early eukaryote that lost the nucleus but retained the cytoplasmic DNA, since budding may have evolved as a method to duplicate a eukaryote cell from the nucleus. (ok this is out there...maybe t3) The organisms belonging to this group lack murein in their cell wall Murein is an important heteropolymer present in most bacterial cell walls that serves as a protective component in the cell wall skeleton. Instead their walls are made up of glycoprotein rich in glutamate. Planctomycetes have internal structures that are more complex than would be typically expected in prokaryotes. While they don't have a nucleus in the eukaryotic sense, the nuclear material can sometimes be enclosed in a double membrane. In addition to this nucleoid, there are two other membrane-separated compartments; the pirrellulosome or riboplasm, which contains the ribosome and related proteins, and the ribosome-free paryphoplasm. | ![]() [1] Electron micrographs of cells of new Gemmata-like and Isosphaera-like isolates. (A) Negatively stained cell of the Gemmata-like strain JW11-2f5 showing crateriform structures (arrowhead) and coccoid cell morphology. Bar marker, 200 nm. (B) Negatively stained budding cell of Isosphaera-like strain CJuql1 showing uniform crateriform structures (arrowhead) on the mother cell and coccoid cell morphology. Bar marker, 200 nm. (C) Thin section of Gemmata-like cryosubstituted cell of strain JW3-8s0 showing the double-membrane-bounded nuclear body (NB) and nucleoid (N) enclosed within it. Bar marker, 200 nm. (D) Thin section of Isosphaera-like strain C2-3 possessing a fibrillar nucleoid (N) within a cytoplasmic compartment bounded by a single membrane (M) only. Bar marker, 200 nm. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002 January; 68(1): 417-422. doi: 10.1128/AEM.68.1.417-422.2002. source: http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/art iclerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=117 72655 ![]() [2] Evolutionary distance tree derived from comparative analysis of 16S rDNAs from freshwater and soil isolates and reference strains of the order Planctomycetales. Database accession numbers are shown in parentheses after species, strain, or clone names. Bootstrap values of greater than 70% from 100 bootstrap resamplings from the distance analysis are presented at nodes. Thermotoga maritima was used as an outgroup. Isolates from this study and representative named species of the planctomycetes are indicated in bold. The scale bar represents 0.1 nucleotide substitution per nucleotide position. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002 January; 68(1): 417-422. doi: 10.1128/AEM.68.1.417-422.2002. source: http://florey.biosci.uq.edu.au/m ypa/images/fuerst2.gif | |
2,784,000,000 YBN | 179) Genetic comparison shows Eubacteria Phylum, Actinobacteria (high G+C, Gram positive) evolving now. Actinobact eria have 5 Orders: ORDER Acidimicrobiales ORDER Actinobacteriales ORDER Coriobacteriales ORDER Rubrobacteriales ORDER Sphaerobacteriales Actinobacteria include the causes of tuberculosis (Mycobacteria tuberculosis) and leprosy (Mycobacteria leprae). The Actinobacteria or Actinomycetes are a group of Gram-positive bacteria. Most are found in the soil, and they include some of the most common soil life, playing an important role in decomposition of organic materials, such as cellulose and chitin. This replenishes the supply of nutrients in the soil and is an important part of humus formation. Other Actinobacteria inhabit plants and animals, including a few pathogens, such as Mycobacterium. Some Actinobacteria form braching filaments, which somewhat resemble the mycelia of the unrelated fungi, among which they were originally classified under the older name Actinomycetes. Most members are aerobic, but a few, such as Actinomyces israelii, can grow under anaerobic conditions. Unlike the Firmicutes, the other main group of Gram-positive bacteria, they have DNA with a high GC-content {guanine-cytosine content} and some Actinomycetes species produce external spores. Mycobacterium bovis (the bacterium responsible for bovine TB) in particular has been estimated to be responsible, for the period of the first half of the 20th century, for more losses among farm animals than all other infectious diseases combined. Infection occurs if the bacterium is ingested. Actinobacteria are unsurpassed in their ability to produce many compounds that have pharmaceutically useful properties. In 1940 Selman Waksman discovered that the soil bacteria he was studying made actinomycin, a discovery which granted him a Nobel Prize. Since then hundreds of naturally occurring antibiotics have been discovered in these terrestrial microorganisms, especially from the genus Streptomyces. When M.leprae was discovered by G.A. Hansen in 1873, it was the first bacterium to be identified as causing disease in man. Although Leprosy is contagious, it is not widespread because 95% of the population have immune systems able to cope with the bacteria. | ![]() [1] Frankia is a genus of nitrogen-fixing soil bacteria, which possesses a set of features that are unique amongst symbiotic nitrogen-fixing microorganisms, including rhizobia, making it an attractive taxon to study. These heterotrophic Gram-positive bacteria which are able to induce symbiotic nitrogen-fixing root nodules (actinorhizas) in a wide range of dicotyledonous species (actinorhizal plants), have also the capacity to fix atmospheric nitrogen in culture and under aerobic conditions. source: http://www.ibmc.up.pt/webpagesgr upos/cam/Frankia.htm ![]() [2] Aerial mycelium and spore of Streptomyces coelicolor. The mycelium and the oval spores are about 1µm wide, typical for bacteria and much smaller than fungal hyphae and spores. (Scanning electron micrograph, Mark Buttner, Kim Findlay, John Innes Centre). COPYRIGHT UK source: http://www.sanger.ac.uk/Projects /S_coelicolor/micro_image4.shtml | |
2,775,000,000 YBN | 174) Genetic comparison shows Eubacteria Phylum, Spirochaetes (Syphilis, Lyme disease) evolving now. Inclu des leptospirosis (leptospira), Lyme disease (Borrelia burgdorferi), and Syphilis (Treponema pallidum). Spirochaetes only have one order: ORDER Spirochaetales This is when the first spiral shaped bacteria evolve. The spirochaetes (or spirochetes) are a phylum of distinctive bacteria, which have long, helically coiled cells. They are distinguished by the presence of flagella running lengthwise between the cell membrane and cell wall, called axial filaments. These cause a twisting motion which allows the spirochaete to move about. Most spirochaetes are free-living and anaerobic, but there are numerous exceptions. Spirochaetes only have one order: ORDER Spirochaetales and 3 families. | ![]() [1] Syphilis is a complex, sexually transmitted disease (STD) with a highly variable clinical course. The disease is caused by the bacterium, Treponema pallidum. In the United States, 32,871 cases of syphilis, including 432 cases of congenital syphilis, were detected by public health officials in 2002. Eight of the ten states with the highest rates of syphilis are located in the southern region of the United States. source: http://www.cdc.gov/nchstp/od/tus kegee/syphilis.htm ![]() [2] leptospirose 200x magnified with dark-field microscope photo taken by bluuurgh at the dutch royal tropical institute (www.kit.nl) PD source: http://uhavax.hartford.edu/bugl/ images/Treponema%20pallidum.jpg | |
2,775,000,000 YBN | 175) Genetic comparison shows Eubacteria Phyla Bacteroidetes and Chlorobi (green sulphur bacteria) evolving now. PHYLUM Bacteroidetes CLASS Bacteroides ORDER Bacteroidales CLASS Flavobacteria ORDER Flavobacteriales CLASS Sphingobacteria ORDER Sphingobacteriales PHLYUM Chlorobi (Green sulphur) CLASS Chlorobia ORDER Chlorobiales The phylum Bacteroidetes is composed of three large groups of bacteria. By far, more is written about and known about the Bacteroides class, than the other two, the Flavobacteria and the Sphingobacteria classes. They are related by the similarity in the composition of the small 16S subunit of their ribosomes. Members of the bacteroides class are human commensals (they benefit but humans receive no effect) and sometimes pathogens. Members of the other two classes are rarely pathogenic to humans. Chlorobi are the "green sulphur bacteria", are a family of phototrophic (photosynthesizing) bacteria. Green sulfur bacteria are generally nonmotile (one species has a flagellum), and come in spheres, rods, and spirals. Their environment must be oxygen-free, and they need light to grow. They engage in photosynthesis, using bacteriochlorophylls c, d, and e in vesicles called chlorosomes attached to the membrane. They use sulfide ions as electron donor, and in the process the sulfide gets oxidized, producing globules of elemental sulfur outside the cell, which may then be further oxidized. (By contrast, the photosynthesis in plants uses water as electron donor and produces oxygen.) A species of green sulfur bacteria has been found living near a black smoker off the coast of Mexico at a depth of 2,500 meters beneath the surface of the Pacific Ocean. At this depth, the bacteria, designated GSB1, lives off the dim glow of the thermal vent since no sunlight can penetrate to that depth. | ![]() [1] Bacteroides fragilis . From the Zdravotni University source: http://biology.kenyon.edu/Microb ial_Biorealm/bacteria/bacteroidete_chlor ob_group/bacteroides/bacteroides.htm ![]() [2] Cross section of a Bacteroides showing an outer membrane, a peptidoglycan layer, and a cytoplasmic membrane. From New-asthma source: http://phil.cdc.gov/phil/details .asp | |
2,775,000,000 YBN | 217) Genetic comparison shows Eubacteria Phyla Chlamydiae and Verrucomicrobia evolving now. Chlamydiae includes (clamydia, trachoma {Chlamydia trachomatis}, a form of pneumonia {Chlamydophila pneumoniae}, psittacosis {Chlamydophila psittaci}. CLASS Chlamydiae ORDER Chlamydiales PHYLA Verrucomicrobia ORDER Verrucomicrobiales The Chlamydiae are a group of bacteria, all of which are intracellular parasites of eukaryotic cells. Most described species infect mammals and birds, but some have been found in other hosts, such as amoebae. Chlamydiae have a life-cycle involving two distinct forms. Infection takes place by means of elementary bodies (EB), which are metabolically inactive. These are taken up within a cellular vacuole, where they grow into larger reticulate bodies (RB), which reproduce. Ultimately new elementary bodies are produced and expelled from the cell. Verrucomicrobia is a recently described phylum of bacteria. This phylum contains only a few described species (Verrucomicrobia spinosum, is an example, the phylum is named after this). The species identified have been isolated from fresh water and soil environments and human feces. A number of as-yet uncultivated species have been identified in association with eukaryotic hosts including extrusive explosive ectosymbionts of protists and endosymbionts of nematodes residing in their gametes. Evidence suggests that verrucomicrobia are abundant within the environment, and important (especially to soil cultures). This phylum is considered to have two sister phyla Chlamydiae and Lentisphaera. There are three main species of chlamydiae that infect humans: * Chlamydia trachomatis, which causes the eye-disease trachoma and the sexually transmitted infection chlamydia; * Chlamydophila pneumoniae, which causes a form of pneumonia; * Chlamydophila psittaci, which causes psittacosis. | ![]() [1] Chlamydia trachomatis wiki, is copyrighted source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chl amydia_trachomatis ![]() [2] wiki, public domain source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Chlamydophila_pneumoniae.jpg | |
2,760,000,000 YBN | 80) Endocytosis, a process where the cell membrane folds around some molecules to form a spherical vesicle which enters the cytoplasm, and exocytosis, the opposite process, where a vesicle combines with a call membrane to empty molecules outside a cell both evolve in an early eukaryote cell. Eukaryote cells can now swallow bacteria (phagocytosis) and liquid (pinocytosis). The cells can then (heterotrophically) use the molecules injested (for example a bacterium) for copying and to make ATP. This is the first time one cell can eat a different living cell. How similar endocytosis is to conjugation is unknown at this time. | ![]() [1] Pinocytosis In the process of pinocytosis the plasma membrane froms an invagination. What ever substance is found within the area of invagination is brought into the cell. In general this material will be dissolved in water and thus this process is also refered to as ''cellular drinking'' to indicate that liquids and material dissolved in liquids are ingested by the cell. This is opposed to the ingestion of large particulate material like bacteria or other cells or cell debris. source: http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.ed u/biology/bio4fv/page/endocytb.htm | |
2,750,000,000 YBN | 207) Cytoskeleton evolves in eukaryote cytoplasm. One theory is that the cytoskeleton formed from the eukaryote flagella (cilia, undulipodia) tubules. Cytoskeleton is a single body with the endoplasmic reticulum and nuclear membrane? | ||
2,725,000,000 YBN | 60) First eukaryotic cell evolves. This cell has a nucleus, with either single strands or a circle of DNA inside. This is a single anaerobic cell. This is the first protist. This cell evolves either by: 1) two or more bacteria joined, one with flagella (perhaps a eubacteria) formed the nucleus, a second formed the cytoplasm outside the nucleus, eventually the code to build the entire cell including the instructions to build the symbiotic captured bacteria was included in the new nucleus, 2) the nucleus formed as part of the cytoplasm lattice, perhaps the outer wall folded in on itself creating a double membrane, or a membrane grew around the DNA (for example like planctobacteria) which provided more protection for the DNA from the movement and digestive activities of cytoplasm now without a rigid cell wall, 3) a bacteria with flagella that grew cytoplasm and a secondary cell wall outside the original cell wall, 4) a virus, 5) a DNA strand from conjugation with a different prokaryote stored in a vesicle. There are key features that are different from eukaryotes and prokaryotes: 1) Eukaryotes have a nucleus, prokaryotes do not. 2) DNA in eukaryotes is in the form of chromosomes, in prokaryotes the DNA is in a circle. 3) Eukaryotes can do endocytosis, fold their cell membrane around some external object and injest the object, prokaryotes can not. 4) Eukaryotes have a membrane lattice of proteins, actin and myacin, prokaryotes do not. 5) Eukaryotes have an endoplasmic reticulum and golgi body. 6) Eukaryotes reproduce asexually by dual binary division (both nucleus and cell divide by binary division), budding, or mitosis, prokaryotes reproduce by budding or binary division. If the nucleus is an engulfed prokaryote, this cell inherits the processes of nuclear DNA duplication and nucleus division (karyokinesis) from prokaryote binary division. Initially, both the nucleus and cell divide by binary division. Support for the nucleus forming from a prokaryote is that chromosomes in parabasalia and dinoflagellates remain permanently anchored to the nuclear membrane (envelope?) by the kinetochores, the same way prokaryote DNA anchors to the cell membrane (wall?) during cell division. A theory of an archaebacteria (perhaps an eocyte) forming the first eukaryote nucleus and a gram-negative eubacteria forming the cytoplasm of the first eukaryote is supported by genetic evidence. This cell reproduces asexually by either binary fission (both nucleus and cytoplasm) or budding, or sexually by conjugation or both cell and nuclei fully merging. If this cell has chromosomes, this is the first (haploid) organism with chromosomes. Perhaps a sperm-like flagellated prokaryote merged with an ovum-like prokaryote from the same or a different species, perhaps by the ovum opening a pilus and the sperm-like cell entering the pilus, and once inside opening a pilus through which the DNA from the two cells could merge. Many diplomonads look like sperm cells stuck in an ovum, with the still flagellated sperm forming the nucleus, and some diplomonads, for example, the oxymonad, Saccinobaculus reproduce sexually. An important evolutionary step had to evolve here, and that is the evolution of the prokaryote binary division system: 1) duplicating DNA in the cytoplasm, 2) separating the two copies of DNA, and 3) the division of cytoplasm into two cells to an adapted process of eukaryote cell division: 1) duplicating DNA in the nucleus, 2) separating the DNA in the nucleus, 3) dividing the nucleus into two nuclei, 4) separating the two nuclei, and then 5) dividing the cytoplasm into two cells. It appears in early eukaryote nuclei (as seen in closed mitosis, where the nuclear membrane persistes through mitosis) that the nuclei divide by a process similar to binary division (as opposed to budding), which adds to the support for the first nucleus being a prokaryote and continuing to divide by binary division. Most people accept that the centrioles from which grow the microtubule spindles that pull apart chromosomes in mitosis, evolved from the base pairs which originally were, and on some species still are, connected to a cilium. Perhaps there are some eukaryote nuclei that duplicate by budding, although this has never been found to my knowledge. If ever found, that would imply that budding evolved before the first eukaryote, but could have possibly evolved after by simply dropping the instructions to copy anything other than the nucleus. Binary cell division in the most basic form only synthesizes more cytoplasm and cell wall, where budding reproduces the entire body plan of a cell (or nucleus in this case). evidence for prokaryote=eukaryote nucleus 1) flagella connected to nucleus of metamonads. a) flagella hints that nucleus prokaryote may have been a male gamete (and the cytoplasm the female gamete). b) flagella are presumably outside the double membrane, indicates that came after capture? Maybe flagella penetrate double membrane...perhaps were initialy inside or partially inside and outside. 2) nucleus division does not need to be recreated, can be basically the same inherited prokaryote cell division (perhaps with minor adjustments), only within a cell membrane. 3) conjugation already existed as a form of exchanging DNA before the first eukaryote, it is possible that a complete bacterium could be taken in through a pilus. Some eukaryotes like spyrogrya still reproduce sexually through conjugation. 4) DNA was splitting and merging with conjugation in prokaryotes before eukaryotes. 5) division of nucleus and cytoplasm is different, just like mitochondria, when the cytoplasm divides is signalled by molecules (as far as I know), and a nucleus may divide without the cytoplasm dividing (immediately or perhaps ever) in some protists. (Clearly many metamonads have multiple nuclei). It's interesting that some metamonads have muliple nuclei (mastigonts), because when they reproduce it is all integrated, each nuceli is rebuilt (as far as I know). Maybe that shows how simple throwing together nuclei and cytoplasm is for DNA for put together and reproduce. 6) two layer membrane around nucleus, is evidence of a prokaryote being captured in a vacuole. 7) happened for mitochondria, chloroplasts, (and later red algae and green algae), that is support for a prokaryote similar to rikettsia, or cyanobacteria being engulfed and forming nucleus. 8) "all eukaryotic HSP70 homologs share in common with the Gram-negative group of eubacteria a number of sequence features that are not present in any archaebacterium or Gram-positive bacterium, indicating their evolution from this group of organisms." 9) Most genes related to the nucleus are related to archaebacteria, while those relating to the cytoplasm are related to eubacteria. Perhaps there was a long period of time where the future eukaryote nucleus was only an organelle, reproducing initially like mitochondria and chloroplasts do, by themselves, but initiated by the nuclear duplication and cytoplasmic division (check). Somehow the binary division process of the cytoplasm DNA and the binary division process of the nucleus-organelle had to merge into one process. Either the spindle chromosome method (mitosis) evolved before or after the nucleus-organelle has taken over the cytoplasm building function. As time continued, the process of spindle separation evolved for the nucleus-organelle. As time continued, the building of the nucleus-organelle was taken over by the cytoplasmic DNA, still reproducing by binary fission. I could see how budding would be a natural evolution for a cell nucleus that starts as an organelle, is reproduced by cytoplasm DNA and then the DNA is tranfered back into the nucleus-organelle. The nucelus-organelle would then recreate the entire cell inside the nucleus (including the cytoplasm DNA presumably), and presumably it would burst out and continue to copy that way. Perhaps budding prokaryotes were budding eukaryotes that still had their cytoplasm DNA that actually lost their nucleus-organelle. Then budding perhaps evolved into mitosis. I think that mitosis is more similar to binary division than budding is. It seems clear that the nucleus-organelle copied itself. Potentially the same proteins that initiate DNA duplication and cell division for the cytoplasm DNA simulteously initiate DNA duplication and cell (nucleus-organelle) division in the nucleus-organelle. So the nucleus-organelle may have been exactly like a mitochondrion for many years. Although there are uncertainties, this first eukaryote is thought to be a member of the broad group of single celled eukaryotes called "flagellates". It is theorized that later will evolve the unicellular "ameobozoid" and "ciliate" groups. (this is a little vague and I am not sure it really covers algae, and the other alveolates, but it does reduce the complexity of protists) | ![]() [1] http://www.regx.de/m_organisms.php#planc to source: http://www.regx.de/m_organisms.p hp#plancto ![]() [2] http://www.mansfield.ohio-state.edu/~sab edon/biol1080.htm source: http://www.mansfield.ohio-state. edu/~sabedon/biol1080.htm | |
2,725,000,000 YBN | 65) DNA in the nucleus changes from a single circular chromosome to linear chromosomes. Possibly the prokaryote ancestor of the first eukaryote had linear chromosomes since some prokaryotes (although very few) are known to have linear chromosomes instead of or in addition to a single circular chromosome. Perhaps a DNA strand entered a cell by conjugation, the circle of DNA was cut to insert the new DNA (plasmid), but the new DNA strand was not sewn back into the original strand of DNA creating two strands of DNA which eventually evolved into the first 2 chromosomes. Perhaps the first eukaryote nucleus was a virus, many of which have linear chromosomes. This includes the evolution of histones, proteins which are packed in between nucleotides in each chromosome. Presumably DNA duplication (sythesis) of chromosomes (in the nucleus) is initially identical to DNA duplication of DNA strands or circular DNA. Some prokaryotes do not have just one circle of DNA. Brucella melitensis has 2 circlular chromosomes. Agrobacterium tumefaciens has a circular and a linear chromosome. Streptomyces griseus can have one linear chromosome. Borrelia burgdorferi contains a linear chromosome and a number of variable circular and linear plasmids. Most eukaryote orgenelles have a single circular chromosome except for the mitochondria of most cnidarians and some other forms which have linear chromosomes. | ||
2,720,000,000 YBN | 208) A eukaryote flagellum (cilium, undulipodium) evolves on early single cell eukaryotes. The eukaryote cilia (flagella, undulipodia) may evolve from a prokaryote flagella connected to the nucleus, from the cytoskeleten, or a symbiotic prokaryote. Cilia and eukaryote flagella are structurally the same, but have minor functional differences. Cilia are a special class of eukaryote flagella. The eukarote flagellum is different from prokayote flagellum. The prokaryote flagallum is a solid structures, made of the protein flagellin, which protrudes through the plasma membrane. The eukaryote flagellum (and cilium) contains a "9 plus 2 array", 9 microtubules in a circle with 2 microtubules in the center. Some people think that the eukaryote flagella and cilia should be called "undulipodia". In some species the spindles used in mitosis connect to the bases of the eukaryote cilia (undulipodia), which leads some people to think that the spindles of mitosis may have evolved from the eukaryote cilia. Some people think that the eukaryote cilium (flagellum, undulipodia) was a spirochete (prokaryote) that formed a symbiotic relationship with a eukaryote host, whose DNA was transfered to the host nucleus. Other possibilities are that the eukaryote flagellum evolved from prokaryote flagellum, or simply evolved over time through natural selection. The eukaryote flagellum protein "tubulin" is thought to be related to a bacterial replication/cytoskeletal protein "FtsZ" found in some archaebacteria (archaea). What method of reproduction this first nucleated cell used is a great mystery. Among the choices are binary division, budding, or mitosis. My own feeling is that budding or dual binary division (both nucleus and cytoplasm) was how this cell initially copied. The eukaryote flagellum (cilium, undulipodium) is the same inherited and found on sperm cells. | ||
2,720,000,000 YBN | 291) For the first time, a cell is not constantly synthesizing DNA and then having a division period (as is the case for all known prokaryotes), but this cell has a period in between cell division and DNA synthesis where DNA synthesis is not performed. Later some cells develop a stage after synthesis and before cell division. For the first time, a cell is not constantly synthesizing DNA (S) and then having a division period (D) (as is the case for all known prokaryotes), but this cell has a period in between cell division and DNA synthesis where DNA synthesis is not performed (G1) . Later some cells develop a stage after synthesis and before cell division (G2). | ||
2,719,000,000 YBN | 302) If the first eukaryote nucleus was a prokaryote, synchronized duplication and division of organelle-nucleus and cytoplasm of early eukaryote cell evolves. Before this, eukaryote cell division usually results in one cell with no organelle-nuclei and a second cell with 2 organelle-nuclei. Perhaps the organelle-nuclei attach to the outer cell membrane in the same way the cytoplasmic DNA do, which allows new cytoplasm growth to separate the two organelle-nucleus in addition to the cytoplasmic DNA. Or perhaps the first system of organized nuclei separation originated with the organelle-nucleus flagella microtubules grewing into the cytoskeleton, and organized system spindles and mitosis. If the nuclear membrane was formed around the DNA within a prokaryote, then binary division had to adapt to separate the duplicated DNA within the proto-nucleus (not within the entire cell) which may have been very simple to evolve. If the cytoplasm grew outside the cell wall of a prokaryote, binary division would have to adapt to separate that external cytoplasm. | ![]() source: ![]() source: | |
2,715,000,000 YBN | 72) Mitosis, asexual copying of a haploid (single set of chomosomes) eukaryote nucleus, evolves in eukaryotes. Before mitosis, there is a synthesis stage where DNA in the form of chromosomes are duplicated in the nucleus before the nucleus and cell divide. explain basic process of mitosis: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase Presumably no prokaryotes have ever reproduced through mitosis. Only eukaryotes reproduce asexually using mitosis. Most people accept that some protists were sexual and later lost that ability. But the majority view now is that the first eukaryotes were asexual, and that some protists still living now have never had sexual ability. Because mitosis is complex and similar in detail in all species that do mitosis, people think that mitosis only evolved once, and was inherited by all species that do mitosis. The major differences between this new method of copying, mitosis and the older method, binary fission (add budding?) are: 1) In mitosis, microtubule spindles attach to the kinetochore (the protein structure in eukaryotes which assembles on the centromere and links the chromosome to microtubule polymers from the mitotic spindle during mitosis) and pull apart the two DNA copies, where in binary fission the DNA (single chromosome) attaches to a part of the cytoplasm which pulls apart the two cells. 2) Chromosomes (linear pieces of DNA), not a circle of DNA is being copied. People speculate that early mitosis had spindles outside the nucleus, with chromosomes fastened to the nuclear membrane, as can still be seen in parabasalia and dinoflagellates, which appear to have primitive nuclei. In more ancient species the nuclear membrane persists through mitosis (closed mitosis), but in more recent species, like metazoa, land plants, and many kinds of protists, the nuclear membrane disintegrates before mitosis and is rebuilt after (open mitosis). Most people think that extranuclear spindles (spindles that originate outside of the nucleus) and closed mitosis evolved first. Only later did pleuromitosis (spindles rotate 90 degrees, nucleus can be semi-open, or closed) and then orthomitosis (spindles are on both sides of nucleus and separate chromosomes in a straight line, nucleus can be open, semi-open or closed) evolve in later eukaryotes. It is interesting to think about how how binary fission (or potentially budding) of prokaryote cells with no nucleus evolved into mitosis and the use of spindles. Mitosis, budding, and binary fission are the only asexual methods of reproduction known. Perhaps mitosis evolved first only copying the nucleus then later evolved to make not only a new nucleus but also a new cell around that nucleus. | ![]() [1] Mitosis divides genetic information during cell division Source: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/About/primer /genetics_cell.html This image is from the Science Primer, a work of the National Center for Biotechnology Information, part of the National Institutes of Health. As a work of the U.S. federal government, the image is in the public domain. source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mit osis ![]() [2] Prophase: The two round objects above the nucleus are the centrosomes. Note the condensed chromatin. from Gray's Anatomy. Unless stated otherwise, it is from the online edition of the 20th U.S. edition of Gray's Anatomy of the Human Body, originally published in 1918. Online editions can be found on Bartleby and also on Yahoo! source: | |
2,711,000,000 YBN | 303) Cytoplasmic cell fusion and division evolves. Two eukaryote cells can merge into one cell with 2 nuclei and then divide back into single 1 nucleus cells. Possibly two cells that fuse cytoplasms but not nuclei, may still retain the system of cytoplasmic DNA and organelle-nucleus attachment to cell membrane (wall?), but on each half of the new cell, therefore making dual haploid mitosis (potentially of both cytoplasmic DNA and organelle-nucleus in synchronized duplication) a simple evolutionary next step. | ||
2,710,000,000 YBN | 73) Sex (cell and genetic fusion, syngamy, gametogamy) evolves in protists. Haploid (1 set of chromosomes) eukaryote cells merge and then their nuclei merge (karyogamy) to form the first diploid (2 sets of chromosomes) cells (the first zygote). This fusion of 2 haploid cells results in the first diploid single-celled organism, which then immediately divides (both nucleus and cytoplasm by single-division meiosis) back to two haploid cells. Possibly first, only cytoplasmic merging happened with nuclear merging (karyogamy) and nuclear division (karyokinesis) evolving later. Now, two cells with different DNA can mix providing more chance of variety/mutation. Two chromosome sets provides a backup copy of important genes (sequences that code for proteins, or nucleic acids) that might be lost with only a set of single chromosomes. The life cycle of future organisms will now have two phases, a gamophase (from n to 2n (until syngamy)), and zygophase (from 2n to n (until meiosis)). Gamoid cells are not haploid in polyploid organisms. Potentially sexual cell and genetic fusion is what made the first eukaryote cell, and sex in protists may be directly descended from conjugation in prokaryotes, in other words not evolved from a different method independently of conjugation, because some metamonads, for example Saccinobaculus reproduce sexually, and look very much like a prokaryote sperm cell which formed the nucleus captured in an ovum cell. For sexual species there are 3 basic life cycles: 1) Haploid (Haplontic) life cycle: zygotic meiosis. Life as haploid cells, cell division immediately after creation of zygote from fusion. (All fungi, Some green algae, Many protozoa) 2) Diploid (Diplontic) life cycle: gametic meiosis. Instead of immediate cell division, zygote reproduces by mitosis. Haploid gametes never copy by mitosis. (animals, some brown algae) 3) Haplodiploid (Haplodiplontic, Diplohaplontic, Diplobiontic) life cycle: sporic meiosis. Diploid cell (sporocyte) meiosis results in 2 haploid sporophytes (gamonts), not 2 haploid gametes. These haploid cells then differentiate? or mitosis? to form haploid gametes. Haplodiplontic organisms have alternation of generations, one generation involves diploid spore-producing single or multicellular sporophytes (makes spores) and the other generation involves haploid single or multicellular gamete-producing multicellular gametophytes (makes gametes). Pants and many algae have this haplodiplontic life cycle. These first sexual cells are haplontic, with zygotic meiosis; they reproduce asexually through mitosis as haploid cells, fusing to a diploid cell without mitosis, then dividing back into haploid cells. An important evolutionary step evolves here in that now two cells can completely merge into one cell. This merge not only includes their nuclei, but also their cytoplasm (althought the DNA do not merge). Before now, as far as has ever been observed, no two cells have ever completely merged, although, through conjugation some prokaryotes have been observed to exchange DNA. This marks the beginning of the "haplonic lifestyle" with "zygotic meosis", where the organism is haploid until cell fusion which is immediately followed by (one-step) meiosis of the zygote, after which the haploid cells continues to reproduce through mitosis. Possibly the first sexual organism merged through a form of "autogamy" (both haploid gametes originate from the same individual, the opposite of "allogamy" where the gametes originate from different individuals). Some species reproduce by a form of autogamy (intracellular autogamy), where nuclei (also called pronuclei) divide and then merge within the same cell before the entire cell divides. Some metamonads (earliest still living eukaryotes), like Oxymonas and Saccinobaculus can reproduce asexually by mitosis, but also can reproduce sexually using this form of autogamy. This may be evidence that some prokaryote could also merge two entire cells (if the eukaryote nucleus was a prokaryote). Perhaps prokaryotes evolved full cellular fusion before the first eukaryote. If that is true, then this initial form of nuclei dividing and merging (intracellular autogamy) may have existed for some time before full eukaryote cell merging and synchronized eukayote nucleus and cytoplasm division evolved. It is difficult to see what selective advantage autogamy could possibly have since no new DNA is ever introduced into the next generation of organism, as opposed to "allogamy", where DNA from different individuals is merged, and which has a clear selective advantage. So perhaps autogamy evolved after allogamy, although to me it appears that allogamy is more complex than autogamy, and autogamy would be a perfect starting step to develop the needed proteins and processes for the more complicated allogamy (autogamy only involves the duplication and merging of two nuclei, where allogamy involves the merging of the cell walls, and cytoplasm in addition to the two nuclei.) This is the beginning of the label "gamete" for haploid cells that can merge to form a diploid zygote. In addition, the label "gametocyte" or "gamont" is any polyploid cell that divides (meiosis) into haploid gamete cells which can merge to form a zygote. Perhaps there is a relationship between prokaryote spore formation and the phenomenon of diploid zygotes forming a thick cell wall. Perhaps the first sex (full cell nucleus and cytoplasm fusion) was interchangeably isogamous (both gametes are identical and interchangable), with only one gender, in other words, the first sex on earth was homosexual. Then later heterogamous gametes evolved, where there were two distinct haploid gamete cells, usually a large female cell and a smaller flagellated male cell. Sex also allows organisms to choose reproductive partners that are more likely to make new organisms that are more likely to survive. An alternative theory is that a failed mitosis could result in a diploid nucleus. What advantage might autogamy of intercellular nuclei have, the added chance of mistakes in the merging of two nuclei? In addition, why would such a system (intracellular autogamy) persist if there was no selective advantage? Why wouldn't oxymonas or saccinobacculus reduce totally to asexual mitosis and or allogamous sexual reproduction and either never make use of or lose intracellular autogamous sexual reproduction completely? This is the first eukaryote cell to have a life cycle that involves two different kinds of cells. | ![]() [1] Zygotic Meiosis. GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Zygotic_meiosis.png ![]() [2] Gametic Meiosis. GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Gametic_meiosis.png | |
2,710,000,000 YBN | 206) Meiosis (one-step meiosis, one DNA duplication and a cell division of a diploid cell into 2 haploid cells) evolves. detail one-step meiosis: The is no DNA crossover or chiasma formation in one-division meiosis, apparently because either duplication of chromosomes or separation of chromatids does not occurred. As far as I know, mitosis and one-step meiosis are the same with the only exceptions that 1) in meiosis two haploid cells join before cell division, and 2) in mitosis the DNA is duplicated before cell division, but in meiosis the DNA is not duplicated before cell division. Meiosis can be one step (one DNA duplication and then one cell division) or two step (two DNA duplications and then two divisions). Probably one step meosis evolved first and two step meiosis later. Meiosis can only function on cells with two or more sets of chromosomes. The Protists Pyrsonympha and Dinenympha has up to a four step meiosis. Because meiosis is similar and complex in detail in all species that do meiosis, people think that meiosis only evolved once, and was inherited by all species that do meiosis. | ![]() [1] GametoGenesis. COPYRIGHTED EDU source: http://www.bio.miami.edu/dana/10 4/gametogenesis.jpg ![]() [2] Sexual cycle oxymonas, identical to saccinobaculus, one step meiosis. haploid. COPYRIGHTED CANADA source: http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~redfi eld/clevelan/oxymonas.GIF | |
2,706,000,000 YBN | 299) Duplication of diploid DNA (after 2 haploid cells fuse) evolves. This is required for diploid mitosis. Duplication of diploid DNA may be very similar to duplication of haploid DNA. Initially perhaps the diploid DNA duplicated, but still divided in one-division meiosis. | ||
2,705,000,000 YBN | 210) Mitosis of diploid cells evolves. This begins the "diplontic" life cycle (with gametic meiosis), where diploid cells (a zygote) can copy asexually through mitosis after merging. This organism, when haploid, cannot do mitosis (presumably haploid gamete mitosis will evolve much later in brown algae), and this is still true in all descendents (including humans) of this single celled organism. The proteins and mechanism of mitosis of diploid cells is probably very similar to mitosis of haploid cells. The most primitive organisms still alive that are diplontic are the metamonads (e.g. Oxymonads: Notila, Hypermastigotes: Urinympha, Macrospironympha, Rhynchonympha). | ||
2,704,000,000 YBN | 296) The origin of gender evolves: sex (cell and nucleus fusion) between two isogamous (same size) gametes but which have 2 different (+ and -) forms (genders). Perhaps the invention of two different genders originated when a flagellated cell (or nucleus) divided by binary division and only one half of the two new cells retained the flagellum. Then to differentiate the two cells even more, but still keep the same DNA template, different proteins could be weighted on one half of the cell during division to activate various operons in one gender but not the other once the two DNA pairs are separated. Perhaps sex where the gametes are the same size but cannot merge themselves should be called "specific" or "gendered" isogamy, and where any two same sized gametes can merge called "nonspecific" or "nongendered" isogamy. | ||
2,703,000,000 YBN | 297) Sex (cell and nucleus fusion) between two different size gamete cells (heterogamy or anisogamy) evolves in protists. Some species are heterogamous but two of the same sized (gender) gametes can fuse to form a zygote. | ||
2,702,000,000 YBN | 298) Sex (cell and nucleus fusion) between one flagellated gamete and an unflagellated gamete (oogamy, a form of heterogamy) evolves in protists. This system is the system humans inherited. | ||
2,700,000,000 YBN | 62) Oldest steranes (formed from sterols, molecules made by mitochondria in eukaryotes) found in northwestern Australia. | ||
2,700,000,000 YBN | 192) Fossils from the Bulawaya stromatolite, Zimbabwe. | ![]() [1] Fig. 2. Organic microstructure from the Bulawaya stromatolite, Zimbabwe (ca 2.7 Ga). (a) TEM-micrograph from demineralized rock section. (b) Laser mass spectrum from individual specimen of the same population (negative ions). Field of measurement ca 1 small mu, Greekm diameter. Attribution of signals: 12: C−, 13: CH−, 14: CH−2, 16: O−, 17: OH−, 19: F−, 24: C−2, 25: C2H−, 26: CN−, 28: Si−, 36: C−3, 37: C3H−, 40-42, 45: fragmental carbonaceous groups, 48: C−4, 49: C4H−, 50: C4H−2, 60: SiO−2, resp. C−5, 61: C5H−. source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci ence?_ob=MiamiCaptionURL&_method=retriev e&_udi=B6VBP-42G6M5T-7&_image=fig5&_ba=5 &_user=4422&_coverDate=02%2F01%2F2001&_f mt=full&_orig=browse&_cdi=5932&view=c&_a cct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVersion=0& _userid=4422&md5=d9195635e48bcf1f817c009 69102189f | |
2,700,000,000 YBN | 214) Biomarkers characteristic of cyanobacteria, 2alpha -methylhopanes, indicate that oxygenic photosynthesis evolved well before the atmosphere became oxidizing. | ||
2,692,000,000 YBN | 300) Diploid cell fusion (Gamontogamy) evolves. Only a few species exhibit this property (e.g. the Oxymonad Notilla, Diatoms, Dasicladales {Acetabularia}, in many foraminiferans, and in gregarines). Gamontogamy may have evolved into two-step meiosis. The vast majority of eukaryotes living now that reproduce sexually fuse haploid cells. All "gametes" are haploid cells that can merge, diploid cells that can merge are gamonts. Gamonts (Meiocytes) are cells that produce gametes. In theory this should be very similar if not exactly like haploid cell fusion, so perhaps this is not a major evolutionary step. | ![]() [1] The Oxymonad, Notila (diploid Pacific form) life cycle. COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~redfi eld/clevelan/notila.GIF | |
2,690,000,000 YBN | 295) Meiosis (two step meiosis, two cell divisions with no stage in between which result in one diplid cell dividing into four haploid cells) evolves. Meiosis and mitosis are similar in being process of nucleus and cell division, but are different. Differenc es between meiosis and mitosis: 1) At least one crossover per homologous pair happens in 2 step meiosis but crossover usually does not happen in mitosis. 2) Two step meiosis involves cell divisions that happen one after the other, where mitosis only happens after one DNA duplication (there are never 2 mitoses together without a DNA duplication between them to my knowledge). The cell division in two step meiosis that involves a separation of sister chromatids (not homologous chromosome pairs) is basically identical to mitosis. For two step meiosis, this is the second nucleus and cell division. Later multistep meiosis evolves, where there may be as many as 4 divisions (for example in the protists Pyrsonympha and Dinenympha). | ![]() [1] GametoGenesis. COPYRIGHTED EDU source: http://www.bio.miami.edu/dana/10 4/gametogenesis.jpg ![]() [2] Sexual cycle oxymonas, identical to saccinobaculus, one step meiosis. haploid. COPYRIGHTED CANADA source: http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~redfi eld/clevelan/oxymonas.GIF | |
2,650,000,000 YBN | 170) First bacteria live on land. | ||
2,558,000,000 YBN | 171) Phylum Deinococcus-Thermus (Thermus Aquaticus {used in PCR}, Deinococcus radiodurans {can survive long exposure to radiation}) evolve now. PHYLUM Deinococcus-Thermus CLASS Deinococci ORDER Deinococcales ORDER Thermales The Deinococcus-Thermus are a small group of bacteria comprised of cocci highly resistant to environmental hazards. There are two main groups. The Deinococcales include a single genus, Deinococcus, with several species that are resistant to radiation; they have become famous for their ability to eat nuclear waste and other toxic materials, survive in the vacuum of space and survive extremes of heat and cold. The Thermales include several genera resistant to heat. Thermus aquaticus was important in the development of the polymerase chain reaction where repeated cycles of heating DNA to near boiling make it advantageous to use a thermo-stable DNA polymerase enzyme. These bacteria have thick cell walls that give them gram-positive stains, but they include a second membrane and so are closer in structure to those of gram-negative bacteria. | ![]() [1] D. radiodurans growing on a nutrient agar plate. The red color is due to carotenoid pigment. Links to 816x711-pixel, 351KB JPG. Credit: M. Daly, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences NASA source: http://science.nasa.gov/newhome/ headlines/images/conan/D_rad_dish.jpg ![]() [2] Photomicrograph of Deinococcus radiodurans, from www.ornl.gov/ORNLReview/ v34 The Oak Ridge National Laboratory United States Federal Government This work is in the public domain because it is a work of the United States Federal Government. This applies worldwide. See Copyright. source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Deinococcus.jpg | |
2,558,000,000 YBN | 172) Genetic comparison shows Eubacteria phylum, Cyanobacteria (ancestor of all eukaryote chloroplasts {plastids}) evolving now. There is a conflict between the interpretation of the geological and the genetic evidence as to if oxygen photosynthesis and cyanobacteria evolved earlier around 3800mybn or here at 2500mybn. Cyanobacteria get their energy from photosythesis. Cyanobacteria include unicellular, colonial, and filamentous forms. Some filamentous cyanophytes form differentiated cells, called heterocysts, that are specialized for nitrogen fixation, and resting or spore cells called akinetes. Each individual cell typically has a thick, gelatinous cell wall, which stains gram-negative. The cyanophytes lack flagella, but may move about by gliding along surfaces. Most are found in fresh water, while others are marine, occur in damp soil, or even temporarily moistened rocks in deserts. A few are endosymbionts in lichens, plants, various protists, or sponges and provide energy for the host. Chloroplasts found in eukaryotes (algae and higher plants) most likely represent reduced endosymbiotic cyanobacteria. This endosymbiotic theory is supported by various structural and genetic similarities. Primary chloroplasts are found among the green plants, where they contain chlorophyll b, and among the red algae and glaucophytes, where they contain phycobilins. It now appears that these chloroplasts probably had a single origin. Other algae likely took their chloroplasts from these forms by secondary endosymbiosis or ingestion. tenative: CLASS Chroobacteria CLASS Hormogoneae CLASS Gloeobacteria Some live in the fur of sloths, providing a form of camouflage. | ![]() [1] Oscillatoria COPYRIGHTED EDU source: http://www.stcsc.edu/ecology/alg ae/oscillatoria.jpg ![]() [2] Lyngbya COPYRIGHTED EDU source: http://www.stanford.edu/~bohanna n/Media/LYNGB5.jpg | |
2,558,000,000 YBN | 315) Phylum Chloroflexi, (Green Non-Sulphur) evolve now. PHYLUM Chloroflexi CLASS Chloroflexi CLASS Thermomicrobia The Chloroflexi are a group of bacteria that produce ATP through photosynthesis. They make up the bulk of the green non-sulfur bacteria, though some are classified separately in the Phylum Thermomicrobia. They are named for their green pigment, usually found in photosynthetic bodies called chlorosomes. Chloroflexi are typically filamentous, and can move about through bacterial gliding. They are facultatively aerobic, but do not produce oxygen during photosynthesis, and have a different method of carbon fixation than other photosynthetic bacteria. Phylogenetic trees indicate that they had a separate origin. | ![]() [1] Chloroflexus photomicrograph from Doe Joint Genome Institute of US Dept Energy PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Chlorofl.jpg | |
2,500,000,000 YBN | 52) End Archean Era, Start Proterozoic Era. | ||
2,500,000,000 YBN | 56) Banded Iron Formations start to appear in many places. | ||
2,400,000,000 YBN | 59) Very large ice age that lasts 200 million years starts now. | ||
2,335,000,000 YBN | 290) The nucleolus, a sphere in the nucleus that makes ribosomes, evolves. In some eukaryotes (thought to be more ancient), the nucleolus just divides during mitosis, but in other eukaryotes the mitosis is dissolved and rebuilt after nuclear division. In euglenids, kinetoplastids, dinoflagellates, some amoebae and some coccidians, the nucleolus remains visible throughout mitosis and divides into two, but in the majority of groups the nucleolus dissapears and reforms at telophase. That the nucleolus can divide by itself suggests that it was once a free living cell. | ![]() [1] Nucleolus, COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.eccentrix.com/members /chempics/Slike/cell/Nucleolus.jpg ![]() [2] With the combination of x-rays from the Advanced Light Source and a new protein-labeling technique, scientists can see the distribution of the nucleoli within the nucleus of a mammary epithelial cell. USG PD source: http://www.lbl.gov/Science-Artic les/Archive/xray-inside-cells.html | |
2,330,000,000 YBN | 198) Rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum evolves in eukaryote cell. Rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum evolves in eukaryote cell. The rough ER manufactures and transports proteins destined for membranes and secretion. It synthesizes membrane, organellar, and excreted proteins. Minutes after proteins are synthesized most of them leave to the Golgi apparatus within vesicles. The rough ER also modifies, folds, and controls the quality of proteins. The smooth ER has functions in several metabolic processes. It takes part in the synthesis of various lipids (e.g., for building membranes such as phospholipids), fatty acids and steroids (e.g., hormones), and also plays an important role in carbohydrate metabolism, detoxification of the cell (enzymes in the smooth ER detoxify chemicals), and calcium storage. It also is a large transporter of nutrient found in each cell. | ![]() [1] Figure 1 : Image of nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus. (1) Nucleus. (2) Nuclear pore. (3) Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER). (4) Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER). (5) Ribosome on the rough ER. (6) Proteins that are transported. (7) Transport vesicle. (8) Golgi apparatus. (9) Cis face of the Golgi apparatus. (10) Trans face of the Golgi apparatus. (11) Cisternae of the Golgi apparatus. I am the copyright holder of that image (I might even have the CorelDraw file around somewhere:-), and I hereby place the image and all partial images created from it in the public domain. So, you are free to use it any way you like. In fact, I am delighted that one of my drawings makes it into print! I can mail you the .cdr file, if you like (and if I can find it), if you need a better resolution for printing. Yours, Magnus Manske Source: [1]. See also User:Magnus Manske source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Nucleus_ER_golgi.jpg | |
2,325,000,000 YBN | 199) Golgi Body (Golgi Apparatus, dictyosome) evolves in eukaryote cell. The primary function of the Golgi apparatus is to process proteins targeted to the plasma membrane, lysosomes or endosomes, and those that will be formed from the cell, and sort them within vesicles. It functions as a central delivery system for the cell. Most of the transport vesicles that leave the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), specifically rough ER, are transported to the Golgi apparatus, where they are modified, sorted, and shipped towards their final destination. The Golgi apparatus is present in most eukaryotic cells, but tends to be more prominent where there are many substances, such as proteins, being secreted. For example, plasma B cells, the antibody-secreting cells of the immune system, have prominent Golgi complexes. | ![]() [1] Figure 1: Image of nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus: (1) Nucleus, (2) Nuclear pore, (3) Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER), (4) Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER), (5) Ribosome on the rough ER, (6) Proteins that are transported, (7) Transport vesicle, (8) Golgi apparatus, (9) Cis face of the Golgi apparatus, (10) Trans face of the Golgi apparatus, (11) Cisternae of the Golgi apparatus, (12) Secretory vesicle, (13) Plasma membrane, (14) Exocytosis, (15) Cytoplasm, (16) Extracellular space. source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Nucleus_ER_golgi_ex.jpg | |
2,310,000,000 YBN | 200) The golgi body in eukaryote cells makes lysosomes which fuse with endosomes. The various molecules in lysosomes digest the contents of the endosome, which then exits the cell as waste. | ![]() [1] Figure 1: Image of nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus: (1) Nucleus, (2) Nuclear pore, (3) Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER), (4) Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER), (5) Ribosome on the rough ER, (6) Proteins that are transported, (7) Transport vesicle, (8) Golgi apparatus, (9) Cis face of the Golgi apparatus, (10) Trans face of the Golgi apparatus, (11) Cisternae of the Golgi apparatus, (12) Secretory vesicle, (13) Plasma membrane, (14) Exocytosis, (15) Cytoplasm, (16) Extracellular space. source: http://sun.menloschool.org/~cwea ver/cells/e/lysosomes/ ![]() source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Nucleus_ER_golgi_ex.jpg | |
2,305,000,000 YBN | 63) A parasitic bacterium, a bacterium that can only live in other bacteria, closely related to Rickettsia prowazekii, an aerobic alpha-proteobacteria that causes louse-borne typhus, enters an early eukaryote cell. As time continues a symbiotic relationship evolves, where the Rickettsia forms the mitochondria, organelles of every euokaryote cell. The mitochondria perform the Acid Citric Cycle (Krebs Cycle), using oxygen to breakdown glucose into CO2 and H2O, and provide up 38 ATP molecules. Mitochondria reproduce by themselves, and are not created by the DNA in the cell nucleus. As time continues some of the DNA from the mitochondria merges with the cell nucleus DNA. Mitochondria produce sterol used to make the eukaryote cell wall flexible. Because mitochondria need Oxygen, but the level of oxygen is very low on earth, oxygen may be provided by photosynthesizing cyanobacteria living near these cells. All eukaryotes alive today either have mitochondria except the amitochondriate excavates (metamonads), the most ancient of the eukaryotes alive today. That parabasalids have hydrogenosomes, anaerobic organelles that seem to have evolved from mitochondria, many people think amitochondriate species lost their mitochondria over time. This changes the eukaryote cell from an anaerobic to aerobic unicellular organism. This early mitochondria may have "tubular christae". Perhaps there was a period of time where a system evolved to make sure both halves received mitochondria during cell division. Protists with discoidal mitochondrial cristea will later evolve from the Bikont tubular mitochondrial christae branch. For the most part: 1) Excavates, Amoebozoa, and Chromealveolates have or had tubular christae, 2) Discicristata (Euglenozoa) have discoidal christae. 3) Cryptomonads, Glaucophytes, Red Algae, Green Algae, Plants, Fungi, Animals all have flat christae. From this point on, all eukaryotes will need Oxygen to use mitochondria and receive the ATP made by mitochondria. O ne theory is that, as more O2 is produced at the surface of the ocean, protists (which require oxygen for mitochondria) can move to the ocean floor. | ![]() [1] Phylogenetic hypothesis of the eukaryotic lineage based on ultrastructural and molecular data. Organisms are divided into three main groups distinguished by mitochondrial cristal shape (either discoidal, flattened or tubular). Unbroken lines indicate phylogenetic relationships that are firmly supported by available data; broken lines indicate uncertainties in phylogenetic placement, resolution of which will require additional data. Color coding of organismal genus names indicates mitochondrial genomes that have been completely (Table 1), almost completely (Jakoba, Naegleria and Thraustochytrium) or partially (*) sequenced by the OGMP (red), the FMGP (black) or other groups (green). Names in blue indicate those species whose mtDNAs are currently being sequenced by the OGMP or are future candidates for complete sequencing. Amitochondriate retortamonads are positioned at the base of the tree, with broken arrows denoting the endosymbiotic origin(s) of mitochondria from a Rickettsia-like eubacterium. Macrophar., Macropharyngomonas. source: http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/co ntent/vol26/issue4/images/gkb18201.gif ![]() [2] Figure 1 Phylogenetic tree of eukaryotes based on ultrastructural and molecular data. Organisms are sub-divided into main groups as discussed in the text. Only a few representative species for which complete (or almost complete) mtDNA sequences are known are shown in each lineage. In some cases, line drawings or actual pictures of the organisms are provided (Acanthamoeba, M. Nagata; URL: http://protist.i.hosei.ac.jp/PDB/PCD3379 /htmls/21.html; Allomyces, Tom Volk; URL: http://botit.botany.wisc.edu/images/332/ Chytridiomycota/Allomyces_r_So_pa/A._arb uscula_pit._sporangia_tjv.html; Amoebidium, URL: http://cgdc3.igmors.upsud.fr/microbiolog ie/mesomycetozoaires.htm; Marchantia, URL: http://www.science.siu.edu/landplants/He patophyta/images/March.female.JPEG Scenedesmus, Entwisle et al., http://www.rbgsyd.gov.au/_data/page/1824 /Scenedesmus.gif). The color-coding of the main groups (alternating between dark and light blue) on the outer circle corresponds to the color-coding of the species names. Unbroken lines indicate phylogenetic relationships that are firmly supported by available molecular data; broken lines indicate uncertainties in phylogenetic placement, resolution of which will require additional sequence data. [t: why not color code or add which type of mito?] source: http://arjournals.annualreviews. org/doi/full/10.1146/annurev.genet.37.11 0801.142526 | |
2,303,000,000 YBN | 203) Bikonts (two cilia) evolve from Unikonts (one cilium). Bikonts (also called anterokonts for having anterior {forward facing} cilia) will evolve into the vast majority of the Protist and all of the Plant Kingdoms. The Unikonts will evolve into the ameobozoa (tenatively), and the opisthokonts (ancestrally posterior cilium) which include the entire Fungi and Animal Kingdoms. Since members of both the unikont (animals, fungi) and bikont (metamonads, plants) can reproduce sexually, sex had to evolve before this branching, presuming sexual reproduction is strictly inherited and did not evolve twice. | ![]() [1] Figure 1. Phylogenetic hypothesis of the eukaryotic lineage based on ultrastructural and molecular data. Organisms are divided into three main groups distinguished by mitochondrial cristal shape (either discoidal, flattened or tubular). Unbroken lines indicate phylogenetic relationships that are firmly supported by available data; broken lines indicate uncertainties in phylogenetic placement, resolution of which will require additional data. Color coding of organismal genus names indicates mitochondrial genomes that have been completely (Table 1), almost completely (Jakoba, Naegleria and Thraustochytrium) or partially (*) sequenced by the OGMP (red), the FMGP (black) or other groups (green). Names in blue indicate those species whose mtDNAs are currently being sequenced by the OGMP or are future candidates for complete sequencing. Amitochondriate retortamonads are positioned at the base of the tree, with broken arrows denoting the endosymbiotic origin(s) of mitochondria from a Rickettsia-like eubacterium. Macrophar., Macropharyngomonas. source: | |
2,300,000,000 YBN | 47) Most recent evidence of uraninite, a mineral that cannot exist for much time if exposed to oxygen, indicating that free oxygen is accumulating in the air of earth for the first time. | ||
2,300,000,000 YBN | 48) Oldest Red Beds, iron oxide formed on land, begin here and are evidence of more free oxygen in the air of earth. | ![]() [1] http://www.kgs.ukans.edu/Extension/redhi lls/redhills.html source: | |
2,300,000,000 YBN | 219) Genetic comparison shows the oldest line of eukaryotes still in existence, the oldest living protists, in the Phylum "Metamonada" (Excavates) originating now. This is where the eukaryote line is created and separates from the archaebacteria (archaea) line. Most of these species have an excavated ventral feeding groove, and all lack mitochondria. Mitochondria are thought to have been lost secondarily, although this is not certain. PHYLUM Metamonada ORDER Carpediemondida ORDER Diplomonadida ORDER Retortamonadida CLASS Parabasalia ORDER Trichomonadida ORDER Hypermastigida CLASS Anaeromonada ORDER Oxymonadida ORDER Trimastigida Includes Diplomonad "Giardia", and Parabasalid "Trichomonas vaginalis". The trophozoite form of Giardia does age and die. Most Metamonads reproduce asexually through closed (the nuclear membrane does not dissolve during mitosis) mitosis (and involves an external spindle? is pluromitosis?), but some species are "faculatively sexual" (can reproduce sexually in addition to asexually). So already by the time of these most ancient of the now living eukaryotes, sex had evolved. eat bacteria? Some people have this phylum as part of the group "Excavates" which includes the Phyla (Metamonada, Percolozoa, and Euglenozoa). The classification of the protists is far from complete and settled. There are currently more than one existing classification scheme for the protists. features of parabasalia and metamonada: gamete type: flagellated haplontic and diplontic condensed chromosomes in some species mitotic spindle: parabasalia: external metamonadea: internal polar structures: parabasalia: flagellar root metamonadea: kinetosome flagella: parabasalia: 4 to many metamonadea: 2,4 heterokont, isokont, anisokont: anisokont (Anisokont flagella are those flagella that are unequal in length, form, or direction. ) (Isokont flagella are those flagella that are equal in length, form, and direction.) (The name heterokont refers to the characteristic form of these cells, which typically have two unequal flagella. The anterior or tinsel flagellum is covered with lateral bristles or mastigonemes, while the other flagellum is whiplash, smooth and usually shorter, or sometimes reduced to a basal body. The flagella are inserted subapically or laterally, and are usually supported by four microtubule roots in a distinctive pattern. ) flagellate stages: trophic life forms: unicellular: flagellated multice llular: none cell covering: naked | ![]() [1] Giardia lamblia, a parasitic flagellate that causes giardiasis. Image from public domain source at http://www.nigms.nih.gov/news/releases/i mages/para.jpg source: http://www.nigms.nih.gov/news/re leases/images/para.jpg ![]() [2] . The cysts are hardy and can survive several months in cold water. Infection occurs by the ingestion of cysts in contaminated water, food, or by the fecal-oral route (hands or fomites) . In the small intestine, excystation releases trophozoites (each cyst produces two trophozoites) . Trophozoites multiply by longitudinal binary fission, remaining in the lumen of the proximal small bowel where they can be free or attached to the mucosa by a ventral sucking disk . Encystation occurs as the parasites transit toward the colon. The cyst is the stage found most commonly in nondiarrheal feces . Because the cysts are infectious when passed in the stool or shortly afterward, person-to-person transmission is possible. While animals are infected with Giardia, their importance as a reservoir is unclear. source: http://www.dpd.cdc.gov/dpdx/HTML /Giardiasis.asp?body=Frames/G-L/Giardias is/body_Giardiasis_page1.htm | |
2,156,000,000 YBN | 150) Amino acid sequence comparison shows the eubacteria and archaebacteria line separating here at 2,156 mybn, first archaebacteria. | ||
2,000,000,000 YBN | 293) Genetic comparison shows the the Eukaryote Phylum "Loukozoa" (Jakobea and Malawimonadea) originating now. These species have mitochondria with tubular cristae, and are the most ancient species that still have mitochondria. This species is the most ancient known species to have a shell. This first hard shells (lorika) made of calcium carbonate (Calcite CaCO3), plates of silica (SiO2), or carbon-based molecules evolve around the single-celled species living in the ocean. Perhaps this shell served to protect the cell from external damage from being eaten by other eukaryotes (zooplankton), infection by bacteria or viruses, control of buoyancy, to filter UV light, against damage by non-living sources. Jakobids and Malawimonads are also grouped as Excavates because they have a ventral feeding groove. Jakobids are flagellates with two flagella located at the anterior end of a ventral feeding groove (i.e., are excavate), with mitochondria, freely swimming or loricate (with protective shell). Flagellar apparatus with two basal bodies giving rise to two major microtubular roots, which support the margins of the ventral groove. Other cytoskeletal microtubules arise directly or indirectly from the basal bodies, no extrusomes. Jakobids have tubular mitochondrial cristae (transforming to flat cristae in Jakoba libera). (1) This indicates that flat evolved from tubular cristae. PHYLUM Loukozoa ORDER Jakobida ORDER Malawimonadida Reproduction=mitosis? ORDER Jakobida FAMILY Histionidae The jakobid family "Histionidae" reproduce asexually by binary fission. In this family no sexual reproduction has been observed yet. (1) FAMILY Jakobidae | ![]() [1] Histiona. This drawing was made by D. J. Patterson. COPYRIGHTED EDU source: http://microscope.mbl.edu/script s/microscope.php?func=imgDetail&imageID= 3479 ![]() [2] Histiona (hist-ee-own-a) is a jakobid flagellate related to Jakoba. As with other excavates, there is a ventral groove and the flagella insert at the head of the groove. There are two flagella, one lying in the groove and one curving outwards from the point of insertion. The margins of the groove can be mistaken for flagella. Unlike most other excavates, Histiona sits in a stalked lorica when feeding. Lorica with a cyst is evident. Phase contrast. This picture was taken by David Patterson, Linda Amaral Zettler, Mike Peglar and Tom Nerad from cultures and other materials maintained at the American Type Culture Collection during 2001. COPYRIGHTED EDU source: http://microscope.mbl.edu/script s/microscope.php?func=imgDetail&imageID= 435 | |
1,990,000,000 YBN | 202) Eukaryotes with discoidal cristae mitochondria split from the tubular christae line. This is the origin of the Discicristata: species that have discoid mitochondrial cristae and, in some cases, a deep (excavated) ventral feeding groove. The Discicristata are Acrasid slime molds, vahlkampfiid amoebas, euglenoids, trypanosomes, and leishmanias. | ![]() [1] Figure 1. Phylogenetic hypothesis of the eukaryotic lineage based on ultrastructural and molecular data. Organisms are divided into three main groups distinguished by mitochondrial cristal shape (either discoidal, flattened or tubular). Unbroken lines indicate phylogenetic relationships that are firmly supported by available data; broken lines indicate uncertainties in phylogenetic placement, resolution of which will require additional data. Color coding of organismal genus names indicates mitochondrial genomes that have been completely (Table 1), almost completely (Jakoba, Naegleria and Thraustochytrium) or partially (*) sequenced by the OGMP (red), the FMGP (black) or other groups (green). Names in blue indicate those species whose mtDNAs are currently being sequenced by the OGMP or are future candidates for complete sequencing. Amitochondriate retortamonads are positioned at the base of the tree, with broken arrows denoting the endosymbiotic origin(s) of mitochondria from a Rickettsia-like eubacterium. Macrophar., Macropharyngomonas. source: http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/co ntent/vol26/issue4/images/gkb18201.gif | |
1,990,000,000 YBN | 301) Haplodiplontic (Diplohaplontic, Diplobiontic) life cycle (organism with both diploid and haploid "alternate life stages" that reproduce asexually by mitosis) with "sporic meiosis" evolves. In this life cycle haploid gametes fuse to form a diploid zygote which divides by meiosis producing haploid spores that produce (differentiate?) gametes, starting the cycle again. Initially these species are single celled in both stages (like Haptophyta). All plants, most brown algae, blastocladiid chytrids, many red algae, and some filamentous green algae (e.g. Cladophora) and foraminifera have haplodiploid life cycles. Initially, these organisms are single celled, but later the mitosis stages will become multicellular when the cells that result from mitosis stick together. The only? example of this is Haptophyta, where diploid cells divide in sporic meiosis, into haploid cells (gamonts) which then divide into gametes. Of the diplohaplonic species, those where the haploid and diploid stages look the same are called "isomorphic" and those where the two stages look different are called "heteromorphic". In land plants the haploid (gametophyte) stage is reduced to only a few cells. Since double DNA chromosomes (diploid) provides more possibilities than a single chromosome, diploid organisms have a selective advantage over haploid organisms. | ![]() [1] Figure 23.1.Plants have haplodiplontic life cycles that involve mitotic divisions (resulting in multicellularity) in both the haploid and diploid generations (paths A and D). Most animals are diplontic and undergo mitosis only in the diploid generation (paths B and D). Multicellular organisms with haplontic life cycles follow paths A and C. COPYRIGHTED EDU source: http://zygote.swarthmore.edu/pla ntfig1.gif ![]() [2] Drawn by self for Biological life cycle Based on Freeman & Worth's Biology of Plants (p. 171). GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Sporic_meiosis.png | |
1,988,000,000 YBN | 317) Eukaryotes that have mitochondria with flat christae evolve from those with tubular christae. | ![]() [1] Figure 1. Phylogenetic hypothesis of the eukaryotic lineage based on ultrastructural and molecular data. Organisms are divided into three main groups distinguished by mitochondrial cristal shape (either discoidal, flattened or tubular). Unbroken lines indicate phylogenetic relationships that are firmly supported by available data; broken lines indicate uncertainties in phylogenetic placement, resolution of which will require additional data. Color coding of organismal genus names indicates mitochondrial genomes that have been completely (Table 1), almost completely (Jakoba, Naegleria and Thraustochytrium) or partially (*) sequenced by the OGMP (red), the FMGP (black) or other groups (green). Names in blue indicate those species whose mtDNAs are currently being sequenced by the OGMP or are future candidates for complete sequencing. Amitochondriate retortamonads are positioned at the base of the tree, with broken arrows denoting the endosymbiotic origin(s) of mitochondria from a Rickettsia-like eubacterium. Macrophar., Macropharyngomonas. source: http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/co ntent/vol26/issue4/images/gkb18201.gif | |
1,982,000,000 YBN | 87) Genetic comparison shows the most primitive living members of the Phylum "Euglenozoa" (euglenids, leishmania, trypanosomes, kinetoplastids) evolved at this time. This is the oldest eukaryote to exhibit colonialism. Perhaps eukaryote colonialism is partially or fully inherited from prokaryotes, but colonialism may have evolved independently again in eukaryotes. This is the most ancient species known to have a cell covering, which is of the type "pellicle". No examples of sexual reproduction in the group have been found. Reproduction is through closed mitosis and involves an internal spindle. At least one account of a sexual cycle has been reported in Scytomonas. The chloroplasts are contained in three membranes and are pigmented similarly to the plants, suggesting they were retained from some captured green alga. All Euglenozoa have mitochondria with discoid cristae, which in the kinetoplastids characteristically have a DNA-containing granule or kinetoplast associated with the flagellar bases. I think they are still haploid, mitosis duplicates in nucleus? Euglenozoa age? This group is sometimes called "Discicristates" because all members have mitochondria with "discoidal cristae". Euglenids are the first eukaryotes with an eyespot. Most colored euglenids also have a stigma or eyespot, which is a small splotch of red pigment on one side of the flagellar pocket. This shades a collection of light sensitive crystals near the base of the leading flagellum, so the two together act as a sort of directional eye. Euglenozoa eyepots evolved from chloroplasts. This is the beginning of a light sensory system which evolves to eyes? A small number of euglinids have chloroplasts and can photosynthesize. In these species, the chloroplasts contain three membranes and are thought to have evolved at least 900 million years later from a captured green alga. Euglenoids, however, share reproductive habits with their kinetoplastid relations by reproducing mainly by asexual binary fission. Euglenoids reproduce very rapidly, absorbing their flagellum and dividing haploid cells through mitosis. Mitosis produces 4-8 flagellated haploid cells, called zoospores. The zoospores then break out of the parent cell and grow to full size. condensed chromosomes: yes in all kinetoplasts, and some euglenophyta. pol ar structures: none number of flagella: kinetoplastids=(1 in some) 2, euglenophyta=2 (4 in some) life forms: unicellular: flagellated multicellular: colonial cell covering: pellicle 2. Euglenoids are small (10-500 µm) freshwater unicellular organisms. 3. One-third of all genera have chloroplasts; those that lack chloroplasts ingest or absorb their food. 4. Their chloroplasts are surrounded by three rather than two membranes. a. Their chloroplasts resemble those of green algae. b. They are probably derived from a green algae through endosymbiosis. 5. The pyrenoid outside the chloroplast produces an unusual type of carbohydrate polymer (paramylon) not seen in green algae. 6. They possess two flagella, one of which typically is much longer and than the other and projects out of a vase-shaped invagination; it is called a tinsel flagellum because it has hairs on it. 7. Near the base of the longer flagellum is a red eyespot that shades a photoreceptor for detecting light. 8. They lack cell walls, but instead are bounded by a flexible pellicle composed of protein strips side-by-side. 9. A contractile vacuole, similar to certain protozoa, eliminates excess water. 10. Euglenoids reproduce by longitudinal cell division; sexual reproduction is not known to occur. PHYLUM Euglenozoa CLASS Euglenoidea CLASS Diplonemea CLASS Kinetoplastea CLASS Postgaardea Those Euglnozoa that do not photosynthesize feed on bacteria (phagocytosis) or feed through absorption (osmosis) of nutrients. Most are small, around 15-40 µm in size, although many euglenids get up to 500 µm long. Most Euglenozoa have two flagella, usually one leading and one trailing. Some euglenozoa cause parasitic disease in other species. A kinetoplastid member of Euglenozoa, such as trypanosoma brucei which causes African sleeping sickness, is transmitted from host to host by a vector, most commonly the tsetse fly. In most forms there is an associated cytostome (mouth) supported by one of three microtubule groups that arise from the flagellar bases. Average life cycle=? days Average age of euglenozoa life=? days Trypanosomes (Kinetoplastids) typically have complex life-cycles involving more than one host, and go through various morphological stages. 1000 Species of Euglenoids (euglenophyta). | ![]() [1] euglena source: http://www.fcps.k12.va.us/Stratf ordLandingES/Ecology/mpages/euglena.htm ![]() [2] euglena source: http://protist.i.hosei.ac.jp/PDB /Images/Mastigophora/Euglena/genus1L.jpg | |
1,982,000,000 YBN | 294) Genetic comparison shows the Phylum "Percolozoa" (also called "Heterolobosea") (acrasid slime molds) evolved at this time. Percolozoa are a group of heterotrophic colourless protozoa, including many that can transform between amoeboid, flagellate, and encysted stages. These are collectively referred to as amoeboflagellates, schizopyrenids, or vahlkampfids. They also include the acrasids, a group of social amoebae that aggregate to form sporangia. Very closely related to Euglenozoa. All characteristics are like Euglenozoa: Percolozoa have mitochondria with discoid christae. No examples of sexual reproduction in the group have been found. Reproduction is through closed mitosis and involves an internal spindle. No chloroplasts (check) or (The chloroplasts are contained in three membranes and are pigmented similarly to the plants, suggesting they were retained from some captured green alga.) I think they are still haploid, mitosis duplicates in nucleus? Percolozoa age? Percolozoa are sometimes included in the group "Discicristates" because all members have mitochondria with "discoidal cristae". No eyespots. closed mitosis with internal spindle. The Percolozoa are the most ancient species to have members that move by pseudopodia, like amoeba. PHYLUM Percolozoa CLASS Heterolobosea ORDER Schizopyrenida Singh, 1952 ORDER Acrasida Shröter, 1886 (acrasids, cellular slime molds) ORDER Lyromonadida Cavalier-Smith, 1993 CLASS Percolatea ORDER Acrasida (acrasids, cellular slime molds): a. Cellular slime molds (Phylum Acrasiomycota) (ORDER Acrasida) exist as individual amoeboid cells. (Plasmodial slime molds, mycetozoa, which evolve later, exist as a plasmodium. ) b. They live in soil and feed on bacteria and yeast. c. As food runs out, amoeboid cells release a chemical that causes them to aggregate into a pseudoplasmodium. d. The pseudoplasmodium stage is temporary; it gives rise to sporangia that produce spores. e. Spores survive until more favorable environmental conditions return; then they germinate. f. Spore germinate to release haploid amoeboid cells, which is again the beginning of asexual cycle. g. Asexual cycle occurs under very moist conditions. Percolozoa feed on bacteria (phagocytosis) or feed through absorption (osmosis) of nutrients. (check) Most are small, around 15-40 µm in size, although many euglenids get up to 500 µm long. The flagellate stage is slightly smaller, with two or four anterior flagella anterior to the feeding groove. Average life cycle=? days Average age of Percolozoa life=? days Most Percolozoa are found as bacterivores in soil, freshwater, and on feces. There are a few marine and parasitic forms, including the species Naegleria fowleri, which can become pathogenic in humans and is often fatal. The group is closely related to the Euglenozoa, and share with them the unusual though not unique characteristic of having mitochondria with discoid cristae. The presence of a ventral feeding groove in the flagellate stage, as well as other features, suggests that they are part of the excavate group. The amoeboid stage is roughly cylindrical, typically around 20-40 μm in length. They are traditionally considered lobose amoebae, but are not related to the others and unlike them do not form true lobose pseudopods. Instead, they advance by eruptive waves, where hemispherical bulges appear from the front margin of the cell, which is clear. The flagellate stage is slightly smaller, with two or four anterior flagella anterior to the feeding groove. Usually the amoeboid form is taken when food is plentiful, and the flagellate form is used for rapid locomotion. However, not all members are able to assume both forms. The genera Percolomonas, Lyromonas, and Psalteriomonas are known only as flagellates, while Vahlkampfia, Pseudovahlkampfia, and the acrasids do not have flagellate stages. As mentioned above, under unfavourable conditions, the acrasids aggregate to form sporangia. These are superficially similar to the sporangia of the dictyostelids, but the amoebae only aggregate as individuals or in small groups and do not die to form the stalk. The Heterolobosea were first defined by Page and Blanton in 1985 as a class of amoebae, and so only included those forms with amoeboid stages. Cavalier-Smith created the phylum Percolozoa for the extended group, together with the enigmatic flagellate Stephanopogon. (currently I have stephanopogon colpoda images under ciliates...) He maintained the Heterolobosea as a class for amoeboid forms, but most others have expanded them to include the flagellates as well. Stephanopogon closely resembles certain ciliates and was originally classified with them, but is now considered a flagellate. | ![]() [1] Stages of Naegleria fowleri, a member of the Percolozoa. Adapted from Image:Free-living amebic infections.gif, which is from the CDC. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Naegleria.png ![]() [2] CLASS Heterolobosea ORDER Schizopyrenida Heteramoeba: The flagellated form is large (30 �m), two flagella, an elongate cytostome curving around the anterior of the cell and forming a groove. Nucleus with peripheral chromatin. Probably feeds and divides as a flagellate. One species. This genus is most like Paratetramitus from which it can be distinguished by peripheral location of chromatin material. Cysts without pores, excystment through a weak region of wall. Marine. Heteramoeba (het-err-a-me-ba) a naked heterolobose amoeba, distinguished from other types of naked amoebae with lobose pseudopodia largely by ultrastructural features, but trophic heterolobose amoebae tend to form their pseudopodially suddenly rather than progressively. Phase contrast. This picture was taken by David Patterson, Linda Amaral Zettler, Mike Peglar and Tom Nerad from cultures and other materials maintained at the American Type Culture Collection during 2001. NONCOMMERCIAL USE source: http://microscope.mbl.edu/script s/microscope.php?func=imgDetail&imageID= 413 | |
1,980,000,000 YBN | 38) Multicellularity evolves in a protist. Multicellularity is a very important event in the evolution of life on earth. With multicellular organisms, larger sized organisms could evolve. There are many uncertainties surrounding the origin of multicellularity. Multicellularity may have evolved independently for Plants, Fungi and Animals, or multicellularity may have evolved only once in eukaryotes. The key feature of this cell is that a multicellular organism is made from a single cell and the multicellular organism is not a collection of independent cells (colonialism). The main difference between this organism and single-celled organisms is the way the cells stay fastened together after cell division. Which species was the first multicellular species is not clear. Multicellularity is found in all 3 life cycles (haplontic, diplontic, haplodiplontic). The 3 main life cycle types (haplontic, etc.) probably evolved in single cell species before multicellularity evolved. If multicellularity evolved once and is inherited, perhaps all multicellular organism descended from a single haplodiplontic organism. These multicellular organisms have undifferentiated cells in the multicellular stage (all cells in the haploid or diploid multicellular organism are made of one kind of cell). Dinoph yta, and Fungi are multicellular Haplontic species. Most animals are multicellular Diplontic species. Most brown algae and all plants are multicellular Haplodiplontic species. The vast majority of multicellular organisms reproduce only through sex, although there are exceptions (like some plants and rotifers) which have lost the ability to sexually reproduce or can also reproduce asexually. In multicellularity, one cell goes on to produce all the cells in a multicellular species, so that each individual organism is genetically unique. This cell is usually a diploid zygote, but can be a haploid cell. This protist is most likely sexual, and multicellularity evolved only in a species that reproduces sexually. Some describe algae multicellularity as "filamentous". The first multicellular eukaryuotes are presumably undifferentiated. For haplontic these cells are all gametes, for diplontic these cells are all capable of meiosis to form gametes, for haplodiplontic, in the haploid stage the cells are all gamete producing, in the diploid stage the cells are all spore producing. Some people think that multicellular organisms arose at least six times: in animals, fungi and several groups of algae. What did the first multicellular organism look like? Perhaps it was a haplontic protist that only did one or more haploid mitoses, but this time the cells stuck together (perhaps similar to the way bacteria form filaments). An interesting aspect of multicellular organisms is that oxygen must still reach each cell for mitochondria to work, and so this requires that the cells be only 1 cell thick, or if thicker have some kind of (circulatory) system for oxygen to reach each cell. | ||
1,978,000,000 YBN | 15) Multicellularity with differentiation evolves. Multicellular organisms are no longer all haploid or diploid gamete producing cells (or spore producing if haplodiplontic), but are made of gamete (or spore) producing cells in addition to somatic cells which copy asexually through mitosis. Now, in addition to being large multicell organisms, multicellular organisms can have differentiated cells that form a variety of different shaped structures, and perform different functions. This process will evolve to the metazoan multicellular differentiation that arises from a single zygote cell, where cells have different functions and shapes. Differentiation evolves for a second time in eukaryotes? this is not the first monoadmulti one cell leading to a multicellular organism (attached, free, interchangible)? where a multicellular organism is made from one cell (interchangable, specific cells: genetic specificity). It is unknown how multicellular life stages happen. For example, why one specific cell line of many produced from mitosis of a zygote will go on to do meiosis producing the haploid gamete cells which will fuse to form the next zygote, but the many other cells made from, for example, one of the two cells made after the zygote divides, will not contain the line of cells that ultimately make the gamete producing cells which continue the life cycle of the organism. Since presumably each cell in an organism contains an identical genome, perhaps a gamete producing cell can be made from any cell if specific proteins are present, or perhaps there is a protein which simply points to a certain location in the DNA which is located at a different location in the DNA for every cell, or perhaps some other explanation answers the question of how cell differentiation can happen when each cell has the same genome. A (diploid) zygote cell (the cell made by two merging gamete cells) now divides to form all cells in the differentiated multicellular organism, and is said to be "totipotent". Totipotent cells differentiate into "pluripotent" cells which can make most but not all cells in the organism. Pluripotent cells differentiate into "multipotent" (can make a number of cells) or "unipotent" cells (can only make one kind of cell). | ||
1,974,000,000 YBN | 169) For those that think algae are plants, this is where the plant kingdom begins with the evolution of brown algae (phaeophyta). | ||
1,973,000,001 YBN | 88) Genetic comparison shows the ancestor of the "Chromalveolates" evolving now. Chromalveolates include the Chromista and Alveolata. The Chromista include the 3 Phyla Haptophyta, Cryptophyta (Cryptomonads), and Heterokontophyta (brown algae {kelp}, diatoms, water molds). Alveolata include the 3 Phyla Dinoflagellata, Apicomplexa (Malaria, Toxoplasmosis), and Ciliophora (ciliates). Chromealveolates have mitochondria with tubular cristae. Thomas Cavalier-Smith writes: "The chromalveolate clade (Cavalier-Smith 1999) and its constituent taxa, kingdom Chromista (Cavalier-Smith 1981) and protozoan infrakingdom Alveolata (Cavalier-Smith 1991b), were all proposed based on morphological, biochemical, and evolutionary reasoning about protein targeting before there was sequence evidence for any of them. Now all are strongly supported by such evidence. Chromalveolates comprise all algae with chlorophyll c (the chromophyte algae) and all their nonphotosynthetic descendants. They arose by a single symbiogenetic event in which an early unicellular red alga was phagocytosed by a biciliate host and enslaved to provide photosynthate (Cavalier-Smith 1999, 2002c, 2003a). The strongest evidence that this occurred once only in their cenancestor is the replacement of the red algal plastid glyceraldehyde phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) by a duplicate of the gene for the cytosolic version of this enzyme in all four chromalveolate groups with plastids: the alveolate sporozoa and dinoflagellates and the chromist cryptomonads and chromobiotes (Fast et al. 2001). It would be incredible for such gene duplication, retargeting by acquiring bipartite targeting sequences, and loss of the original red algal gene to have occurred convergently in four groups, but it was already pretty incredible that these groups would all have evolved a similar protein-targeting system independently and all happened to enslave a red alga, evolve chlorophyll c, and place their plastids within the rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER) independently. Yet many assumed just this because of the false dogma that symbiogenesis is easy and the failure of all these groups to cluster in rRNA trees. For chromobiotes this retargeting of GAPDH has been demonstrated only for heterokonts-information is lacking for haptophytes. However, there are five strong synapomorphies for Chromobiota, making it highly probable that the group is holophyletic (Cavalier-Smith 1994). They share the presence of the periplastid reticulum in the periplastid space instead of a nucleomorph like cryptomonads, they uniquely make the carotenoid fucoxanthin and chlorophyll c3, they uniquely have a single autofluorescent cilium, and they have tubular mitochondrial cristae with an intracristal filament. Five plastid genes now extremely robustly support the monophyly of both chromists and chromobiotes (Yoon et al. 2002). We are confident that comparable sequence evidence from nuclear genes will also eventually catch up with the general biological evidence for the holophyly of chromobiotes to convince even the most skeptical, who ignore or discount such valuable evidence that chromobiotes are holophyletic." Chromista include phyla: Heterokontophyta (heterokonts) (many classes) (includes colored: golden algae, axodines, diatoms, yellow-green algea, brown algae, colorless: water moulds, slime nets) Haptophyta Cryptophyta (cryptomonads) (many genera) Alveolates include the phyla: Dinoflagellata (Dinoflagellates) Apicomplexa (Apicomplexans) Ciliophora (ciliates) In 1981 Cavalier-Smith created a new kingdom called "Chromista" in which all chromalveolates are placed. There are a number of classification schemes for the kingdom Protista and no one system has emerged as most popular yet. | ![]() [1] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of eukaryotes. The vast majority of characterized eukaryotes, with the notable exception of major subgroups of amoebae, can now be assigned to one of eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal flagellum) have a single basal flagellum on reproductive cells and flat mitochondrial cristae (most eukaryotes have tubular ones). Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in Plants; theirs are the only plastids with just two outer membranes. Heterokonts (different flagellae) have a unique flagellum decorated with hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles) and, usually, a second plain one. Cercozoans are amoebae with filose pseudopodia, often living with in tests (hard outer shells), some very elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa are mostly naked amoebae (lacking tests), often with lobose pseudopodia for at least part of their life cycle. Alveolates have systems of cortical alveoli directly beneath their plasma membranes. Discicristates have discoid mitochondrial cristae and, in some cases, a deep (excavated) ventral feeding groove. Amitochondrial excavates lack substantial molecular phylogenetic support, but most have an excavated ventral feeding groove, and all lack mitochondria. The tree shown is based on a consensus of molecular (1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data and includes a rough indication of new ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines) (7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon name indicates probable paraphyletic group source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co ntent/full/300/5626/1703 ![]() [2] Beautiful marine diatoms as seen through a microscope. These tiny phytoplankton are encased within a silicate cell wall. Image ID: corp2365, NOAA Corps Collection Photographer: Dr. Neil Sullivan, University of Southern Calif. NOAA This image is a work of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, taken or made during the course of an xxxxx? official duties. As works of the U.S. federal government, all NOAA images are in the public domain. source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Diatoms_through_the_microscope.jpg | |
1,972,000,000 YBN | 304) Genetic comparison shows the ancestor of Chromalveolate Phlyum Haptophyta evolving now. Some Haptophytes are haplodiploid (alternate between haploid and diploid cycles that both have mitosis), and this group is the most primitive with a haplodiploid life cycle. Haptophytes are single cellular. Haptophytes are found only in all oceans (marine) and are flagellates, almost all with plastids with chlorophylls a and c, with two flagella and one additional locomotor/feeding organelle, the haptonema. Haptophyta are a group of algae (phytoplankton). The chloroplasts are pigmented similarly to those of the heterokonts, such as golden algae, but the structure of the rest of the cell is different, so it may be that they are a separate line whose chloroplasts are derived from similar endosymbionts. The cells typically have two slightly unequal flagella, both of which are smooth, and a unique organelle called a haptonema, which is superficially similar to a flagellum but differs in the arrangement of microtubules and in its use. Haptophytes have tubular mitochondria cristae. Most haptophytes are coccolithophores, which live strictly in the oceans (marine) and are ornmmented with calcified scales called coccoliths, which are sometimes found as microfossils. Other planktonic haptophytes of note include Chrysochromulina and Prymnesium, which periodically form toxic marine algal blooms. Both molecular and morphological evidence supports their division into five orders. Emiliania is a small organism that is famous for turning huge portions of the ocean bright turquoise during its blooms. They are also known for contributing to the white cliffs of Dover because of the calcite in their coccolith cell structure. They play a very important role in the carbon cycle in the ocean because they form calcium carbonate exoskeletons that sink to the bottom of the ocean floor when they die. They are also one of the worlds major calcite producers. Sexual reproduction: Asexual, Open mitosis with spindle nucleating (originating?) in cytoplasm. Phaeocystis colonial cells diploid, motile cells haploid or diploid; reproduction by vegetative division of non-motile cells and fragmentation of colonies, vegetative division of motile cells, or by fusion of gametes. Members of the Haptophytes Genus "Phaocystis" form colonies (see photo). Haptophytes are also called "Prymnesiophytes" Some Haptophyta have hard shell made of calcium carbonate evolves around the single-celled species living in the ocean. KINGDOM Protista (Chromalveolata) PHYLUM Haptophyta CLASS Pavlovophyceae ORDER Pavlovales CLASS Prymnesiophyceae ORDER Prymnesiales ORDER Phaeocystales ORDER Isochrysidales ORDER Coccolithales | ![]() [1] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of eukaryotes. The vast majority of characterized eukaryotes, with the notable exception of major subgroups of amoebae, can now be assigned to one of eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal flagellum) have a single basal flagellum on reproductive cells and flat mitochondrial cristae (most eukaryotes have tubular ones). Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in Plants; theirs are the only plastids with just two outer membranes. Heterokonts (different flagellae) have a unique flagellum decorated with hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles) and, usually, a second plain one. Cercozoans are amoebae with filose pseudopodia, often living with in tests (hard outer shells), some very elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa are mostly naked amoebae (lacking tests), often with lobose pseudopodia for at least part of their life cycle. Alveolates have systems of cortical alveoli directly beneath their plasma membranes. Discicristates have discoid mitochondrial cristae and, in some cases, a deep (excavated) ventral feeding groove. Amitochondrial excavates lack substantial molecular phylogenetic support, but most have an excavated ventral feeding groove, and all lack mitochondria. The tree shown is based on a consensus of molecular (1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data and includes a rough indication of new ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines) (7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon name indicates probable paraphyletic group source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co ntent/full/300/5626/1703 ![]() [2] Emiliania huxleyi, a coccolithophore. Photo courtesy Dr. Markus Geisen - photographer, and The Natural History Museum. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Emiliania_huxleyi_3.jpg | |
1,971,000,000 YBN | 305) Genetic comparison shows the ancestor of the Chromalveolate Phylum "Cryptophyta" (Cryptomonads) evolving now. The cryptomonads are a small group of flagellates, most of which have chloroplasts. They are common in freshwater, and also occur in marine and brackish habitats. Each cell has an anterior groove or pocket with typically two slightly unequal flagella at the edge of the pocket. Cryptomonads distinguished by the presence of characteristic extrusomes called ejectisomes, which consist of two connected spiral ribbons held under tension. If the cells are irritated either by mechanical, chemical or light stress, they discharge, propelling the cell in a zig-zag course away from the disturbance. Large ejectisomes, visible under the light microscope, are associated with the pocket; smaller ones occur elsewhere on the cell. Crypto monads have one or two chloroplasts, except for Chilomonas which has leucoplasts and Goniomonas which lacks plastids entirely. These contain chlorophylls a and c, together with phycobilins and other pigments, and vary in color from brown to green. Each is surrounded by four membranes, and there is a reduced cell nucleus called a nucleomorph between the middle two. This indicates that the chloroplast was derived from a eukaryotic symbiont, shown by genetic studies to have been a red alga. A few cryptomonads, such as Cryptomonas, can form palmelloid stages, but readily escape the surrounding mucus to become free-living flagellates again. Cryptomonad flagella are inserted parallel to one another, and are covered by bipartite hairs called mastigonemes, formed within the endoplasmic reticulum and transported to the cell surface. Small scales may also be present on the flagella and cell body. The mitochondria have flat cristae, and mitosis is open; sexual reproduction has also been reported. Originally the cryptomonads were considered close relatives of the dinoflagellates because of their similar pigmentation. Later botanists treated them as a separate division, Cryptophyta, while zoologists treated them as the flagellate order Cryptomonadida. There is considerable evidence that cryptomonad chloroplasts are closely related to those of the heterokonts and haptophytes, and the three groups are sometimes united as the Chromista. However, the case that the organisms themselves are related is not very strong, and they may have acquired chloroplasts independently. Crytomonads often forms blooms in greater depths of lakes, or during winter beneath the ice. The cells are usually brownish in color, and have a slit-like furrow at the anterior. They are not known to produce any toxins and are used to feed small zooplankton, which is the food source for small fish in fish farming. Reproduction: Number of species: Size and shape: 10-50 μm in size and flattened in shape Mitochondria Christae: flat (which is unusual, as most chromalveolates have tubular christae). Cryotphyta may be more closely related to the Plant Kingdom and nearest Glaucophyta which also have flat christae. After one species of jakobid that changes tubular to flat christae, cryptophyta are the most ancient phylum to have flat christae. KINGDOM Protista (Chromalveolata) PHYLUM Cryptophyta CLASS Cryptomonadea ORDER Pyrenomonadales Novarino & Lucas, 1993 ORDER Cryptomonadales Pascher, 1913 | ![]() [1] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of eukaryotes. The vast majority of characterized eukaryotes, with the notable exception of major subgroups of amoebae, can now be assigned to one of eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal flagellum) have a single basal flagellum on reproductive cells and flat mitochondrial cristae (most eukaryotes have tubular ones). Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in Plants; theirs are the only plastids with just two outer membranes. Heterokonts (different flagellae) have a unique flagellum decorated with hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles) and, usually, a second plain one. Cercozoans are amoebae with filose pseudopodia, often living with in tests (hard outer shells), some very elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa are mostly naked amoebae (lacking tests), often with lobose pseudopodia for at least part of their life cycle. Alveolates have systems of cortical alveoli directly beneath their plasma membranes. Discicristates have discoid mitochondrial cristae and, in some cases, a deep (excavated) ventral feeding groove. Amitochondrial excavates lack substantial molecular phylogenetic support, but most have an excavated ventral feeding groove, and all lack mitochondria. The tree shown is based on a consensus of molecular (1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data and includes a rough indication of new ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines) (7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon name indicates probable paraphyletic group COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co ntent/full/300/5626/1703 ![]() [2] Figure 1. Phylogenetic hypothesis of the eukaryotic lineage based on ultrastructural and molecular data. Organisms are divided into three main groups distinguished by mitochondrial cristal shape (either discoidal, flattened or tubular). Unbroken lines indicate phylogenetic relationships that are firmly supported by available data; broken lines indicate uncertainties in phylogenetic placement, resolution of which will require additional data. Color coding of organismal genus names indicates mitochondrial genomes that have been completely (Table 1), almost completely (Jakoba, Naegleria and Thraustochytrium) or partially (*) sequenced by the OGMP (red), the FMGP (black) or other groups (green). Names in blue indicate those species whose mtDNAs are currently being sequenced by the OGMP or are future candidates for complete sequencing. Amitochondriate retortamonads are positioned at the base of the tree, with broken arrows denoting the endosymbiotic origin(s) of mitochondria from a Rickettsia-like eubacterium. Macrophar., Macropharyngomonas. COPYRIGHTED source: http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/cg i/content/full/26/4/865 | |
1,970,000,000 YBN | 306) Genetic comparison shows the ancestor of the Chromalveolate Phylum "Heterokontophyta" (Heterokonts also called Stramenopiles) evolving now. Heterokonts include brown algae, diatoms, golden algae, axodines, yellow-green algae, water moulds and slime nets. Heterkonts evolved very near the same time as the Euglinozoa did. Heterokonts all have mitochondria with tubular christae. The motile cells of heterokonts all have two unequal cilia (flagella), one "tinsel" (covered with hairs {mastigonemes}) cilium and one "whiplash" (free of hair) cilium. KINGDOM Protista (Chromalveolata) PHYLUM Heterokontophyta Colored groups CLASS Chrysophyceae (golden algae) CLASS Synurophyceae CLASS Actinochrysophyceae (axodines) CLASS Pelagophyceae CLASS Phaeothamniophyceae CLASS Bacillariophyceae (diatoms) CLASS Raphidophyceae CLASS Eustigmatophyceae CLASS Xanthophyceae (yellow-green algae) CLASS Phaeophyceae (brown algae) Colorless groups CLASS Oomycetes(water moulds) CLASS Hypochytridiomycetes CLASS Bicosoecea CLASS Labyrinthulomycetes(slime nets) CLASS Opalinea CLASS Proteromonadea | ![]() [1] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of eukaryotes. The vast majority of characterized eukaryotes, with the notable exception of major subgroups of amoebae, can now be assigned to one of eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal flagellum) have a single basal flagellum on reproductive cells and flat mitochondrial cristae (most eukaryotes have tubular ones). Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in Plants; theirs are the only plastids with just two outer membranes. Heterokonts (different flagellae) have a unique flagellum decorated with hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles) and, usually, a second plain one. Cercozoans are amoebae with filose pseudopodia, often living with in tests (hard outer shells), some very elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa are mostly naked amoebae (lacking tests), often with lobose pseudopodia for at least part of their life cycle. Alveolates have systems of cortical alveoli directly beneath their plasma membranes. Discicristates have discoid mitochondrial cristae and, in some cases, a deep (excavated) ventral feeding groove. Amitochondrial excavates lack substantial molecular phylogenetic support, but most have an excavated ventral feeding groove, and all lack mitochondria. The tree shown is based on a consensus of molecular (1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data and includes a rough indication of new ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines) (7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon name indicates probable paraphyletic group COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co ntent/full/300/5626/1703 ![]() [2] Figure 1. Phylogenetic hypothesis of the eukaryotic lineage based on ultrastructural and molecular data. Organisms are divided into three main groups distinguished by mitochondrial cristal shape (either discoidal, flattened or tubular). Unbroken lines indicate phylogenetic relationships that are firmly supported by available data; broken lines indicate uncertainties in phylogenetic placement, resolution of which will require additional data. Color coding of organismal genus names indicates mitochondrial genomes that have been completely (Table 1), almost completely (Jakoba, Naegleria and Thraustochytrium) or partially (*) sequenced by the OGMP (red), the FMGP (black) or other groups (green). Names in blue indicate those species whose mtDNAs are currently being sequenced by the OGMP or are future candidates for complete sequencing. Amitochondriate retortamonads are positioned at the base of the tree, with broken arrows denoting the endosymbiotic origin(s) of mitochondria from a Rickettsia-like eubacterium. Macrophar., Macropharyngomonas. COPYRIGHTED source: http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/cg i/content/full/26/4/865 | |
1,969,000,000 YBN | 307) Chromalveolate Heterokont, Brown Algae (Phaeophyta) evolves now. Brown Algae is the most genetically ancient multicellular organism still living on earth. In addition to being first to evolve multicellularity, cell differentiation (cells of different types) is already present in all brown algae. Genetic comparison shows the ancestor of the Chromalveolate Heterokont Brown Algae (Phaeophyta) evolving now. Brown Algae is the most genetically ancient multicellular organism still living on earth. In addition to being first to evolve multicellularity, cell differentiation (cells of different types) is already present in all brown algae. Brown algae belong to a large group called the heterokonts, most of which are colored flagellates. Most contain the pigment fucoxanthin, which is responsible for the distinctive greenish-brown color that gives brown algae their name. Brown algae are unique among heterokonts in developing into multicellular forms with differentiated tissues, but they reproduce by means of flagellate spores, which closely resemble other heterokont cells. Genetic studies show their closest relatives are the yellow-green algae. Most Brown algae are haplodiplontic. KINGDOM Protista (Chromalveolata) PHYLUM Heterokontophyta Colored groups CLASS Phaeophyceae (brown algae) Some people view brown algae as being in the plant kingdom, and others as being a multicellular protist in the protist kingdom. 2. Brown algae range from small forms with simple filaments to large multicellular (50-100 m long) seaweeds. (Fig. 30.8) 3. Brown algae have chlorophylls a and c and a fucoxanthin that give them their color. 4. Their reserve food is a carbohydrate called laminarin. 5. Seaweed refers to any large, complex alga. 6. Their cell walls contain a mucilaginous water-retaining material that inhibits desiccation. 7. Laminaria is an intertidal kelp that is unique among protists; this genus shows tissue differentiation. 8. Nereocystis and Macrocystis are giant kelps found in deeper water anchored to the bottom by their holdfasts. 9. Individuals of the genus Sargassum sometimes break off from their holdfasts and form floating masses. 10. Brown algae provide food and habitat for marine organisms, and they are also important to humans. a. Brown algae are harvested for human food and for fertilizer in several parts of the world. b. They are a source of algin, a pectin-like substance added to give foods a stable, smooth consistency. 11. Most have an alternation of generations life cycle. 12. Fucus is an intertidal rockweed; meiotic cell division produces gametes and adult is always diploid. | ![]() [1] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of eukaryotes. The vast majority of characterized eukaryotes, with the notable exception of major subgroups of amoebae, can now be assigned to one of eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal flagellum) have a single basal flagellum on reproductive cells and flat mitochondrial cristae (most eukaryotes have tubular ones). Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in Plants; theirs are the only plastids with just two outer membranes. Heterokonts (different flagellae) have a unique flagellum decorated with hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles) and, usually, a second plain one. Cercozoans are amoebae with filose pseudopodia, often living with in tests (hard outer shells), some very elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa are mostly naked amoebae (lacking tests), often with lobose pseudopodia for at least part of their life cycle. Alveolates have systems of cortical alveoli directly beneath their plasma membranes. Discicristates have discoid mitochondrial cristae and, in some cases, a deep (excavated) ventral feeding groove. Amitochondrial excavates lack substantial molecular phylogenetic support, but most have an excavated ventral feeding groove, and all lack mitochondria. The tree shown is based on a consensus of molecular (1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data and includes a rough indication of new ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines) (7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon name indicates probable paraphyletic group COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co ntent/full/300/5626/1703 ![]() [2] Figure 1. Phylogenetic hypothesis of the eukaryotic lineage based on ultrastructural and molecular data. Organisms are divided into three main groups distinguished by mitochondrial cristal shape (either discoidal, flattened or tubular). Unbroken lines indicate phylogenetic relationships that are firmly supported by available data; broken lines indicate uncertainties in phylogenetic placement, resolution of which will require additional data. Color coding of organismal genus names indicates mitochondrial genomes that have been completely (Table 1), almost completely (Jakoba, Naegleria and Thraustochytrium) or partially (*) sequenced by the OGMP (red), the FMGP (black) or other groups (green). Names in blue indicate those species whose mtDNAs are currently being sequenced by the OGMP or are future candidates for complete sequencing. Amitochondriate retortamonads are positioned at the base of the tree, with broken arrows denoting the endosymbiotic origin(s) of mitochondria from a Rickettsia-like eubacterium. Macrophar., Macropharyngomonas. COPYRIGHTED source: http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/cg i/content/full/26/4/865 | |
1,968,000,000 YBN | 308) Chromalveolate Heterokont, Diatoms evolve. Genetic comparison shows the ancestor of the Chromalveolate Heterokont Diatoms evolving now. Diatoms are diplontic. Diatoms are a very common types of phytoplankton. Most diatoms are unicellular, although some form chains or simple colonies. A characteristic feature of diatom cells is that they are encased within a unique cell wall made of silica. These walls show a wide diversity in form, some quite beautiful and ornate, but usually consist of two symmetrical sides with a split between them, hence the group name. Life Cycle When a cell divides each new cell takes as its epitheca a valve of the parent frustule, and within ten to twenty minutes builds its own hypotheca; this process may occur between one and eight times per day. Availability of dissolved silica limits the rate of vegetative reproduction, but also because this method progressively reduces the average size of the diatom frustule in a given population there is a certain threshold at which restoration of frustule size is neccesary. Auxospores are then produced, which are cells that posses a different wall structure lacking the siliceous frustule and swell to the maximum frustule size. The auxospore then forms an initial cell which forms a new frustule of maximum size within itself. KINGDOM Protista (Chromalveolata) PHYLUM Heterokontophyta Colored groups CLASS Bacillariophyceae (diatoms) There are more than 200 genera of living diatoms, and it is estimated that there are approximately 100 000 extant species (Round & Crawford, 1990). Diatoms are a widespread group and can be found in the oceans, in freshwater, in soils and on damp surfaces. Their chloroplasts are typical of heterokonts, with four membranes and containing pigments such as fucoxanthin. Individuals usually lack flagella, but they are present in gametes and have the usual heterokont structure, except they lack the hairs (mastigonemes) characteristic in other groups. Most diatom species are non-motile but some are capable of an oozing motion. As their relatively dense cell walls cause them to readily sink, planktonic forms in open water usually rely on turbulent mixing of the upper layers by the wind to keep them suspended in sunlit surface waters. Some species actively regulate their buoyancy to counter sinking. Diatoms cells are contained within a unique silicate (silicic acid) cell wall comprised of two separate valves (or shells). The biogenic silica that the cell wall is composed of is synthesised intracellularly by the polymerisation of silicic acid monomers. This material is then extruded to the cell exterior and added to the wall. Diatom cell walls are also called frustules or tests, and their two valves typically overlap one other like the two halves of a petri dish. In most species, when a diatom divides to produce two daughter cells, each cell keeps one of the two valves and grows a smaller valve within it. As a result, after each division cycle the average size of diatom cells in the population gets smaller. Once such cells reach a certain minimum size, rather than simply divide vegetatively, they reverse this decline by forming an auxospore. This expands in size to give rise to a much larger cell, which then returns to size-diminishing divisions. Auxospore production is almost always linked to meiosis and sexual reproduction. Diatoms are traditionally divided into two orders: centric diatoms (Centrales), which are radially symmetric, and pennate diatoms (Pennales), which are bilaterally symmetric. The former are paraphyletic to the latter. A more recent classification is that of Round & Crawford (1990), who divide the diatoms into three classes: centric diatoms (Coscinodiscophyceae), pennate diatoms without a raphe (Fragilariophyceae), and pennate diatoms with a raphe (Bacillariophyceae). It is probable there will be further revisions as our understanding of their relationships increases. Planktonic forms in freshwater and marine environments typically exhibit a "bloom and bust" lifestyle. When conditions in the upper mixed layer (nutrients and light) are favourable (e.g. at the start of spring) their competitive edge (Furnas, 1990) allows them to quickly dominate phytoplankton communities ("bloom"). When conditions turn unfavourable, usually upon depletion of nutrients, diatom cells typically increase in sinking rate and exit the upper mixed layer ("bust"). This sinking is induced by either a loss of buoyancy control, the synthesis of mucilage that sticks diatoms cells together, or the production of heavy resting spores. In the open ocean, the condition that typically causes diatom (spring) blooms to end is a lack of silicon. Unlike other nutrients, this is only a major requirement of diatoms so it is not regenerated in the plankton ecosystem as efficiently as, for instance, nitrogen or phosphorus nutrients. This can be seen in maps of surface nutrient concentrations - as nutrients decline along gradients, silicon is usually the first to be exhausted (followed normally by nitrogen then phosphorus). Heterokont chloroplasts appear to be derived from those of red algae, rather than directly from prokaryotes as occurs in plants. This suggests they had a more recent origin than many other algae. However, fossil evidence is scant, and it is really only with the evolution of the diatoms themselves that the heterokonts make a serious impression on the fossil record. The earliest known fossil diatoms date from the early Jurassic (~185 Ma; Kooistra & Medlin, 1996), although recent genetic (Kooistra & Medlin, 1996) and sedimentary (Schieber, Krinsley & Riciputi, 2000) evidence suggests an earlier origin. Medlin et al. (1997) suggest that their origin may be related to the end-Permian mass extinction (~250 Ma), after which many marine niches were opened. The gap between this event and the time that fossil diatoms first appear may indicate a period when diatoms were unsilicified and their evolution was cryptic (Raven & Waite, 2004). Since the advent of silicification, diatoms have made a significant impression on the fossil record, with major deposits of fossil diatoms found as far back as the early Cretaceous, and some rocks (diatomaceous earth, diatomite, kieselguhr) being composed almost entirely of them. Although the diatoms may have existed since the Triassic, the timing of their ascendancy and "take-over" of the silicon cycle is more recent. 3. Diatoms are the most numerous unicellular algae in the oceans. (Fig. 30.6a) 4. They are extremely numerous and an important source of food and O2 in aquatic systems. 5. Diatom cell walls consist of two silica-impregnated halves or valves. a. When diatoms reproduce asexually, each received one old valve. b. The new valve fits inside the old one; therefore, the new diatom is smaller than the original one. c. This continues until they are about 30 percent of their original size. d. Then they reproduce sexually; a zygote grows and divides mitotically to form diatoms of normal size. 6. The cell wall has an outer layer of silica (glass) with a variety of markings formed by pores. 7. Diatom remains accumulate on the ocean floor and are mined as diatomaceous earth for use as filters, abrasives, etc. Life Cycle (cont.) Many neritic planktonic diatoms alternate between a vegetative reproductive phase and a thicker walled resting cyst or statospore stage. The siliceous resting spore commonly forms after a period of active vegetative reproduction when nutrient levels have been depleted. Statospores may remain entirely within the the parent cell, partially within the parent cell or be isolated from it. An increase in nutreint levels and/or length of daylight cause the statospore to germinate and return to its normal vegatative state. Seasonal upwelling is therefore a vital part of many diatoms life cycle as a provider of nutrients and as a transport mechanism which brings statospores or their vegetative products up into the photic zone. The resting spore morphology of some species is similar to that of the corresponding vegetative cell, whereas in other species the resting spores and the vegetative cells differ strongly. The two valves of a resting spore may be similar or distinctly different. Often the first valve formed is more similar to the valves of the vegetative cells than the second valve. | ![]() [1] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of eukaryotes. The vast majority of characterized eukaryotes, with the notable exception of major subgroups of amoebae, can now be assigned to one of eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal flagellum) have a single basal flagellum on reproductive cells and flat mitochondrial cristae (most eukaryotes have tubular ones). Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in Plants; theirs are the only plastids with just two outer membranes. Heterokonts (different flagellae) have a unique flagellum decorated with hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles) and, usually, a second plain one. Cercozoans are amoebae with filose pseudopodia, often living with in tests (hard outer shells), some very elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa are mostly naked amoebae (lacking tests), often with lobose pseudopodia for at least part of their life cycle. Alveolates have systems of cortical alveoli directly beneath their plasma membranes. Discicristates have discoid mitochondrial cristae and, in some cases, a deep (excavated) ventral feeding groove. Amitochondrial excavates lack substantial molecular phylogenetic support, but most have an excavated ventral feeding groove, and all lack mitochondria. The tree shown is based on a consensus of molecular (1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data and includes a rough indication of new ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines) (7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon name indicates probable paraphyletic group COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co ntent/full/300/5626/1703 ![]() [2] Figure 1. Phylogenetic hypothesis of the eukaryotic lineage based on ultrastructural and molecular data. Organisms are divided into three main groups distinguished by mitochondrial cristal shape (either discoidal, flattened or tubular). Unbroken lines indicate phylogenetic relationships that are firmly supported by available data; broken lines indicate uncertainties in phylogenetic placement, resolution of which will require additional data. Color coding of organismal genus names indicates mitochondrial genomes that have been completely (Table 1), almost completely (Jakoba, Naegleria and Thraustochytrium) or partially (*) sequenced by the OGMP (red), the FMGP (black) or other groups (green). Names in blue indicate those species whose mtDNAs are currently being sequenced by the OGMP or are future candidates for complete sequencing. Amitochondriate retortamonads are positioned at the base of the tree, with broken arrows denoting the endosymbiotic origin(s) of mitochondria from a Rickettsia-like eubacterium. Macrophar., Macropharyngomonas. COPYRIGHTED source: http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/cg i/content/full/26/4/865 | |
1,967,000,000 YBN | 309) Chromalveolate Heterokont, Water molds (Oomycetes OemISETEZ) evolve. Genetic comparison shows the ancestor of the Chromalveolate Heterokont Water molds (Oomycetes OemISETEZ) evolving now. Oomycetes (Water molds), with about 580 species, vary from unicellular, to multicellular highly brached filamentous forms. The filamentous form is called "coenocytic" (grows as a large multinucleate cell that results from multiple nuclear divisions without cell divisions, also called "mycelium" in fungi) Oomycetes grow by closed (or nearly closed) mitosis with pairs of centrioles near the poles . Filamentous forms grow by mitosis, but only the nucleus is duplicated (karyokinesis), no septa (horizontal cell wall) is constructed, making these multinucleate very large single cells. Technically, filamentous oomycetes are 3 celled multicellular organisms because a septa forms between the vegetative filament and the diploid sporangium (and oogonium) cells (and the haploid antheridium multinucleate cells are not free swimming), but many people label oomycetes as single celled organism. But it appears clear that oomycetes would be constructed of many cells if a cell wall was built at mitosis. Sexual forms are diploid and reproduce by conjugation. Water Molds are microscopic organisms that reproduce both sexually and asexually and are composed of mycelia, or a tube-like vegetative body (all of an organism's mycelia are called its thallus). The name "water mould" refers to the fact that they thrive under conditions of high humidity and running surface water. Water molds were originally classified as fungi, but are now known to have developed separately and show a number of differences. Their cell walls are composed of cellulose rather than chitin and lack septa (a wall that divides two spaces) except where reproductive cells are produced, in addition to having gene sequences more closely related to brown algae than fungi. Also, in the vegetative state they have diploid nuclei, whereas fungi have haploid nuclei. The oomycetes include the water molds, white rusts and the downy mildews. Many oomycetes are multinucleate filaments (hyphae) that resemble fungi. These hyphae have no cross walls, but are one long hollow tube and are called "coenocytic". They were once thought to be related to the fungi, but their cell walls are made of cellulose, not chitin as they are in the true fungi. The superficial resemblance of the fungi and the oomycetes is likely a case of convergent evolution. Both groups have a filamentous (hyphal) body form with a high surface area to volume ration which facilitates uptake of nutrients from their surroundings. The oomycetes are saprobic and parasitic forms, including water molds like Saprolegnia and downey mildews like Peronospora. 1. These organisms (and slime molds) resemble fungi but all have flagellated cells which fungi never do. 2. Water molds possess a cell wall but it is made of cellulose, not chitin as in fungi. 3. Water molds produce diploid (2n) zoospores and meiosis produces the gametes. 2. Aquatic water molds parasitize fishes, forming furry growths on their gills, and decompose remains. 3. Terrestrial water molds parasitize insects and plants; a water mold caused the 1840s Irish potato famine. 4. Water molds have a filamentous body but cell walls are composed largely of cellulose. 5. During asexual reproduction, they produce diploid motile spores (2n zoospores) with flagella. 6. Unlike fungi, the adult is diploid; gametes are produced by meiosis. 7. Eggs are produced in enlarged oogonia. KINGDOM Protista (Chromalveolata) PHYLUM Heterokontophyta Colorless groups CLASS Oomycetes (water moulds) Oomycetes have mitochondria with tubular christae. Water mould motile cells are produced as asexual spores called zoospores, which capitalize on surface water (including precipitation on plant surfaces) for movement. The Zoospores have 2 unequal anterior (apical) flagella. They also produce sexual spores, called oospores, that are translucent double-walled spherical structures used to survive adverse environmental conditions. The water molds are among the most important plant pathogenic (capable of causing disease) organisms that may be facultatively or obligately parasitic. The majority can be divided into three groups, although more exist. * The Phytophthora group is a genus that causes diseases such as dieback, potato blight (caused the potato famine in Ireland), sudden oak death and rhododendron root rot. * The Pythium group is a genus that is more ubiquitous than Phytophythora and individual species have larger host ranges, usually causing less damage. Pythium damping off is a very common problem in greenhouses where the organism kills newly emerged seedlings. Mycoparasitic members of this group (e.g. P. oligandrum) parasitise other oomycetes and fungi and have been employed as biocontrol agents . One Pythium species, Pythium insidiosum is also known to infect mammals. * The third group are the downy mildews, which are easily identifable by the appearance of white "mildew" on leaf surfaces (although this group can be confused with the unrelated powdery mildews). A male nuclei from a multinucleate haploid cell is transfered to into the haploid egg cell; the male gamete is not free moving, only the female gametes are although contained within the oogonium. | ![]() [1] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of eukaryotes. The vast majority of characterized eukaryotes, with the notable exception of major subgroups of amoebae, can now be assigned to one of eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal flagellum) have a single basal flagellum on reproductive cells and flat mitochondrial cristae (most eukaryotes have tubular ones). Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in Plants; theirs are the only plastids with just two outer membranes. Heterokonts (different flagellae) have a unique flagellum decorated with hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles) and, usually, a second plain one. Cercozoans are amoebae with filose pseudopodia, often living with in tests (hard outer shells), some very elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa are mostly naked amoebae (lacking tests), often with lobose pseudopodia for at least part of their life cycle. Alveolates have systems of cortical alveoli directly beneath their plasma membranes. Discicristates have discoid mitochondrial cristae and, in some cases, a deep (excavated) ventral feeding groove. Amitochondrial excavates lack substantial molecular phylogenetic support, but most have an excavated ventral feeding groove, and all lack mitochondria. The tree shown is based on a consensus of molecular (1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data and includes a rough indication of new ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines) (7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon name indicates probable paraphyletic group COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co ntent/full/300/5626/1703 ![]() [2] Figure 1. Phylogenetic hypothesis of the eukaryotic lineage based on ultrastructural and molecular data. Organisms are divided into three main groups distinguished by mitochondrial cristal shape (either discoidal, flattened or tubular). Unbroken lines indicate phylogenetic relationships that are firmly supported by available data; broken lines indicate uncertainties in phylogenetic placement, resolution of which will require additional data. Color coding of organismal genus names indicates mitochondrial genomes that have been completely (Table 1), almost completely (Jakoba, Naegleria and Thraustochytrium) or partially (*) sequenced by the OGMP (red), the FMGP (black) or other groups (green). Names in blue indicate those species whose mtDNAs are currently being sequenced by the OGMP or are future candidates for complete sequencing. Amitochondriate retortamonads are positioned at the base of the tree, with broken arrows denoting the endosymbiotic origin(s) of mitochondria from a Rickettsia-like eubacterium. Macrophar., Macropharyngomonas. COPYRIGHTED source: http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/cg i/content/full/26/4/865 | |
1,966,000,000 YBN | 310) Chromalveolate Alveolata (Ciliates, Dinoflagellates, Apicomplexans) evolve. Genetic comparison shows the ancestor of the Chromalveolate Alveolata (Ciliates, Dinoflagellates, Apicomplexans) evolving now. The alveolates are a major line of protists. There are three main groups, which are very divergent in form, but are now known to be close relatives based on various ultrastructural and genetic similarities: Ciliates Very common protozoa, with many short cilia arranged in rows Apicom plexa Parasitic protozoa that lack locomotive structures except in gametes Dinoflagellates Mostly marine flagellates, many of which have chloroplasts The most notable shared characteristic is the presence of cortical alveoli, flattened vesicles packed into a continuous layer supporting the membrane, typically forming a flexible pellicle. In dinoflagellates they often form armor plates. Alveolates have mitochondria with tubular cristae, and their flagella or cilia have a distinct structure. The Apicomplexa and dinoflagellates may be more closely related to each other than to the ciliates. Both have plastids, and most share a bundle or cone of microtubules at the top of the cell. In apicomplexans this forms part of a complex used to enter host cells, while in some colorless dinoflagellates it forms a peduncle used to ingest prey. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Protozoa (Goldfuss, 1818) R. Owen, 1858 - protozoa SUBKINGDOM Biciliata INFRAKINGDOM Alveolata Cavalier-Smith, 1991 PHYLUM Myzozoa Cavalier-Smith & Chao, 2004 PHYLUM Ciliophora (Doflein, 1901) Copeland, 1956 - ciliates Relationships between some of these the major groups were suggested during the 1980s, and between all three by Cavalier-Smith, who introduced the formal name Alveolata in 1991. They were confirmed by a genetic study by Gajadhar et al. Some studies suggested the haplosporids, mostly parasites of marine invertebrates, might belong here but they lack alveoli and are now placed among the Cercozoa. The development of plastids among the alveolates is uncertain. Cavalier-Smith proposed the alveolates developed from a chloroplast-containing ancestor, which also gave rise to the Chromista (the chromalveolate hypothesis). However, as plastids only appear in relatively advanced groups, others argue the alveolates originally lacked them and possibly the dinoflagellates and Apicomplexa acquired them separately. | ![]() [1] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of eukaryotes. The vast majority of characterized eukaryotes, with the notable exception of major subgroups of amoebae, can now be assigned to one of eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal flagellum) have a single basal flagellum on reproductive cells and flat mitochondrial cristae (most eukaryotes have tubular ones). Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in Plants; theirs are the only plastids with just two outer membranes. Heterokonts (different flagellae) have a unique flagellum decorated with hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles) and, usually, a second plain one. Cercozoans are amoebae with filose pseudopodia, often living with in tests (hard outer shells), some very elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa are mostly naked amoebae (lacking tests), often with lobose pseudopodia for at least part of their life cycle. Alveolates have systems of cortical alveoli directly beneath their plasma membranes. Discicristates have discoid mitochondrial cristae and, in some cases, a deep (excavated) ventral feeding groove. Amitochondrial excavates lack substantial molecular phylogenetic support, but most have an excavated ventral feeding groove, and all lack mitochondria. The tree shown is based on a consensus of molecular (1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data and includes a rough indication of new ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines) (7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon name indicates probable paraphyletic group COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co ntent/full/300/5626/1703 ![]() [2] Figure 1. Phylogenetic hypothesis of the eukaryotic lineage based on ultrastructural and molecular data. Organisms are divided into three main groups distinguished by mitochondrial cristal shape (either discoidal, flattened or tubular). Unbroken lines indicate phylogenetic relationships that are firmly supported by available data; broken lines indicate uncertainties in phylogenetic placement, resolution of which will require additional data. Color coding of organismal genus names indicates mitochondrial genomes that have been completely (Table 1), almost completely (Jakoba, Naegleria and Thraustochytrium) or partially (*) sequenced by the OGMP (red), the FMGP (black) or other groups (green). Names in blue indicate those species whose mtDNAs are currently being sequenced by the OGMP or are future candidates for complete sequencing. Amitochondriate retortamonads are positioned at the base of the tree, with broken arrows denoting the endosymbiotic origin(s) of mitochondria from a Rickettsia-like eubacterium. Macrophar., Macropharyngomonas. COPYRIGHTED source: http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/cg i/content/full/26/4/865 | |
1,964,000,000 YBN | 312) Ciliates evolve. Genetic comparison shows the ancestor of the Chromalveolate Alveolata Ciliates evolving now. The ciliates are one of the most important groups of protists, common almost everywhere there is water - lakes, ponds, oceans, and soils, with many ecto- (lives on host) and endosymbiotic (lives in host) members, as well as some obligate (depends on host for survival) and opportunistic parasites (does not depend on host for survival). Ciliates tend to be large protists, a few reaching 2 mm in length, and are some of the most complex in structure. The name ciliate comes from the presence of hair-like organelles called cilia, which are identical in structure to flagella but typically shorter and present in much larger numbers. Cilia occur in all members of the group, although the peculiar suctoria only have them for part of the life-cycle, and are variously used in swimming, crawling, attachment, feeding, and sensation. Unlike other eukaryotes, ciliates have two different sorts of nuclei: a small, diploid micronucleus (reproduction), and a large, polyploid macronucleus (general cell regulation). The latter is generated from the micronucleus by amplification of the genome and heavy editing. The high degree of polyploidi allows the cell to sustain an appropriate level of transcription. Division of the macronucleus does not occur by a mitotic process but segregation of the chromosomes is by a different process, whose mechanism is unknown. This process is not perfect, and after about 200 generations the cell shows signs of aging (has so many mutations that it does not function properly). Periodically the macronuclei is (must be?) regenerated from the micronuclei. In most, this occurs during sexual reproduction, which is not usually through syngamy but through conjugation. Here two cells line up, the micronuclei undergo meiosis, some of the haploid daughters are exchanged and then fuse to form new micro- and macronuclei. With a few exceptions, there is a distinct cytostome or mouth where ingestion takes place. Food vacuoles are formed through phagocytosis and typically follow a particular path through the cell as their contents are digested and broken down via lysosomes so the substances the vacuole contains are then small enough to diffuse through the membrane of the food vacuole into the cell. Anything left in the food vacuole by the time it reaches the cytoproct (anus) is discharged via exocytosis. Most ciliates also have one or more prominent contractile vacuoles, which collect water and expel it from the cell to maintain osmotic pressure, or in some function to maintain ionic balance. These often have a distinctive star-shape, with each point being a collecting tube. Most ciliates feed on smaller organisms (heterotrophic), such as bacteria and algae, and detritus swept into the mouth by modified oral cilia. These usually include a series of membranelles to the left of the mouth and a paroral membrane to its right, both of which arise from polykinetids, groups of many cilia together with associated structures. This varies considerably, however. Some ciliates are mouthless and feed by absorption, while others are predatory and feed on other protozoa and in particular on other ciliates. This includes the suctoria, which feed through several specialized tentacles. Ciliates and Amoeboids have in common: Food is digested in food vacuoles. Excess water is expelled by contractile vacuoles. DOMAI N Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Protozoa (Goldfuss, 1818) R. Owen, 1858 - protozoa SUBKINGDOM Biciliata INFRAKINGDOM Alveolata Cavalier-Smith, 1991 PHYLUM Ciliophora (Doflein, 1901) Copeland, 1956 - ciliates CLASS Karyorelictea CLASS Heterotrichea CLASS Spirotrichea CLASS Litostomatea CLASS Phyllopharyngea CLASS Nassophorea CLASS Colpodea {possibly in phylum percolozoa} CLASS Prostomatea CLASS Oligohymenophorea CLASS Plagiopylea In some forms there are also body polykinetids, for instance, among the spirotrichs where they generally form bristles called cirri. More often body cilia are arranged in mono- and dikinetids, which respectively include one and two kinetosomes (basal bodies), each of which may support a cilium. These are arranged into rows called kineties, which run from the anterior to posterior of the cell. The body and oral kinetids make up the infraciliature, an organization unique to the ciliates and important in their classification, and include various fibrils and microtubules involved in coordinating the cilia. The infraciliature is one of the main component of the cell cortex. Another are the alveoli, small vesicles under the cell membrane that are packed against it to form a pellicle maintaining the cell's shape, which varies from flexible and contractile to rigid. Numerous mitochondria and extrusomes are also generally present. The presence of alveoli, the structure of the cilia, the form of mitosis and various other details indicate a close relationship between the ciliates, Apicomplexa, and dinoflagellates. These superficially dissimilar groups make up the alveolates. Ciliates move by coordinated strokes of hundreds of cilia projecting through holes in a semirigid pellicle. They discharge long, barbed trichocysts for defense and for capturing prey; toxicysts release a poison. Most are holozoic and ingest food through a gullet and eliminate wastes through an anal pore. During asexual reproduction, ciliates divide by transverse binary fission. Ciliates possess two types of nuclei-a large macronucleus and one or more small micronuclei. a. The macronucleus controls the normal metabolism of the cell. b. The micronucleus are involved in sexual reproduction. 1) The macronucleus disintegrates and the micronucleus undergoes meiosis. 2) Two ciliates then exchange a haploid micronucleus. 3) The micronuclei give rise to a new macronucleus containing only housekeeping genes. Ciliates are diverse. a. Members of the genus Paramecium are complex. (Fig. 30.13b) b. The barrel-shaped didinia expand to consume paramecia much larger than themselves. c. Suctoria rest on a stalk and paralyze victims, sucking them dry. d. Stentor resembles a giant blue vase with stripes. (Fig. 30.13a) Could the 2 nuclei in ciliates be the result of an earlier fusion (or engulfing) of 2 prokaryotes? | ![]() [1] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of eukaryotes. The vast majority of characterized eukaryotes, with the notable exception of major subgroups of amoebae, can now be assigned to one of eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal flagellum) have a single basal flagellum on reproductive cells and flat mitochondrial cristae (most eukaryotes have tubular ones). Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in Plants; theirs are the only plastids with just two outer membranes. Heterokonts (different flagellae) have a unique flagellum decorated with hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles) and, usually, a second plain one. Cercozoans are amoebae with filose pseudopodia, often living with in tests (hard outer shells), some very elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa are mostly naked amoebae (lacking tests), often with lobose pseudopodia for at least part of their life cycle. Alveolates have systems of cortical alveoli directly beneath their plasma membranes. Discicristates have discoid mitochondrial cristae and, in some cases, a deep (excavated) ventral feeding groove. Amitochondrial excavates lack substantial molecular phylogenetic support, but most have an excavated ventral feeding groove, and all lack mitochondria. The tree shown is based on a consensus of molecular (1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data and includes a rough indication of new ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines) (7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon name indicates probable paraphyletic group COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co ntent/full/300/5626/1703 ![]() [2] Figure 1. Phylogenetic hypothesis of the eukaryotic lineage based on ultrastructural and molecular data. Organisms are divided into three main groups distinguished by mitochondrial cristal shape (either discoidal, flattened or tubular). Unbroken lines indicate phylogenetic relationships that are firmly supported by available data; broken lines indicate uncertainties in phylogenetic placement, resolution of which will require additional data. Color coding of organismal genus names indicates mitochondrial genomes that have been completely (Table 1), almost completely (Jakoba, Naegleria and Thraustochytrium) or partially (*) sequenced by the OGMP (red), the FMGP (black) or other groups (green). Names in blue indicate those species whose mtDNAs are currently being sequenced by the OGMP or are future candidates for complete sequencing. Amitochondriate retortamonads are positioned at the base of the tree, with broken arrows denoting the endosymbiotic origin(s) of mitochondria from a Rickettsia-like eubacterium. Macrophar., Macropharyngomonas. COPYRIGHTED source: http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/cg i/content/full/26/4/865 | |
1,963,000,000 YBN | 313) Dinoflagellates evolve. Genetic Ribosomal RNA comparison shows Chromalveolate Alveolata, Dinoflagellates evolve. Dinoflagellat es reproduce mainly by haploid mitosis, but also reproduce sexually. In dinoflagellates, the chromosomes are always visible and do not condense prior to mitosis. The chromosomes are attached to the nuclear envelope, which persists during mitosis. The main method of reproduction of the dinoflagellates is by longitudinal cell division, with each daughter cell receiving one of the flagella ad a portion of the theca and then constructing the missing parts in a very intricate sequence. Some nonmotile species form zoospores, which may be colonial. A number of species reproduce sexually, mostly by isogamy, but a few species reproduce by heterogamy (anisogamy). Dinoflagellate zygotes are similar to some acritarchs (early eukaryote fossils). Some Dinoflagellates produce cysts. The dinoflagellates are a large group of flagellate protists. Most are marine plankton, but they are common in fresh water habitats as well; their populations are distributed depending on temperate, saltiness, or depth. About half of all dinoflagellates are photosynthetic, and these make up the largest group of eukaryotic algae aside from the diatoms. Being primary producers make them an important part of the food chain. Some species, called zooxanthellae, are endosymbionts of marine animals and protozoa, and play an important part in the biology of coral reefs. Other dinoflagellates are colorless predators on other protozoa, and a few forms are parasitic. Some dinoflagellates are reported to be filamentous (multicellular). Mitochondri a christae are tubular. Dinoflagellates are haploid (haplontic). DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Protozoa (Goldfuss, 1818) R. Owen, 1858 - protozoa SUBKINGDOM Biciliata INFRAKINGDOM Alveolata Cavalier-Smith, 1991 PHYLUM Dinoflagellata Bütschli, 1885 CLASS Dinophyceae (Bütschli, 1885) Pascher, 1914 CLASS Blastodiniophyceae Fensome et al., 1993 CLASS Noctiluciphyceae Fensome et al., 1993 CLASS Syndiniophyceae Loeblich III, 1976 Most dinoflagellates are unicellular forms with two dissimilar flagella. One of these extends towards the posterior, called the longitudinal flagellum, while the other forms a lateral circle, called the transverse flagellum. In many forms these are set into grooves, called the sulcus and cingulum. The transverse flagellum provides most of the force propelling the cell, and often imparts to it a distinctive whirling motion, which is what gives the name dinoflagellate refers to (Greek dinos, whirling). The longitudinal acts mainly as the steering wheel, but providing little propulsive force as well. Dinoflagellates have a complex cell covering called an amphiesma, composed of flattened vesicles, called alveoli. In some forms, these support overlapping cellulose plates that make up a sort of armor called the theca. These come in various shapes and arrangements, depending on the species and sometimes stage of the dinoflagellate. Fibrous extrusomes are also found in many forms. Together with various other structural and genetic details, this organization indicates a close relationship between the dinoflagellates, Apicomplexa, and ciliates, collectively referred to as the alveolates. The chloroplasts in most photosynthetic dinoflagellates are bound by three membranes, suggesting they were probably derived from some ingested alga, and contain chlorophylls a and c and fucoxanthin, as well as various other accessory pigments. However, a few have chloroplasts with different pigmentation and structure, some of which retain a nucleus. This suggests that chloroplasts were incorporated by several endosymbiotic events involving already colored or secondarily colorless forms. The discovery of plastids in Apicomplexa have led some to suggest they were inherited from an ancestor common to the two groups, but none of the more basal lines have them. All the same, the dinoflagellate still consists of the more common organelles such as rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, lipid and starch grains, and food vacuoles. Some have even been found with light sensitive organelle such as the eyespot or a larger nucleus containing a prominent nucleolus. Life-cycle Dinoflagellates have a peculiar form of nucleus, called a dinokaryon, in which the chromosomes are attached to the nuclear membrane. These lack histones and remained condensed throughout interphase rather than just during mitosis, which is closed and involves a unique external spindle. This sort of nucleus was once considered to be an intermediate between the nucleoid region of prokaryotes and the true nuclei of eukaryotes, and so were termed mesokaryotic, but now are considered advanced rather than primitive traits. In most dinoflagellates, the nucleus is dinokaryotic throughout the entire life cycle. They are usually haploid, and reproduce primarily through fission, but sexual reproduction also occurs. This takes place by fusion of two individuals to form a zygote, which may remain mobile in typical dinoflagellate fashion or may form a resting cyst, which later undergoes meiosis to produce new haploid cells. However, when the conditions become desperate, usually starvation or no light, their normal routines change dramatically. Two dinoflagellates will fuse together forming a planozygote. Next is a stage not much different from hibernation called hypnozygote when the organism takes in excess fat and oil. At the same time its shape is getting fatter and the shell gets harder. Sometimes even spikes are formed. When the weathers allows it, these dinoflagellates break out of their shell and are in a temporary stage, planomeiocyte, when they quickly reforms their individual thecas and return to the dinoflagellates at the beginning of the process. Ecology and fossils Dinoflagellates sometimes bloom in concentrations of more than a million cells per millilitre. Some species produce neurotoxins, which in such quantities kill fish and accumulate in filter feeders such as shellfish, which in turn may pass them on to people who eat them. This phenomenon is called a red tide, from the color the bloom imparts to the water. Some colorless dinoflagellates may also form toxic blooms, such as Pfiesteria. It should be noted that not all dinoflagellate blooms are dangerous. Bluish flickers visible in ocean water at night often come from blooms of bioluminescent dinoflagellates, which emit short flashes of light when disturbed. Dinoflagellate cysts are found as microfossils from the Triassic period, and form a major part of the organic-walled marine microflora from the middle Jurassic, through the Cretaceous and Cenozoic to the present day. Arpylorus, from the Silurian of North Africa was at one time considered to be a dinoflagellate cyst, but this palynomorph is now considered to be part of the microfauna. It is possible that some of the Paleozoic acritarchs also represent dinoflagellates. Chloroplast features: Chloroplasts: Brown Mitochondria christae are tubular. Nuclear features: Gamete type: flagellated Dinoflagellates are haploid (haplontic). has condensed chromosomes. Mitotic spindle: external. polar structures: none, and centrioles Flagellar features: Number of flagella: 2 Heterokont, isokont, or anisokont: anisokont shaft features: paraxial rod, hairs flagellate stages: gamete, trophic, zoospore trophic: (trophozoites) The activated, feeding stage in the life cycle of protozoan parasites. A protozoan, especially of the class Sporozoa, in the active stage of its life cycle. The feeding stage of a protozoan (as distinct from reproductive or encysted stages). zoospo re: A zoospore is a motile asexual spore utilizing a flagellum for locomotion. Also called a swarm spore, these spores are used by some algae and fungi to propagate themselves. Golgi type: dictyosome Food stores: carbohydrate: alpha 1-4 glucan fat=yes extrusomes: tricocysts, nematocysts eyespot type: cytoplasmic stigma, ? Life Forms: unicellular: flagellate, amoeboid, coccoid multicellular: filementous Cell covering: pellicle with plates. | ![]() [1] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of eukaryotes. The vast majority of characterized eukaryotes, with the notable exception of major subgroups of amoebae, can now be assigned to one of eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal flagellum) have a single basal flagellum on reproductive cells and flat mitochondrial cristae (most eukaryotes have tubular ones). Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in Plants; theirs are the only plastids with just two outer membranes. Heterokonts (different flagellae) have a unique flagellum decorated with hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles) and, usually, a second plain one. Cercozoans are amoebae with filose pseudopodia, often living with in tests (hard outer shells), some very elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa are mostly naked amoebae (lacking tests), often with lobose pseudopodia for at least part of their life cycle. Alveolates have systems of cortical alveoli directly beneath their plasma membranes. Discicristates have discoid mitochondrial cristae and, in some cases, a deep (excavated) ventral feeding groove. Amitochondrial excavates lack substantial molecular phylogenetic support, but most have an excavated ventral feeding groove, and all lack mitochondria. The tree shown is based on a consensus of molecular (1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data and includes a rough indication of new ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines) (7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon name indicates probable paraphyletic group COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co ntent/full/300/5626/1703 ![]() [2] Figure 1. Phylogenetic hypothesis of the eukaryotic lineage based on ultrastructural and molecular data. Organisms are divided into three main groups distinguished by mitochondrial cristal shape (either discoidal, flattened or tubular). Unbroken lines indicate phylogenetic relationships that are firmly supported by available data; broken lines indicate uncertainties in phylogenetic placement, resolution of which will require additional data. Color coding of organismal genus names indicates mitochondrial genomes that have been completely (Table 1), almost completely (Jakoba, Naegleria and Thraustochytrium) or partially (*) sequenced by the OGMP (red), the FMGP (black) or other groups (green). Names in blue indicate those species whose mtDNAs are currently being sequenced by the OGMP or are future candidates for complete sequencing. Amitochondriate retortamonads are positioned at the base of the tree, with broken arrows denoting the endosymbiotic origin(s) of mitochondria from a Rickettsia-like eubacterium. Macrophar., Macropharyngomonas. COPYRIGHTED source: http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/cg i/content/full/26/4/865 | |
1,962,000,000 YBN | 314) Apicomplexans evolve. Genetic comparison shows Apicomplexans evolve. The Apicomplexa are a large group of protozoa, characterized by the presence of an apical complex at some point in their life-cycle. They are exclusively parasitic, and completely lack flagella or pseudopods except for certain gamete stages. Diseases caused by Apicomplexa include: * Babesiosis (Babesia) * Cryptosporidiosis (Cryptosporidium) * Malaria (Plasmodium) * Toxoplasmosis (Toxoplasma gondii) Most members have a complex life-cycle, involving both asexual and sexual reproduction. Typically, a host is infected by ingesting cysts, which divide to produce sporozoites that enter its cells. Eventually, the cells burst, releasing merozoites which infect new cells. This may occur several times, until gamonts are produced, forming gametes that fuse to create new cysts. There are many variations on this basic pattern, however, and many Apicomplexa have more than one host. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Protozoa (Goldfuss, 1818) R. Owen, 1858 - protozoa SUBKINGDOM Biciliata INFRAKINGDOM Alveolata Cavalier-Smith, 1991 PHYLUM Apicomplexa CLASS Conoidasida Levine, 1988 CLASS Aconoidasida Mehlhorn, Peters & Haberkorn, 1980 CLASS Metchnikovellea Weiser, 1977 CLASS Blastocystea Cavalier-Smith, 1998 | ![]() [1] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of eukaryotes. The vast majority of characterized eukaryotes, with the notable exception of major subgroups of amoebae, can now be assigned to one of eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal flagellum) have a single basal flagellum on reproductive cells and flat mitochondrial cristae (most eukaryotes have tubular ones). Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in Plants; theirs are the only plastids with just two outer membranes. Heterokonts (different flagellae) have a unique flagellum decorated with hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles) and, usually, a second plain one. Cercozoans are amoebae with filose pseudopodia, often living with in tests (hard outer shells), some very elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa are mostly naked amoebae (lacking tests), often with lobose pseudopodia for at least part of their life cycle. Alveolates have systems of cortical alveoli directly beneath their plasma membranes. Discicristates have discoid mitochondrial cristae and, in some cases, a deep (excavated) ventral feeding groove. Amitochondrial excavates lack substantial molecular phylogenetic support, but most have an excavated ventral feeding groove, and all lack mitochondria. The tree shown is based on a consensus of molecular (1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data and includes a rough indication of new ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines) (7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon name indicates probable paraphyletic group COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co ntent/full/300/5626/1703 ![]() [2] Figure 1. Phylogenetic hypothesis of the eukaryotic lineage based on ultrastructural and molecular data. Organisms are divided into three main groups distinguished by mitochondrial cristal shape (either discoidal, flattened or tubular). Unbroken lines indicate phylogenetic relationships that are firmly supported by available data; broken lines indicate uncertainties in phylogenetic placement, resolution of which will require additional data. Color coding of organismal genus names indicates mitochondrial genomes that have been completely (Table 1), almost completely (Jakoba, Naegleria and Thraustochytrium) or partially (*) sequenced by the OGMP (red), the FMGP (black) or other groups (green). Names in blue indicate those species whose mtDNAs are currently being sequenced by the OGMP or are future candidates for complete sequencing. Amitochondriate retortamonads are positioned at the base of the tree, with broken arrows denoting the endosymbiotic origin(s) of mitochondria from a Rickettsia-like eubacterium. Macrophar., Macropharyngomonas. COPYRIGHTED source: http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/cg i/content/full/26/4/865 | |
1,961,000,000 YBN | 89) Genetic comparison shows Rhizaria (the Phyla "Radiolaria", "Cercozoa", and "Foraminifera") evolve now. This marks the beginning of the protists described as "amoeboid", because they have pseudopods. 5. Amoeboids phagocytize their food; pseudopods surround and engulf prey. 6. Food is digested inside food vacuoles. 7. Freshwater amoeboids have contractile vacuoles to eliminate excess water. Some foraminifera are haplodiploid (alternate between haploid and diploid cycles that both have mitosis). The Rhizaria are a major line of protists. They vary considerably in form, but for the most part they are amoeboids with filose, reticulose, or microtubule-supported pseudopods. Many produce shells or skeletons, which may be quite complex in structure, and these make up the vast majority of protozoan fossils. Nearly all have mitochondria with tubular cristae. There are three main groups of Rhizaria: Cercozoa Various amoebae and flagellates, usually with filose pseudopods and common in soil Foraminifera Amoeboids with reticulose pseudopods, common as marine benthos Radiolaria Amoeboids with axopods, common as marine plankton The name Rhizaria was created recently by Cavalier-Smith in 2002. Most are biciliate amoeboflagellates at some point in the life cycle. Pseudopodia are root-like reticulopodia, filopodia and/or axopodia - not broad lobopodia as in Amoeba. All of these features can, however, be found in members of other clades. Nevertheless, the Rhizaria are supported by both rRNA and actin trees (Cavalier-Smith & Chao, 2003; Nikolaev et al. 2004). A few other groups may be included in the Cercozoa, but on some trees appear closer to the Foraminifera. These are the Phytomyxea and Ascetosporea, parasites of plants and animals respectively, and the peculiar amoeba Gromia. The different groups of Rhizaria are considered close relatives based mainly on genetic similarities, and have been regarded as an extension of the Cercozoa. The name Rhizaria for the expanded group was introduced by Cavalier-Smith in 2002, who also included the centrohelids and Apusozoa. | ![]() [1] FIG. 2. The tree of life based on molecular, ultrastructural and palaeontological evidence. Contrary to widespread assumptions, the root is among the eubacteria, probably within the double-enveloped Negibacteria, not between eubacteria and archaebacteria (Cavalier-Smith, 2002b); it may lie between Eobacteria and other Negibacteria (Cavalier-Smith, 2002b). The position of the eukaryotic root has been nearly as controversial, but is less hard to establish: it probably lies between unikonts and bikonts (Lang et al., 2002; Stechmann and Cavalier-Smith, 2002, 2003). For clarity the basal eukaryotic kingdom Protozoa is not labelled; it comprises four major groups (alveolates, cabozoa, Amoebozoa and Choanozoa) plus the small bikont phylum Apusozoa of unclear precise position; whether Heliozoa are protozoa as shown or chromists is uncertain (Cavalier-Smith, 2003b). Symbiogenetic cell enslavement occurred four or five times: in the origin of mitochondria and chloroplasts from different negibacteria, of chromalveolates by the enslaving of a red alga (Cavalier-Smith, 1999, 2003; Harper and Keeling, 2003) and in the origin of the green plastids of euglenoid (excavate) and chlorarachnean (cercozoan) algae-a green algal cell was enslaved either by the ancestral cabozoan (arrow) or (less likely) twice independently within excavates and Cercozoa (asterisks) (Cavalier-Smith, 2003a). The upper thumbnail sketch shows membrane topology in the chimaeric cryptophytes (class Cryptophyceae of the phylum Cryptista); in the ancestral chromist the former food vacuole membrane fused with the rough endoplasmic reticulum placing the enslaved cell within its lumen (red) to yield the complex membrane topology shown. The large host nucleus and the tiny nucleomorph are shown in blue, chloroplast green and mitochondrion purple. In chlorarachneans (class Chlorarachnea of phylum Cercozoa) the former food vacuole membrane remained topologically distinct from the ER to become an epiplastid membrane and so did not acquire ribosomes on its surface, but their membrane topology is otherwise similar to the cryptophytes. The other sketches portray the four major kinds of cell in the living world and their membrane topology. The upper ones show the contrasting ancestral microtubular cytoskeleton (ciliary roots, in red) of unikonts (a cone of single microtubules attaching the single centriole to the nucleus, blue) and bikonts (two bands of microtubules attached to the posterior centriole and an anterior fan of microtubules attached to the anterior centriole). The lower ones show the single plasma membrane of unibacteria (posibacteria plus archaebacteria), which were ancestral to eukaryotes and the double envelope of negibacteria, which were ancestral to mitochondria and chloroplasts (which retained the outer membrane, red). source: http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/cg i/content/full/95/1/147/FIG2 ![]() [2] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of eukaryotes. The vast majority of characterized eukaryotes, with the notable exception of major subgroups of amoebae, can now be assigned to one of eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal flagellum) have a single basal flagellum on reproductive cells and flat mitochondrial cristae (most eukaryotes have tubular ones). Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in Plants; theirs are the only plastids with just two outer membranes. Heterokonts (different flagellae) have a unique flagellum decorated with hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles) and, usually, a second plain one. Cercozoans are amoebae with filose pseudopodia, often living with in tests (hard outer shells), some very elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa are mostly naked amoebae (lacking tests), often with lobose pseudopodia for at least part of their life cycle. Alveolates have systems of cortical alveoli directly beneath their plasma membranes. Discicristates have discoid mitochondrial cristae and, in some cases, a deep (excavated) ventral feeding groove. Amitochondrial excavates lack substantial molecular phylogenetic support, but most have an excavated ventral feeding groove, and all lack mitochondria. The tree shown is based on a consensus of molecular (1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data and includes a rough indication of new ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines) (7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon name indicates probable paraphyletic group. source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co ntent/full/300/5626/1703 | |
1,961,000,000 YBN | 320) Rhizaria Phylum "Cercozoa" evolve now. The Cercozoa are a group of protists, including most amoeboids and flagellates that feed by means of filose pseudopods. These may be restricted to part of the cell surface, but there is never a true cytostome or mouth as found in many other protozoa. They show a variety of forms and have proven difficult to define in terms of structural characteristics, although their unity is strongly supported by genetic studies. The best-known Cercozoa are the euglyphids, filose amoebae with shells of siliceous scales or plates, which are commonly found in soils, nutrient-rich waters, and on aquatic plants. Some other filose amoebae produce organic shells, including the tectofilosids and Gromia. They were formerly classified with the euglyphids as the Testaceafilosia. This group is not monophyletic, but nearly all studied members fall in or near the Cercozoa, related to similarly shelled flagellates. Another important group placed here are the chlorarachniophytes, strange amoebae that form a reticulating net. They are set apart by the presence of chloroplasts, which apparently developed from an ingested green alga. They are bound by four membranes and still possess a vestigial nucleus, called a nucleomorph. As such, they have been of great interest to researchers studying the endosymbiotic origins of organelles. Other notable cercozoans include the cercomonads, which are common soil flagellates. Two groups traditionally considered heliozoa, the dimorphids and desmothoracids, belong here. Recently the marine Phaeodarea have also been included. The Cercozoa are closely related to the Foraminifera and Radiolaria, amoeboids that usually have complex shells, and together with them form a supergroup called the Rhizaria. Their exact composition and relationships are still being worked out. PHYLUM Cercozoa (Cavalier-Smith 1998) CLASS Spongomonadea CLASS Proteomyxidea - desmothoracids, dimorphids, gymnophryids, etc. CLASS Sarcomonadea - cercomonads CLASS Imbricatea - euglyphids and thaumatomonads CLASS Thecofilosea - tectofilosids and cryomonads CLASS Phaeodarea CLASS Chlorarachnea (Hibberd & Norris, 1984) Class Spongomonadea Chlorarachniophytes are a small group of algae occasionally found in tropical oceans. They are typically mixotrophic, ingesting bacteria and smaller protists as well as conducting photosynthesis. Normally they have the form of small amoebae, with branching cytoplasmic extensions that capture prey and connect the cells together, forming a net. They may also form flagellate zoospores, which characteristically have a single subapical flagellum that spirals backwards around the cell body, and walled coccoid cells. The chloroplasts were presumably acquired by ingesting some green alga. They are surrounded by four membranes, the outermost of which is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum, and contain a small nucleomorph between the middle two, which is a remnant of the alga's nucleus. This contains a small amount of DNA and divides without forming a mitotic spindle. The origin of the chloroplasts from green algae is supported by their pigmentation, which includes chlorophylls a and b, and by genetic similarities. The only other group of algae that contain nucleomorphs are the cryptomonads, but their chloroplasts seem to be derived from a red alga. The chlorarachniophytes only include five genera, which show some variation in their life-cycles and may lack one or two of the stages described above. Genetic studies place them among the Cercozoa, a diverse group of amoeboid and amoeboid-like protozoa. Class Proteomyxidea Order Desmothoracida (Hertwig & Lesser 1874) The desmothoracids are a group of heliozoan protists, usually sessile and found in freshwater environments. Each adult is a spherical cell around 10-20 μm in diameter surrounded by a perforated organic lorica or shell, with many radial pseudopods projecting through the holes to capture food. These are supported by small bundles of microtubules that arise near a point on the nuclear membrane. Unlike other heliozoans, the microtubules are not in any regular geometric array, there does not appear to be a microtubule organizing center, and there is no distinction between the outer and inner cytoplasm. Reproduction takes place by the budding off of small motile cells, usually with two flagella. Later these are lost, and pseudopods and a lorica are formed. Typically a single lengthened pseudopod will secrete a hollow stalk that attached the adult to the substrate. The form of the flagella, the tubular cristae within the mitochondria, and other characters led to the suggestion that the desmothoracids belong among what is now the Cercozoa, which has now been confirmed by genetic studies. Order Heliomonadida Genus Dimorpha The dimorphids or heliomonads are a small group of heliozoa that are unusual in possessing flagella throughout their life-cycle. There are two genera: Dimorpha, a tiny organism found in freshwater, and the larger Tetradimorpha, which is distinguished by having four rather than two flagella. Bundles of microtubules, typically in square array, arise from a body near the flagellar bases and support the numerous axopods that project from the cell surface. Dimorphids have a single nucleus, and mitochondria with tubular cristae. Genetic studies place them among the Cercozoa, a group including various other flagellates that form pseudopods. Order Reticulosida Family Gymnophryidae (Mikrjukov & Mylnikov, 1996) The gymnophryids are a small group of amoeboids that lack shells and produce thin, reticulose pseudopods. These contain microtubules and have a granular appearance, owing to the presence of extrusomes, but are distinct from the pseudopods of Foraminifera. They are included among the Cercozoa, but differ from other cercozoans in having mitochondria with flat cristae, rather than tubular cristae. Gymnophrys cometa, found in freshwater and soil, is representative of the group. The cell body is under 10 μm in size, and has a pair of reduced flagella, which are smooth and insert parallel to one another. It may also produce motile zoospores and cysts. Gymnophrys and Borkovia are the only confirmed genera, but other naked reticulose amoebae such as Biomyxa may be close relatives. Class Sarcomonadea Order Cercomonadida (Poche, 1913) Cercomonads are small flagellates, widespread in aqueous habitats and especially common in soils. The cells are generally around 10 μm in length, without any shell or covering. They produce filose pseudopods to capture bacteria, but do not use them for locomotion, which usually takes place by gliding along surfaces. Most members have two smooth flagella, one directed forward and one trailing under the cell, inserted at right angles near its anterior. The nucleus is connected to the flagellar bases and accompanied by a characteristic paranuclear body. Genetic studies place the cercomonads among the core Cercozoa, a diverse group of amoeboid and flagellate protozoans. They are divided into two families. The Heteromitidae tend to be relatively rigid, and produce only temporary pseudopods. The Cercomonadidae are more plastic, and when food supplies are plentiful may become amoeboid and even multinucleate. The classification of genera and species continues to undergo revision. Some genera have been merged, like Cercomonas and Cercobodo, and some have been moved to other groups. Class Imbricatea Order Euglyphida (Copeland, 1956) The euglyphids are a prominent group of filose amoebae that produce shells or tests from siliceous scales, plates, and sometimes spines. These elements are created within the cell and then assembled on its surface in a more or less regular arrangement, giving the test a textured appearance. There is a single opening for the long slender pseudopods, which capture food and pull the cell across the substrate. Euglyphids are common in soils, marshes, and other organic-rich environments, feeding on tiny organisms such as bacteria. The test is generally 30-100 μm in length, although the cell only occupies part of this space. During reproduction a second shell is formed opposite the opening, so both daughter cells remain protected. Different genera and species are distinguished primarily by the form of the test. Euglypha and Trinema are the most common. The euglyphids are traditionally grouped with other amoebae. However, genetic studies instead place them with various amoeboid and flagellate groups, forming an assemblage called the Cercozoa. Their closest relatives are the thaumatomonads, flagellates that form similar siliceous tests. Class Thecofilosea Order Tectofilosida (Cavalier-Smith & Chao, 2003) The tectofilosids or amphitremids are a group of filose amoebae with shells. These are composed of organic materials and sometimes collected debris, in contrast to the euglyphids, which produce shells from siliceous scales. The shell usually has a single opening, but in Amphitrema and a few other genera it has two on opposite ends. The cell itself occupies most of the shell. They are most often found on marsh plants such as Sphagnum. This group was previously classified as the Gromiida or Gromiina. However, molecular studies separate Gromia from the others, which must therefore be renamed. They are placed among the Cercozoa, and presumably developed from flagellates like Cryothecomonas, which has a similar test. However, only a few have been studied in detail, so their relationships and monophyly are not yet certain. Class: Phaeodarea (Haeckel, 1879) The Phaeodarea are a group of amoeboid protists. They are traditionally considered radiolarians, but in molecular trees do not appear to be close relatives of the other groups, and are instead placed among the Cercozoa. They are distinguished by the structure of their central capsule and by the presence of a phaeodium, an aggregate of waste particles within the cell. Phaeodarea produce hollow skeletons composed of amorphous silica and organic material, which rarely fossilize. The endoplasm is divided by a cape with three openings, of which one gives rise to feeding pseudopods, and the others let through bundles of microtubules that support the axopods. Unlike other radiolarians, there are no cross-bridges between them. They also lack symbiotic algae, generally living below the photic zone, and do not produce any strontium sulphate. CLASS Chlorarachnea Chlorarachniophytes are a small group of algae occasionally found in tropical oceans. They are typically mixotrophic, ingesting bacteria and smaller protists as well as conducting photosynthesis. Normally they have the form of small amoebae, with branching cytoplasmic extensions that capture prey and connect the cells together, forming a net. They may also form flagellate zoospores, which characteristically have a single subapical flagellum that spirals backwards around the cell body, and walled coccoid cells. The chloroplasts were presumably acquired by ingesting some green alga. They are surrounded by four membranes, the outermost of which is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum, and contain a small nucleomorph between the middle two, which is a remnant of the alga's nucleus. This contains a small amount of DNA and divides without forming a mitotic spindle. The origin of the chloroplasts from green algae is supported by their pigmentation, which includes chlorophylls a and b, and by genetic similarities. The only other group of algae that contain nucleomorphs are the cryptomonads, but their chloroplasts seem to be derived from a red alga. The chlorarachniophytes only include five genera, which show some variation in their life-cycles and may lack one or two of the stages described above. Genetic studies place them among the Cercozoa, a diverse group of amoeboid and amoeboid-like protozoa. | ![]() [1] FIG. 2. The tree of life based on molecular, ultrastructural and palaeontological evidence. Contrary to widespread assumptions, the root is among the eubacteria, probably within the double-enveloped Negibacteria, not between eubacteria and archaebacteria (Cavalier-Smith, 2002b); it may lie between Eobacteria and other Negibacteria (Cavalier-Smith, 2002b). The position of the eukaryotic root has been nearly as controversial, but is less hard to establish: it probably lies between unikonts and bikonts (Lang et al., 2002; Stechmann and Cavalier-Smith, 2002, 2003). For clarity the basal eukaryotic kingdom Protozoa is not labelled; it comprises four major groups (alveolates, cabozoa, Amoebozoa and Choanozoa) plus the small bikont phylum Apusozoa of unclear precise position; whether Heliozoa are protozoa as shown or chromists is uncertain (Cavalier-Smith, 2003b). Symbiogenetic cell enslavement occurred four or five times: in the origin of mitochondria and chloroplasts from different negibacteria, of chromalveolates by the enslaving of a red alga (Cavalier-Smith, 1999, 2003; Harper and Keeling, 2003) and in the origin of the green plastids of euglenoid (excavate) and chlorarachnean (cercozoan) algae-a green algal cell was enslaved either by the ancestral cabozoan (arrow) or (less likely) twice independently within excavates and Cercozoa (asterisks) (Cavalier-Smith, 2003a). The upper thumbnail sketch shows membrane topology in the chimaeric cryptophytes (class Cryptophyceae of the phylum Cryptista); in the ancestral chromist the former food vacuole membrane fused with the rough endoplasmic reticulum placing the enslaved cell within its lumen (red) to yield the complex membrane topology shown. The large host nucleus and the tiny nucleomorph are shown in blue, chloroplast green and mitochondrion purple. In chlorarachneans (class Chlorarachnea of phylum Cercozoa) the former food vacuole membrane remained topologically distinct from the ER to become an epiplastid membrane and so did not acquire ribosomes on its surface, but their membrane topology is otherwise similar to the cryptophytes. The other sketches portray the four major kinds of cell in the living world and their membrane topology. The upper ones show the contrasting ancestral microtubular cytoskeleton (ciliary roots, in red) of unikonts (a cone of single microtubules attaching the single centriole to the nucleus, blue) and bikonts (two bands of microtubules attached to the posterior centriole and an anterior fan of microtubules attached to the anterior centriole). The lower ones show the single plasma membrane of unibacteria (posibacteria plus archaebacteria), which were ancestral to eukaryotes and the double envelope of negibacteria, which were ancestral to mitochondria and chloroplasts (which retained the outer membrane, red). source: http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/cg i/content/full/95/1/147/FIG2 ![]() [2] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of eukaryotes. The vast majority of characterized eukaryotes, with the notable exception of major subgroups of amoebae, can now be assigned to one of eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal flagellum) have a single basal flagellum on reproductive cells and flat mitochondrial cristae (most eukaryotes have tubular ones). Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in Plants; theirs are the only plastids with just two outer membranes. Heterokonts (different flagellae) have a unique flagellum decorated with hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles) and, usually, a second plain one. Cercozoans are amoebae with filose pseudopodia, often living with in tests (hard outer shells), some very elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa are mostly naked amoebae (lacking tests), often with lobose pseudopodia for at least part of their life cycle. Alveolates have systems of cortical alveoli directly beneath their plasma membranes. Discicristates have discoid mitochondrial cristae and, in some cases, a deep (excavated) ventral feeding groove. Amitochondrial excavates lack substantial molecular phylogenetic support, but most have an excavated ventral feeding groove, and all lack mitochondria. The tree shown is based on a consensus of molecular (1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data and includes a rough indication of new ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines) (7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon name indicates probable paraphyletic group. source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co ntent/full/300/5626/1703 | |
1,960,000,000 YBN | 319) Rhizaria Phylum "Radiolaria" evolve now. Ribosomal RNA indicates that Rhizaria Phylum "Radiolaria" evolve now. Radiolarians (also radiolaria) are amoeboid protozoa that produce intricate mineral skeletons, typically with a central capsule dividing the cell into inner and outer portions, called endoplasm and ectoplasm. They are found as plankton throughout the ocean, and their shells are important fossils found from the Cambrian onwards. Move by pseudopodia. external tests made of silica (glass). Radiolaria have a test composed of silica or strontium sulfate. Most have a radial arrangement of spines. Pseudopods (actinopods) project from an external layer of cytoplasm and are supported by rows of microtubules. Tests of dead foraminiferans and radiolarians form deep layers of ocean floor sediment. Back to the Precambrian, each layer has distinctive foraminiferans which helps date rocks. Over hundreds of millions of years, the CaCO3 shells have contributed to the formation of chalk deposits (i.e. White Cliffs of Dover, limestone of pyramids). Lifecycle Simple asexual fission of radiolarian cells has been observed. Sexual reproduction has not been confirmed but is assumed to occur; possible gametogenesis has been observed in the form of "swarmers" being expelled from swellings in the cell. Swarmers are formed from the central capsule after the ectoplasm has been discarded. The central capsule sinks through the water column to depths hundreds of meters greater than the normal habitat and swells, eventually rupturing and releasing the flagellated cells. Recombination of these cells, which are assumed to be haploid, to produce diploid "adults" has not been observed however and is only inferred to occur. Comparisons of standing crops within the water column and sediment trap samples have ascertained that the average life span of radiolarians is about two weeks, ranging from a few days to a few weeks. All radiolarians secrete strontium sulphate at some point in the life cycle - as the adult shell in Acantharea, and as crystals in ‘swarmer cells" produced during asexual reproduction in Polycystinea. La rge, planktonic forms that produce a glassy, intricate shell. Radiolarians have many needle-like pseudopods supported by microtubules, called axopods, which aid in flotation. The nuclei and most other organelles are in the endoplasm, while the ectoplasm is filled with frothy vacuoles and lipid droplets, keeping them buoyant. Often it also contains symbiotic algae, especially zooxanthellae, that provide most of the cell's energy. Some of this organization is found among the heliozoa, but those lack central capsules and only produce simple scales and spines. The main class of radiolarians are the Polycystinea, which produce siliceous skeletons. These include the majority of fossils. They also include the Acantharea, which produce skeletons of strontium sulfate. Despite some initial suggestions to the contrary, genetic studies place these two groups close together. They also include the peculiar genus Sticholonche, which lacks an internal skeleton and so is usually considered a heliozoan. Traditionally the radiolarians also include the Phaeodarea, which produce siliceous skeletons but differ from the polycystines in several other respects. However, on molecular trees they branch with the Cercozoa, a group including various flagellate and amoeboid protists. The other radiolarians appear near, but outside, the Cercozoa, so the similarity is due to convergent evolution. The radiolarians and Cercozoa are included within a supergroup called the Rhizaria. German biologist Ernst Haeckel produced exquisite (and perhaps somewhat exaggerated) drawings of radiolaria, helping to popularize these protists among Victorian parlor microscopists alongside foraminifera and diatoms. PHYL UM Radiolaria (Müller 1858 emend.) CLASS Polycystinea CLASS Acantharea (Haeckel, 1881) CLASS Sticholonchea (CLASS Phaeodarea Haeckel, 1879 )? CLASS Polycystinea: The polycystines are a group of radiolarian protists. They include the vast majority of the fossil radiolaria, as their skeletons are abundant in marine sediments, making them one of the most common groups of microfossils. These skeletons are composed of opaline silica. In some it takes the form of relatively simple spicules, but in others it forms more elaborate lattices, such as concentric spheres with radial spines or sequences of conical chambers. Class Acantharea The Acantharea are a small group of radiolarian protozoa, distinguished mainly by their skeletons. These are composed of strontium sulfate crystals, which do not fossilize, and take the form of either ten diametric or twenty radial spines. The central capsule is made up of microfibrils arranged into twenty plates, each with a hole through which one spine projects, and there is also a microfibrillar cortex linked to the spines by myonemes. These assist in flotation, together with the vacuoles in the ectoplasm, which often contain zooxanthellae. The axopods are fixed in number. Reproduction takes place by formation of spores, which may be flagellate. These develop into mononucleate amoebae; adults are usually multinucleate. Class Sticholonchea Sticholonche is a peculiar genus of protozoan with a single species, S. zanclea, found in open oceans at depths of 100-500 metres. It is generally considered a heliozoan, placed in its own order, called the Taxopodida. However it has also been classified as an unusual radiolarian, and this has gained support from genetic studies, which place it near the Acantharea. Sticholonche are usually around 200 μm, though this varies considerably, and have a bilaterally symmetric shape, somewhat flattened and widened at the front. The axopods are arranged into distinct rows, six of which lie in a dorsal groove and are rigid, and the rest of which are mobile. These are used primarily for buoyancy, rather than feeding. They also have fourteen groups of prominent spines, and many smaller spicules, although there is no central capsule as in true radiolarians. Cercozoa, originally named by Cavalier-Smith in 1998, is a diverse group of taxa united solely on molecular grounds, but supported by a number of genes (Longet et al., 2003). Amongst notable members of the Cercozoa are amoeboid forms such as Difflugia, which produce agglutinated tests that may be fossilised (the record extends back to the Neoproterozoic - Finlay et al., 2004), and the Chlorarachnea (e.g. Chlorarachnion), marine amoeboid organisms which possess chloroplasts derived from a secondary endosymbiosis with a green alga. Cavalier-Smith, (2003). The nucleus of the endosymbiont in Chlorarachnion, in fact, has not fully degraded as in most secondarily plastid-bearing eukaryotes, and the chloroplast retains a small nucleomorph contained within the surrounding membranes. The Polycystinea (sometimes spelled Polycistinea or Polycystina) are one group of the Radiolaria. These are not just "small shelly fauna," they are tiny shelly fauna made up of single, if rather complex, cells. The shell turns out to be made of amorphous silica -- essentially sand -- without the admixture of organics that characterize similar forms. Polycystinea are exclusively marine but found in great numbers in the oceans. Their fossil record goes back almost a billion years, well into Precambrian time. Like other radiolarians, the cytoplasm of Polycystinea is divided into ectoplasm and endoplasm by a perforated protein capsule -- not the nuclear membrane, but a novel structure unique to this group. The endoplasm forms a central medulla enclosed by this porous, membranous capsule. The nucleus is inside this central region. The ectoplasm is outside the capsule and forms the region known as the cortex (or calymma). The visible remains shown in the image are made up of perforated tests (the "shells"). In life, these are located in the ectoplasm. Polycystinates extend pseudopods supported by a complex microtubular array (axopods) which originate in the endoplasm. The pseudopods pass through pores in the test and extend, covered with a thin layer of cytoplasm, from the surface of the cell. Spines of the test, if any, also pass through the capsule and extend, covered with cytoplasm, from the surface of the cell. The ectoplasm is often vacuolated and frequently contains photosynthetic zooxanthellae. The endoplasm actually contains all of the organelles normally associated with a "normal" heterotrophic eukaryotic cell, including mitochondria, a nucleus, and a cytoskeleton. The ectoplasm is largely filled with digestive vacuoles, symbiotic algae, and the test. From an evolutionary standpoint, the Polycystina appear to be one step towards a whole different type of biological organization based on a 3-compartment cell, rather than the 2-compartment cell of metazoans. In fact, a number of polycystinean species are colonial. It is interesting to speculate on what might have evolved on this model, had circumstances been different. | ![]() [1] FIG. 2. The tree of life based on molecular, ultrastructural and palaeontological evidence. Contrary to widespread assumptions, the root is among the eubacteria, probably within the double-enveloped Negibacteria, not between eubacteria and archaebacteria (Cavalier-Smith, 2002b); it may lie between Eobacteria and other Negibacteria (Cavalier-Smith, 2002b). The position of the eukaryotic root has been nearly as controversial, but is less hard to establish: it probably lies between unikonts and bikonts (Lang et al., 2002; Stechmann and Cavalier-Smith, 2002, 2003). For clarity the basal eukaryotic kingdom Protozoa is not labelled; it comprises four major groups (alveolates, cabozoa, Amoebozoa and Choanozoa) plus the small bikont phylum Apusozoa of unclear precise position; whether Heliozoa are protozoa as shown or chromists is uncertain (Cavalier-Smith, 2003b). Symbiogenetic cell enslavement occurred four or five times: in the origin of mitochondria and chloroplasts from different negibacteria, of chromalveolates by the enslaving of a red alga (Cavalier-Smith, 1999, 2003; Harper and Keeling, 2003) and in the origin of the green plastids of euglenoid (excavate) and chlorarachnean (cercozoan) algae-a green algal cell was enslaved either by the ancestral cabozoan (arrow) or (less likely) twice independently within excavates and Cercozoa (asterisks) (Cavalier-Smith, 2003a). The upper thumbnail sketch shows membrane topology in the chimaeric cryptophytes (class Cryptophyceae of the phylum Cryptista); in the ancestral chromist the former food vacuole membrane fused with the rough endoplasmic reticulum placing the enslaved cell within its lumen (red) to yield the complex membrane topology shown. The large host nucleus and the tiny nucleomorph are shown in blue, chloroplast green and mitochondrion purple. In chlorarachneans (class Chlorarachnea of phylum Cercozoa) the former food vacuole membrane remained topologically distinct from the ER to become an epiplastid membrane and so did not acquire ribosomes on its surface, but their membrane topology is otherwise similar to the cryptophytes. The other sketches portray the four major kinds of cell in the living world and their membrane topology. The upper ones show the contrasting ancestral microtubular cytoskeleton (ciliary roots, in red) of unikonts (a cone of single microtubules attaching the single centriole to the nucleus, blue) and bikonts (two bands of microtubules attached to the posterior centriole and an anterior fan of microtubules attached to the anterior centriole). The lower ones show the single plasma membrane of unibacteria (posibacteria plus archaebacteria), which were ancestral to eukaryotes and the double envelope of negibacteria, which were ancestral to mitochondria and chloroplasts (which retained the outer membrane, red). source: http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/cg i/content/full/95/1/147/FIG2 ![]() [2] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of eukaryotes. The vast majority of characterized eukaryotes, with the notable exception of major subgroups of amoebae, can now be assigned to one of eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal flagellum) have a single basal flagellum on reproductive cells and flat mitochondrial cristae (most eukaryotes have tubular ones). Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in Plants; theirs are the only plastids with just two outer membranes. Heterokonts (different flagellae) have a unique flagellum decorated with hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles) and, usually, a second plain one. Cercozoans are amoebae with filose pseudopodia, often living with in tests (hard outer shells), some very elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa are mostly naked amoebae (lacking tests), often with lobose pseudopodia for at least part of their life cycle. Alveolates have systems of cortical alveoli directly beneath their plasma membranes. Discicristates have discoid mitochondrial cristae and, in some cases, a deep (excavated) ventral feeding groove. Amitochondrial excavates lack substantial molecular phylogenetic support, but most have an excavated ventral feeding groove, and all lack mitochondria. The tree shown is based on a consensus of molecular (1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data and includes a rough indication of new ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines) (7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon name indicates probable paraphyletic group. source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co ntent/full/300/5626/1703 | |
1,960,000,000 YBN | 321) Rhizaria Phylum "Foraminifera" evolve now. Ribosomal RNA shows Rhizaria Phylum "Foraminifera" (also known as "Granuloreticulosea") evolve now. Forminifera are catagorized as amoeboid because they have pseudopods. The Foraminifera, or forams for short, are a large group of amoeboid protists with reticulating pseudopods, fine strands that branch and merge to form a dynamic net. They typically produce a shell, or test, which can have either one or multiple chambers, some becoming quite elaborate in structure. About 250 000 species are recognized, both living and fossil. They are usually less than 1 mm in size, but some are much larger, and the largest recorded specimen reached 19 cm. As fossils, foraminifera are extremely useful. Foraminifera are haplodiploid. Most have a kind of shell called a "test", which is composed of calcium carbonate. move by pseudopodia most are marine test s are major components of limestone used to date marine sediments. Foraminifera, especially the calcareous forms, have a fossil record stretching back to the Cambrian (Lee, 1990), and are especially important biostratigraphically. b. Foraminiferans have a multi-chambered CaCO3 (calcium carbonate) shell; thin pseudopods extend through holes. Of the approximately 4000 living species of foraminifera the life cycles of only 20 or so are known. There are a great variety of reproductive, growth and feeding strategies, however the alternation of sexual and asexual generations is common throughout the group and this feature differentiates the foraminifera from other members of the Granuloreticulosea. An asexually produced haploid generation commonly form a large proloculus (initial chamber) and are therefore termed megalospheric. Sexually produced diploid generations tend to produce a smaller proloculus and are therefore termed microspheric. Importantly in terms of the fossil record, many foraminiferal tests are either partially dissolved or partially disintegrate during the reproductive process.The planktonic foraminifera Hastigerina pelagica reproduces by gametogenesis at depth, the spines, septa and apertural region are resorbed leaving a tell-tale test. Globigerinoides sacculiferproduces a sac-like final chamber and additional calcification of later chambers before dissolution of spines occurs, this again produces a distinctive test, which once gametogenesis is complete sinks to the sea bed. Since the meiosis products have to differentiate or mature into gametes, meiosis does not result directly in gametes, these species are haplodipoid (haplodiplontic). Modern forams are primarily marine, although they can survive in brackish conditions. A few species survive in fresh water (e.g. Lake Geneva) and one species even lives in damp rainforrest soil. They are very common in the meiobenthos, and about 40 species are planktonic. The cell is divided into granular endoplasm and transparent ectoplasm. The pseudopodial net may emerge through a single opening or many perforations in the test, and characteristically has small granules streaming in both directions. The pseudopods are used for locomotion, anchoring, and in capturing food, which consists of small organisms such as diatoms or bacteria. A number of forms have unicellular algae as endosymbionts, from diverse lineages such as the green algae, red algae, golden algae, diatoms, and dinoflagellates. Some forams are kleptoplastic, retaining chloroplasts from ingested algae to conduct photosynthesis. The foraminiferan life-cycle involves an alternation between haploid and diploid generations, although they are mostly similar in form. The haploid or gamont initially has a single nucleus, and divides to produce numerous gametes, which typically have two flagella. The diploid or schizont is multinucleate, and after meiosis fragments to produce new gamonts. Multiple rounds of asexual reproduction between sexual generations is not uncommon. The form and composition of the test is the primary means by which forams are identified and classified. Most have calcareous tests, composed of calcium carbonate, which generally takes the form of interlocking microscopic crystals, giving it a glassy or hyaline appearance. In other forams the test may be composed of organic material, made from small pieces of sediment cemented together (agglutinated), and in one genus of silica. Openings in the test, including those that allow cytoplasm to flow between chambers, are called apertures. Tests are known as fossils as far back as the Cambrian period, and many marine sediments are composed primarily of them. For instance, the nummulitic limestone that makes up the pyramids of Egypt is composed almost entirely of them. Forams may also make a significant contribution to the overall deposition of calcium carbonate in coral reefs. Because of their diversity, abundance, and complex morphology, fossil foraminiferal assembleages can give accurate relative dates for rocks and thus are extremely useful in biostratigraphy. Before more modern techniques became available, the oil industry relied heavily on microfossils such as foraminifera to find potential oil deposits. For the same reasons they make good biostratigraphic markers, living foraminiferal assembleages have been used as bioindicators in coastal environments, including as indicators of coral reef health. Fossil foraminifera are also useful in paleoclimatology and paleoceanography. They can be used to reconstruct past climate by examining their oxygen stable isotope ratios. Geographic patterns seen in the fossil record of planktonic forams are also used to reconstruct paleo ocean current patterns. Genetic studies have identified the naked amoeba Reticulomyxa and the peculiar xenophyophores as foraminiferans without tests. A few other ameoboids produce reticulose pseudopods, and were formerly classified with the forams as the Granuloreticulosa, but this is no longer considered a natural group, and most are now placed among the Cercozoa. Both the Cercozoa and Radiolaria are close relatives of the Foraminifera, together making up the Rhizaria, but the exact position of the forams is still unclear. PHYLUM Foraminifera CLASS Athalamea (Haeckel, 1862) CLASS Xenophyophorea (F.E. Schulze, 1904) CLASS Foraminifera (Lee, 1990) CLASS Foraminifera ORDER Allogromiida The Allogromiida are a small group of foraminiferans, including those that produce organic tests (Lagynacea). Genetic studies have shown that some foraminiferans with agglutinated tests, previously included in the Textulariida or as their own order Astrorhizida, also belong here. Allogromiids produce relatively simple tests, usually with a single chamber, similar to those of other protists such as Gromia. They are found in stressed environments, including both marine and freshwater forms, and are the oldest forams known from the fossil record. ORDER Fusulinida The fusulinids are an extinct group of foraminiferan protozoa. They produce calcareous shells, which are of fine calcite granules packed closely together; this distinguishes them from other calcareous forams, where the test is usually hyaline. Fusulinids are important indicator fossils. ORDER Globigerinida The Globigerinida are a common group of foraminiferans that are found as marine plankton (other groups are primarily benthic). They produce hyaline calcareous tests, and are known as fossils from the Jurassic period onwards. The group has included more than 100 genera and over 400 species, of which about 30 species are extant. One of the most important genera is Globigerina; vast areas of the ocean floor are covered with Globigerina ooze (named by Murray and Renard in 1873), dominated by the shells of planktonic forams. ORDER Miliolida The miliolids are a group of foraminiferans, abundant in shallow waters such as estuaries and coastlines, though they also include oceanic forms. They are distinguished by producing porcelaneous tests, composed of calcite needles and organic material; the needles have a high proportion of magnesium and are oriented randomly. The test lacks pores and generally has multiple chambers, which are often arranged in a distinctive fashion called milioline. ORDER Rotaliida The Rotaliida are a large and abundant group of foraminiferans. They are primarily oceanic benthos, although some are common in shallower waters such as estuaries. They also include many important fossils, such as nummulites. Rotaliids produce hyaline tests, in which the microscopic crystals may be oriented either radially (as in other forams) or obliquely. ORDER Textulariida The Textulariida are a group of common foraminiferans that produce agglutinated shells, composed of foreign particles in an organic or calcareous cement. Previously they were taken to include all such species, but genetic studies have shown that they are not all closely related, and several superfamilies have been moved to the order Allogromiida. The remaining forms are sometimes divided into three orders: the Trochamminida and Lituolida (organic cement) and the Textulariida sensu stricto (calcareous cement). All three are known as fossils from the Cambrian onwards. CLASS Xenophyophorea Xenophyophores are marine protozoans, giant single-celled organisms found throughout the world's oceans, but in their greatest numbers on the abyssal plains of the deep ocean. They were first described as sponges in 1889, then as testate amoeboids, and later as their own phylum of Protista. A recent genetic study suggested that the xenophyophores are a specialized group of Foraminifera. There are approximately 42 recognized species in 13 genera and 2 orders; one of which, Syringammina fragillissima, is among the largest known protozoans at a maximum 20 centimetres in diameter. Abundant but poorly understood, xenophyophores are delicate organisms with a variable appearance; some may resemble flattened discs, angular four-sided shapes (tetrahedra), or like frilly or spherical sponges. Local environmental conditions-such as current direction and speed-may play a part in influencing these forms. Xenophyophores are essentially lumps of viscous fluid called cytoplasm containing numerous nuclei distributed evenly throughout. Everything is contained in a ramose system of tubes called a granellare, itself composed of an organic cement-like substance. As benthic deposit feeders, xenophyophores tirelessly root through the muddy sediments on the sea floor. They excrete a slimy substance whilst feeding; in locations with a dense population of xenophyophores, such as at the bottoms of oceanic trenches, this slime may cover large areas. Local population densities may be as high as 2,000 individuals per 100 square metres, making them dominant organisms in some areas. These giant protozoans seem to feed in a manner similar to amoebas, enveloping food items with a foot-like structure called a pseudopodium. Most are epifaunal (living atop the seabed), but one species (Occultammina profunda), is known to be infaunal; it buries itself up to 6 cm deep into the sediment. Their glue-like secretions cause silt and strings of their own fecal matter, called stercomes, to build up into masses (called stercomares) on their exteriors. In this way, the organisms form structures which project from the sea floor; this characteristic also explains their name, which may be translated from the Greek to mean "bearer of foreign bodies". A protective, shell-like test is thereby agglutinated around the granellare, which is composed of scavenged minerals and the microscopic skeletal remains of other organisms, such as sponges, radiolarians, and other foraminiferans. Xenophyophores may be an important part of the benthic ecosystem by virtue of their constant bioturbation of the sediments, providing a habitat for other organisms such as isopods. Research has shown that areas dominated by xenophyophores have 3-4 times the number of benthic crustaceans, echinoderms, and molluscs than equivalent areas which lack xenophyophores. The xenophyophores themselves also play commensal host to a number of organisms-such as isopods (e.g., genus Hebefustis), sipunculan and polychaete worms, nematodes, and harpacticoid copepods-some of which may take up semi-permanent residence within a xenophyophore's test. Brittle stars (Ophiuroidea) also appear to have some sort of relationship with xenophyophores, as they are consistently found directly underneath or on top of the protozoans. Xenophyophores are difficult to study due to their extreme fragility. Specimens are invariably damaged during sampling, rendering them useless for captive study or cell culture. For this reason, very little is known of their life history. As they occur in all the world's oceans and in great numbers, xenophyophores could be indispensable agents in the process of sediment deposition and in maintaining biological diversity in benthic ecosystems. Xenophyophores are large marine Amoebae containing barite (BaSO4) crystals. CLASS Athalamea Granuloreticulosea, lacking a test or shell, though some forms might be covered by a thin lorica. Pseudopods could arise anywhere over the surface of the body, and could be branched to a greater or lesser extent in different representa-tives of the group, with or without anastomosing connections in the pseudopodial network. Organisms that have not been examined by modern techniques, nor have been seen in recent years, to check the fact that they do have granular reticulopodial bidirectional streaming, have been removed from this class and placed with the amoebae of uncertain affinities. One genus remains: Reticulomyxa. | ![]() [1] FIG. 2. The tree of life based on molecular, ultrastructural and palaeontological evidence. Contrary to widespread assumptions, the root is among the eubacteria, probably within the double-enveloped Negibacteria, not between eubacteria and archaebacteria (Cavalier-Smith, 2002b); it may lie between Eobacteria and other Negibacteria (Cavalier-Smith, 2002b). The position of the eukaryotic root has been nearly as controversial, but is less hard to establish: it probably lies between unikonts and bikonts (Lang et al., 2002; Stechmann and Cavalier-Smith, 2002, 2003). For clarity the basal eukaryotic kingdom Protozoa is not labelled; it comprises four major groups (alveolates, cabozoa, Amoebozoa and Choanozoa) plus the small bikont phylum Apusozoa of unclear precise position; whether Heliozoa are protozoa as shown or chromists is uncertain (Cavalier-Smith, 2003b). Symbiogenetic cell enslavement occurred four or five times: in the origin of mitochondria and chloroplasts from different negibacteria, of chromalveolates by the enslaving of a red alga (Cavalier-Smith, 1999, 2003; Harper and Keeling, 2003) and in the origin of the green plastids of euglenoid (excavate) and chlorarachnean (cercozoan) algae-a green algal cell was enslaved either by the ancestral cabozoan (arrow) or (less likely) twice independently within excavates and Cercozoa (asterisks) (Cavalier-Smith, 2003a). The upper thumbnail sketch shows membrane topology in the chimaeric cryptophytes (class Cryptophyceae of the phylum Cryptista); in the ancestral chromist the former food vacuole membrane fused with the rough endoplasmic reticulum placing the enslaved cell within its lumen (red) to yield the complex membrane topology shown. The large host nucleus and the tiny nucleomorph are shown in blue, chloroplast green and mitochondrion purple. In chlorarachneans (class Chlorarachnea of phylum Cercozoa) the former food vacuole membrane remained topologically distinct from the ER to become an epiplastid membrane and so did not acquire ribosomes on its surface, but their membrane topology is otherwise similar to the cryptophytes. The other sketches portray the four major kinds of cell in the living world and their membrane topology. The upper ones show the contrasting ancestral microtubular cytoskeleton (ciliary roots, in red) of unikonts (a cone of single microtubules attaching the single centriole to the nucleus, blue) and bikonts (two bands of microtubules attached to the posterior centriole and an anterior fan of microtubules attached to the anterior centriole). The lower ones show the single plasma membrane of unibacteria (posibacteria plus archaebacteria), which were ancestral to eukaryotes and the double envelope of negibacteria, which were ancestral to mitochondria and chloroplasts (which retained the outer membrane, red). source: http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/cg i/content/full/95/1/147/FIG2 ![]() [2] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of eukaryotes. The vast majority of characterized eukaryotes, with the notable exception of major subgroups of amoebae, can now be assigned to one of eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal flagellum) have a single basal flagellum on reproductive cells and flat mitochondrial cristae (most eukaryotes have tubular ones). Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in Plants; theirs are the only plastids with just two outer membranes. Heterokonts (different flagellae) have a unique flagellum decorated with hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles) and, usually, a second plain one. Cercozoans are amoebae with filose pseudopodia, often living with in tests (hard outer shells), some very elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa are mostly naked amoebae (lacking tests), often with lobose pseudopodia for at least part of their life cycle. Alveolates have systems of cortical alveoli directly beneath their plasma membranes. Discicristates have discoid mitochondrial cristae and, in some cases, a deep (excavated) ventral feeding groove. Amitochondrial excavates lack substantial molecular phylogenetic support, but most have an excavated ventral feeding groove, and all lack mitochondria. The tree shown is based on a consensus of molecular (1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data and includes a rough indication of new ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines) (7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon name indicates probable paraphyletic group. source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co ntent/full/300/5626/1703 | |
1,900,000,000 YBN | 66) Oldest Acritarch (eucaryote) fossils. These fossils are reported to be both in Chuanlinggou Formation, China and in Russia. Acritarchs, the name coined by Evitt in 1963 which means "of uncertain origin", are an artificial group. The group includes any small (most are between 20-150 microns across), organic-walled microfossil which cannot be assigned to a natural group. They are characterised by varied sculpture, some being spiny and others smooth. They are believed to have algal affinities, probably the cysts of planktonic eukaryotic algae. They are valuable Proterozoic and Palaeozoic biostratigraphic and palaeoenvironmental tools. Chitinozoa are large (50-2000 microns) flask-shaped palynomorphs which appear dark, almost opaque when viewed using a light microscope. They are important Palaeozoic microfossils as stratigraphic markers. The oldest known Acritarchs are recorded from shales of Palaeoproterozoic (1900-1600 Ma) age in the former Soviet Union. They are stratigraphically useful in the Upper Proterozoic through to the Permian. From Devonian times onwards the abundance of acritarchs appears to have declined, whether this is a reflection of their true abundance or the volume of scientific research is difficult to tell. | ![]() [1] Figure 1 Protistan microfossils from the Roper Group. a, c, Tappania plana, showing asymmetrically distributed processes and bulbous protrusions (arrow in a). b, detail of a, showing dichotomously branching process. d, Valeria lophostriata. e, Dictyosphaera sp. f, Satka favosa. The scale bar in a is 35 µm for a and c; 10 µm for b; 100 µm for d; 15 µm for e; and 40 µm for f. source: Nature 412 ![]() [2] Diagram showing basic morphological classification of acritarchs. COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.ucl.ac.uk/GeolSci/mic ropal/acritarch.html | |
1,874,000,000 YBN | 61) Oldest non-acritarch Eukaryote fossil Grypania spiralis (an alga 10 cm long) from BIF in Michigan. Oldest algae fossil. The date of this fossil was originally 2100mybn, but Schneider measured the Marquette Range Supergroup (MRS), A rhyolite in the Hemlock Formation, a mostly bimodal submarine volcanic deposit that is laterally correlative with the Negaunee Iron-formation, yields a sensitive high-resolution ion microprobe (SHRIMP) U-Pb zircon age of 1874 ± 9 Ma. In 1992, Han and Runnegar, finders of this fossil, compared the fossil to Acetabularia, a single-celled green algae. If true, this would make Grypania the oldest green algae fossil. | ![]() source: file:/root/web/Grypania_spiralis _wmel0000.htm ![]() source: http://www.peripatus.gen.nz/pale ontology/lrgGrypaniaspiralis.jpg | |
1,870,000,000 YBN | 151) Amino acid sequence comparison shows the archaebacteria and eukaryote line separating here at 1,870 mybn (first eukaryote, and first protist). | ||
1,800,000,000 YBN | 46) End of the Banded Iron Formation Rocks. | ![]() source: | |
1,584,000,000 YBN | 152) Amino acid sequence comparison shows Gram-negative and Gram-positive eubacteria here at 1,584 mybn (first Gram-positive bacteria). | ||
1,576,000,000 YBN | 67) A eukaroyte cell forms a symbiotic relationship with cyanobacteria, which form plastids (chloroplasts). Like mitochondria, these organelles copy themselves and are not made by the cell DNA. Depending on their morphology and function, plastids are commonly classified as chloroplasts, leucoplasts, amyloplasts or chromoplasts. | ||
1,513,000,000 YBN | 221) First fungi evolve. Genetic comparison shows fungi evolving now. This begins the fungi kingdom. Perhaps fungi evolved from the amoebozoa slime mold line, because the sporangiophore (stalk) and sporangium (ball on top) of slime molds look very similar to many fungi. | ||
1,500,000,000 YBN | 323) First plant (single cell, similar to glaucophytes) evolves. Ribosomal RNA place first plant (single cell, similar to glaucophytes) evolving here. This begins the plant kingdom. Cavelier-Smith and Ema E. -Y. Chao write: "Kingdom Plantae (sensuCavalier-Smith 1981) was originally defined as comprising all eukaryotes with chloroplasts possessing an envelope of two membranes and mitochondria with (irregularly) flat cristae. It originally included Viridaeplantae (green algae and embryophyte or "higher" plants), Rhodophyta (red algae), and Glaucophyta (e.g., Cyanophora, Glaucocystis). It was argued that all three groups diverged from a single primary symbiogenetic origin of plastids (Cavalier-Smith 1982). Both the monophyly of plastids and that of Glaucophyta and Plantae long met unreasonably strong opposition because of widespread false dogma that symbiogenesis is easy and because the three taxa usually do not group together in 18S rRNA trees. Now, however, derived features of all plastids compared with cyanobacteria and numerous molecular trees have led to the acceptance of plastid monophyly (Delwiche and Palmer 1998) and to the monophyly of glaucophyte algae. Furthermore, a sister relation between red algae and Viridaeplantae is strongly supported by concatenated protein trees for nuclei (Moreira et al. 2000; Baldauf et al. 2000) and chloroplasts (Martin et al. 1998; Turmel et al. 1999). The sister relationship between them and glaucophytes is convincingly, but significantly more weakly, supported by the same trees. Thus the case of Plantae shows that arguments from morphology and evolutionary considerations of protein targeting during symbiogenesis (Cavalier-Smith 2000b) gave the correct answer much more rapidly than single-gene trees, which still do not clearly group all three taxa together. In all our trees in the present study (and the recent tree of Edgcomb et al. 2002), Rhodophyta and Viridaeplantae are sisters, but with weak support. Glaucophyta wander aimlessly from one place to another in different trees." R ibosomal RNA place first plant evolving here, although glaucophytes, the earliest living plants (for many people) do not evolve until later. | ||
1,492,000,000 YBN | 173) Roper Group eukaryote algea microfossils. | ||
1,400,000,000 YBN | 86) Glaucophyta evolve. Genetic comparison shows Phylum Glaucophyta evolving at this time. Some people catagorize Glaucophyta in the kingdom Plantae instead of Protista, and label glaucophyta the most ancient living plants. The glaucophytes, also referred to as glaucocystophytes or glaucocystids, are a tiny group of freshwater algae. They are distinguished mainly by the presence of cyanelles, primitive chloroplasts which closely resemble cyanobacteria and retain a thin peptidoglycan wall between their two membranes. It is thought that the green algae (from which the higher plants evolved), red algae and glaucophytes acquired their chloroplasts from endosymbiotic cyanobacteria. The other types of algae received their chloroplasts through secondary endosymbiosis, by engulfing one of those types of algae along with their chloroplasts. The glaucophytes are of obvious interest to biologists studying the development of chloroplasts: if the hypothesis that primary chloroplasts had a single origin is correct, glaucophytes are closely related to both green plants and red algae, and may be similar to the original alga type from which all of these developed. Glaucophytes have mitochondria with flat cristae, and undergo open mitosis without centrioles. Motile forms have two unequal flagella, which may have fine hairs and are anchored by a multilayered system of microtubules, both of which are similar to forms found in some green algae. The chloroplasts of glaucophytes, like the cyanobacteria and the chloroplasts of red algae, use the pigment phycobilin to capture some wavelengths of light; the green algae and higher plants have lost that pigment. There are three main genera included here. Glaucocystis is non-motile, though it retains very short vestigial flagella, and has a cellulose wall. Cyanophora is motile and lacks a cell wall. Gloeochaete has both motile and non-motile stages, and has a cell wall that does not appear to be composed of cellulose. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Plantae Haeckel, 1866 - plants SUBKINGDOM Biliphyta Cavalier-Smith, 1981 PHYLUM Glaucophyta Skuja, 1954 CLASS Glaucocystophyceae Schaffner, 1922 | ![]() [1] ? COPYRIGHTED source: http://protist.i.hosei.ac.jp/PDB 3/PCD3711/htmls/86.html ![]() [2] ? COPYRIGHTED source: http://protist.i.hosei.ac.jp/PDB /Images/Others/Glaucocystis/ | |
1,400,000,000 YBN | 197) Opisthokonts (posterior cilium) evolve from Unikonts (ancestrally only one cilium). Opisthokonts have flat mitochondrial cristae and go on to form the Animal and Fungi kingdoms. Thomas Cavalier-Smith and Ema E.-Y. Chao write: "The term opisthokont, signifying "posterior cilium," was applied to animals, Choanozoa, and Fungi because all three groups ancestrally had a single posterior cilium (Cavalier-Smith 1987b). They were argued to be a clade because they also were characterized (uniquely at the time) by flat, nondiscoid mitochondrial cristae that were not irregularly inflated like the flat cristae of Plantae (Cavalier-Smith 1987b). Four other characters also suggested that animals and fungi were more closely related to each other than plants (chitinous exoskeletons; storage of glycogen, not starch; absence of chloroplasts; and UGA coding for tryptophane, not chain termination). However, the first three were probably ancestral states for eukaryotes and the last convergent, so the ciliary and cristal morphology were stronger indications. Although early rRNA trees did not group animals and fungi together, the opisthokonts are now consistently supported by all well-sampled rRNA trees and trees using several or many proteins, as discussed above. Moreover a derived 12-amino acid insertion in translation elongation factor 1agr and three small gaps in enolase clearly indicate that animals and fungi have a common ancestor not shared with plants (or other bikonts) or Amoebozoa (Baldauf and Palmer 1993; Baldauf 1999). Thus opisthokonts are now well accepted as a robust clade of eukaryotes (Patterson 1999)." | ![]() [1] cavalier-smith diagram COPYRIGHTED source: cavalier_jmolevol_2003_56_540-56 3.pdf ![]() [2] Figure 1. Phylogenetic hypothesis of the eukaryotic lineage based on ultrastructural and molecular data. Organisms are divided into three main groups distinguished by mitochondrial cristal shape (either discoidal, flattened or tubular). Unbroken lines indicate phylogenetic relationships that are firmly supported by available data; broken lines indicate uncertainties in phylogenetic placement, resolution of which will require additional data. Color coding of organismal genus names indicates mitochondrial genomes that have been completely (Table 1), almost completely (Jakoba, Naegleria and Thraustochytrium) or partially (*) sequenced by the OGMP (red), the FMGP (black) or other groups (green). Names in blue indicate those species whose mtDNAs are currently being sequenced by the OGMP or are future candidates for complete sequencing. Amitochondriate retortamonads are positioned at the base of the tree, with broken arrows denoting the endosymbiotic origin(s) of mitochondria from a Rickettsia-like eubacterium. Macrophar., Macropharyngomonas. source: unknown | |
1,400,000,000 YBN | 220) Amoebozoa (amoeba, slime molds) evolve now. Ribosomal RNA shows the Protist Phylum Amoebozoa (also called Ramicristates) which includes amoeba and slime molds evolving now. The Amoebozoa are a major group of amoeboid protozoa, including the majority that move by means of internal cytoplasmic flow. Their pseudopodia are characteristically blunt and finger-like, called lobopodia. Most are unicellular, and are common in soils and aquatic habitats, with some found as symbiotes of other organisms, including several pathogens. The Amoebozoa also include the slime moulds, multinucleate or multicellular forms that produce spores and are usually visible to the unaided eye. Mycetozoa are the slime molds. 4. Plasmodial Slime Molds a. Plasmodial slime molds exist as a plasmodium. (the earlier evolved acrasid cellular slime molds exist as individual amoeboid cells.) b. This diploid multinucleated cytoplasmic mass creeps along, phagocytizing decaying plant material. c. Fan-shaped plasmodium contains tubules of concentrated cytoplasm in which liquefied cytoplasm streams. d. Under unfavorable environmental conditions (e.g., drought), the plasmodium develops many sporangia that produce spores by meiosis. e. When mature, spores are released and survive until more favorable environmental conditions return; then each releases a haploid flagellated cell or an amoeboid cell. f. Two flagellated or amoeboid cells fuse to form diploid zygote that produces a multi-nucleated plasmodium. Nuclear division in giant amoebas (Peolobiont/Amoebozoa) is neither mitosis nor binary fission, but incorporates aspects of both (Fig. 3-7). Chromosomes are attached permanently to the nuclear membrane by their centromeres (MTOCs, microtubule organizing centers), and the nuclear membrane remains intact throughout division. After DNA duplication produces two chromatids, the point of attachment, the MTOC duplicates or divides, and microtubules are assembled between the two resulting MTOCs. Elongating microtubules form something akin to a spindle within the nuclear membrane that pushes the daughter chromosomes apart and elongate the membrane-bounded nucleus until it blebs in half in something akin to binary fission. Simple assembly of microtubules accomplishes the separation of daughter genomes in this simple nuclear division. In typical eukaryotic mitosis, the separation of daughter chromosomes is accomplished by a dual action, the disassembly of spindle fibers connecting the daughter chromosome to the polar MTOC, and assembly of spindle fibers running pole to pole. amoeba haplodiploid? Thomas Cavalier-Smith and Ema E. -Y. Chao write: "Amoebozoa are a key protozoan phylum because of the possibility that they are ancestrally uniciliate and unicentriolar (Cavalier-Smith 2000a,b); present data on the DHFR-TS gene fusion leaves open the possibility that they might be the earliest-diverging eukaryotes (Stechmann and Cavalier-Smith 2002), but they may be evolutionarily closer to bikonts or even opisthokonts. Amoebozoa comprise two subphyla (Cavalier-Smith 1998a): Lobosa, classical aerobic amoebae with broad ("lobose") pseudopods (including the testate Arcellinida), and Conosa (slime molds {Mycetozoa, e.g., Dictyostelium} and amitochondrial-often uniciliate-archamaebae {entamoebae, mastigamoebae}). Contrary to early analyses (Sogin 1991; Cavalier-Smith 1993a), there is no reason to regard Amoebozoa as polyphyletic; the defects of those classical uncorrected rRNA trees are shown by trees using 123 proteins that robustly establish the monophyly of both Archamoebae and Conosa (Bapteste et al. 2002). Unless the tree's root is within Conosa, Dictyostelium and Entamoeba must have evolved independently from aerobic flagellates by ciliary losses. A recent mitochondrial gene tree based on concatenating six different proteins grouped Dictyostelium with Physarum (99% support) and both Mycetozoa as sisters to Acanthamoeba (99% support), thus providing strong evidence for the monophyly of Mycetozoa and the grouping of Lobosa and Conosa as Amoebozoa (Forget et al. 2002)-the same tree also strongly supports the idea based on morphology that Allomyces should be excluded from Chytridiomycetes (in the separate class Allomycetes) and is phylogenetically closer to zygomycetes and higher fungi (Cavalier-Smith 1998a, 2000c). Furthermore, the derived gene fusion between two cytochrome oxidase genes, coxI and coxII (Lang et al. 1999), strongly supports the holophyly of Mycetozoa. Since Archamoebae secondarily lost mitochondria, the root cannot lie among them either-although anaerobiosis in Archamoebae is derived, it is unjustified to conclude from this that their simple ciliary root organization, which was a key reason for considering them early eukaryotes (Cavalier-Smith 1991c), is also secondarily derived (Edgcomb et al. 2002). Thus the root of the eukaryote tree cannot lie within the Conosa. As Mycetozoa and Archamoebae have very long-branch rRNA sequences, Conosa were excluded from the analysis in Fig. 1, which includes only Lobosa. Although the monophyly of Acanthamoebida (99%) and of Euamoebida (85%) is well supported, the basal branching of the Lobosa is so poorly resolved that the monophyly of Lobosa might appear open to question. The four lobosan lineages apparently diverged early. However, in the 279- and 227-species trees, which included Conosa, anaeromonads did not intrude into the Amoebozoa as they do in Fig. 1, and Amoebozoa were monophyletic (low support) except for the exclusion of M. invertens. M. invertens is another wandering branch, which in some taxon sample/methods groups very weakly with other Amoebozoa, but more often ends up in a different place in each tree! We concur with the judgment of Milyutina et al. (2001)Edgcomb et al. (2002) that it should not be regarded as a pelobiont or Archamoeba, but as a lobosan that independently became an anaerobe with degenerate mitochondria. Its tendency to drift around the tree, coupled with its short branch, suggests that it may be a particularly early-diverging amoebozoan lineage. If so, its unicentriolar condition would give added support to the idea that Amoebozoa are ancestrally uniciliate, if it could be shown that Amoebozoa are either holophyletic or not at the base of the tree. Most, if not all, amoebae evolved from amoeboid zooflagellates by multiple ciliary losses (Cavalier-Smith 2000a). As the uniciliate condition is widespread within Amoebozoa (Cavalier-Smith 2000a, 2002b), it may be their ancestral condition; if so, ordinary nonciliate amoebozoan amoebae arose several times independently. Evolution of amoebae from zooflagellates by ciliary loss also occurred separately in Choanozoa to produce Nuclearia and in several bikont groups, notably Percolozoa (heterolobosean amoebae, e.g., Vahlkampfia) and Cercozoa. However, we cannot currently exclude the possibility that the eukaryote tree is rooted within the lobosan Amoebozoa, in which case one of its nonciliate lineages (Euamoebida or Vanellidae) might be primitively nonciliate and the earliest-diverging eukaryotic lineage. However, as the idea that the nucleus and a single centriole and cilium coevolved in the ancestral eukaryote (Cavalier-Smith 1987a) retains its theoretical merits, we think it more likely that all Amoebozoa are derived from a uniciliate ancestor and that crown Amoebozoa are a clade." Amoebozoa vary greatly in size. Many are only 10-20 μm in size, but they also include many of the larger protozoa. The famous species Amoeba proteus may reach 800 μm in length, and partly on account of its size is often studied as a representative cell. Multinucleate amoebae like Chaos and Pelomyxa may be several millimetres in length, and some slime moulds cover several square feet. The cell is typically divided into a granular central mass, called endoplasm, and a clear outer layer, called ectoplasm. During locomotion the endoplasm flows forwards and the ectoplasm runs backwards along the outside of the cell. Many amoebae move with a definite anterior and posterior; in essence the cell functions as a single pseudopod. They usually produce numerous clear projections called subpseudopodia (or determinate pseudopodia), which have a defined length and are not directly involved in locomotion. Other amoebozoans may form multiple indeterminate pseudopodia, which are more or less tubular and are mostly filled with granular endoplasm. The cell mass flows into a leading pseudopod, and the others ultimately retract unless it changes direction. Subpseudopodia are usually absent. In addition to a few naked forms like Amoeba and Chaos, this includes most amoebae that produce shells. These may be composed of organic materials, as in Arcella, or of collected particles cemented together, as in Difflugia, with a single opening through which the pseudopodia emerge. The primary mode of nutrition is by phagocytosis: the cell surrounds potential food particles, sealing them into vacuoles where the may be digested and absorbed. Some amoebae have a posterior bulb called a uroid, which may serve to accumulate waste, periodically detaching from the rest of the cell. When food is scarce, most species can form cysts, which may be carried aerially and introduce them to new environments. In slime moulds, these structures are called spores, and form on stalked structures called fruiting bodies or sporangia. Most Amoebozoa lack flagella and more generally do not form microtubule-supported structures except during mitosis. However, flagella occur among the pelobionts, and many slime moulds produce biflagellate gametes. The flagella is generally anchored by a cone of microtubules, suggesting a close relationship to the opisthokonts. The mitochondria characteristically have branching tubular cristae, but have been lost among pelobionts and the parasitic entamoebids, collectively referred to as archamoebae based on the earlier assumption that the absence was primitive. Traditionally all amoebae with lobose pseudopods were treated together as the Lobosea, placed with other amoeboids in the phylum Sarcodina or Rhizopoda, but these were considered to be unnatural groups. Structural and genetic studies identified several independent groups: the percolozoans, pelobionts, and entamoebids. In phylogenies based on rRNA their representatives were separate from other amoebae, and appeared to diverge near the base of eukaryotic evolution, as did most slime molds. However, revised trees by Cavalier-Smith and Chao in 1996 suggested that the remaining lobosans do form a monophyletic group, and that the archamoebae and Mycetozoa are closely related to it, although the percolozoans are not. Subsequently they emended (to improve by editing) the older phylum Amoebozoa to refer to this supergroup. Studies based on other genes have provided strong support for the unity of this group. Patterson treated most with the testate filose amoebae as the ramicristates, based on mitochondrial similarities, but the latter are now removed to the Cercozoa. Amoebae are difficult to classify, and relationships within the phylum remain confused. Originally it was divided into the subphyla Conosa, comprising the archamoebae and Mycetozoa, and Lobosa, including the more typical lobose amoebae. Molecular phylogenies provide some support for this division if the Lobosa are understood to be paraphyletic. They also suggest the morphological families of naked lobosans may correspond at least partly to natural groups: * Leptomyxida * Amoebidae * Hartmannellidae * Paramoebidae * Vannellidae * Vexilliferidae * Acanthamoebidae * Stereomyxidae However, many amoebae have not yet been studied via molecular techniques, including all those that produce shells (Arcellinida). PHYLUM Amoebozoa (Lühe, 1913 emend.) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 CLASS Breviatea CLASS Variosea CLASS Phalansterea (T. Cavalier-Smith, 2000) SUBPHYLUM Lobosa (Carpenter, 1861) Cavalier-Smith, 1997 (lobose amoebas) CLASS Amoebaea CLASS Testacealobosea (includes shelled lobosid amebas {testate amoebas}) CLASS Holomastigea T. Cavalier-Smith, 1997 ("1996-1997") SUBPHYLUM Conosa (Cavalier-Smith, 1998) INTRAPHYLUM Mycetozoa (De Bary, 1859) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 (Slime Molds) SUPERCLASS Eumyxa (Cavalier-Smith, 1993) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 CLASS Protostelea (C.J. Alexopoulos & C.W. Mims, 1979 orthog. emend.) CLASS Myxogastrea (E.M. Fries, 1829 stat. nov. J. Feltgen, 1889 orthog. emend.) (plasmodial slime molds) SUPERCLASS Dictyostelia (Lister, 1909) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 CLASS Dictyostelea™ (D.L. Hawksworth et al., 1983, orthog. emend.) INTRAPHYLUM Archamoebae (Cavalier-Smith, 1983) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 CLASS Pelobiontea (F.C. Page, 1976 stat. nov. T. Cavalier-Smith, 1981) CLASS Entamoebea (T. Cavalier-Smith, 1991) SUBPHYLUM Lobosa SUBPHYLUM Conosa The Conosea unifies amoebae which usually possess flagellate stages or are amoeboflagellates. This clade consists of two relatively solid groups � the Mycetozoa and Archamoebae, grouped by Cavalier-Smith (1998) in the taxon Conosa, as well as a number of independent lineages, including two flagellates � Phalansterium (Cavalier-Smith et al. 2004) and Multicilia (Nikolaev et al. 2004), and two gymnamoebae � Gephyramoeba and Filamoeba (Amaral Zettler et al. 2000). Because of large variations of the substitution rates in SSU rRNA genes within this clade, its internal relationships are not resolved yet. The Mycetozoa comprises two distinct groups of �slime molds� � the Myxogastria and Protostelia (Dykstra and Keller 2000). This is a well-defined group of protists, characterized by the ability to form so-called �fruiting bodies�. In some lineages of Mycetozoa the fruiting body is raised over the substratum on a distinct stalk. Both groups possess complex life cycles including an aggregation of cells, however the essential difference between them is that in Protostelia, only a pseudoplasmodium is formed (without fusion of the cells constituting the aggregate), while in Myxogastria a true plasmodium is formed (the cells completely fuse, forming a single organism) (Olive 1975; Dykstra and Keller 2000). The monophyly of Mycetozoa was proposed based on elongation factor 1-alpha gene sequences (Baldauf and Doolittle 1997) but it is not always recovered in SSU rRNA trees (Cavalier-Smith et al. 2004; Nikolaev et al. 2004). The Archamoebae comprise amoeboid and amoeboflagellate protists characterized by a secondary absence of mitochondria (mostly due to parasitism or life in anoxic environments). This group includes the free-living genera Mastigamoeba, Mastigella, and Pelomyxa (the pelobionts) and the parasitic genera Entamoeba and Endolimax (the entamoebids). The consistent grouping of all these amitochondriate amoeboid organisms in both SSU rRNA and actin gene phylogenies (Fahrni et al. 2003) suggests a single loss of the mitochondria during the evolution of Amoebozoa. CLASS Amoebaea ORDER Euamoebida Lepsi, 1960 FAMILY Amoebidae (Ehrenberg 1838) The Amoebidae are a family of amoebozoa, including naked amoebae that produce multiple pseudopodia of indeterminate length. These are roughly cylindrical in form, with a central stream of granular endoplasm, and do not have subpseudopodia. During locomotion one pseudopod typically becomes dominant, and the others are retracted as the body flows into it. In some cases the cell moves by "walking", with the relatively permanent pseudopodia serving as limbs. The most important genera are Amoeba and Chaos, which are set apart from the others by longitudinal ridges. They group together on molecular trees, suggesting the Amoebidae are a natural group. Shelled amoebozoans have not been studied molecularly but produce very similar pseudopodia, so although they are traditionally classified separately they may be closely related to this group. GENUS Amoeba (Bery de St. Vincent 1822) Amoeba (also spelled ameba) is a genus of protozoa that moves by means of temporary projections called pseudopods, and is well-known as a representative unicellular organism. The word amoeba is variously used to refer to it and its close relatives, now grouped as the Amoebozoa, or to all protozoa that move using pseudopods, otherwise termed amoeboids. Amoeba itself is found in freshwater, typically on decaying vegetation from streams, but is not especially common in nature. However, because of the ease with which they may be obtained and kept in the lab, they are common objects of study, both as representative protozoa and to demonstrate cell structure and function. The cells have several lobose pseudopods, with one large tubular pseudopod at the anterior and several secondary ones branching to the sides. The most famous species, Amoeba proteus, is 700-800 μm in length, but many others are much smaller. Each has a single nucleus, and a simple contractile vacuole which maintains its osmotic pressure, as its most recognizable features. Early naturalists referred to Amoeba as the Proteus animalcule, after a Greek god who could change his shape. The name "amibe" was given to it by Bery St. Vincent, from the Greek amoibe, meaning change. A good method of collecting amoeba is to lower a jar upside down until it is just above the sediment surface. Then one should slowly let the air escape so the top layer will be sucked into the jar. Deeper sediment should not be allowed to get sucked in. It is possible to slowly move the jar when tilting it to collect from a larger area. If no amoeba are found, one can try introducing some rice grains into the jar and waiting for them to start to rot. The bacteria eating the rice will be eaten by the amoeba, thus increasing the population and making them easier to find. Family Hartmannellidae (Volkonsky 1931) The Hartmannellidae are a common family of amoebozoa, usually found in soils. When active they tend to be roughly cylindrical in shape, with a single leading pseudopod and no subpseudopodia. This form somewhat resembles a slug, and as such they are also called limax amoebae. Trees based on rRNA show the Hartmannellidae are paraphyletic to the Amoebidae and Leptomyxida, which may adopt similar forms. FAMILY Vannellidae (Bovee 1970) The Vannellidae are a distinctive family of amoebozoa. During locomotion they tend to be flattened and fan-shaped, although some are long and narrow, and have a prominent clear margin at the anterior. In most amoebae, the endoplasm glides forwards through the center of the cell, but in vannellids the cell undergoes a sort of rolling motion, with the outer membrane sliding around like a tank tread. These amoebae are usually 10-40 μm in size, but some are smaller or larger. The most common genus is Vannella, found mainly in soils, but also in freshwater and marine habitats. Trees based on rRNA support the monophyly of the family. SUBPHYLUM Conosa Cavalier-Smith, 1998 INTRAPHYLUM Archamoebae (Cavalier-Smith, 1983) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 CLASS Pelobiontea F.C. Page, 1976 stat. nov. T. Cavalier-Smith, 1981 ORDER Pelobiontida (Page 1976) The pelobionts are a small group of amoebozoa. The most notable member is Pelomyxa, a giant amoeba with multiple nuclei and inconspicuous non-motile flagella. The other genera, called mastigamoebae, are often uninucleate, have a single anterior flagellum used in swimming, and produce numerous determinate pseudopodia. Pelobionts are closely related to the entamoebids and like them have no mitochondria; in addition, pelobionts also do not have dictyosomes. At one point these absences were considered primitive. However, molecular trees place the two groups with other lobose amoebae in the phylum Amoebozoa, so these are secondary losses. SUBPHYLUM Conosa Cavalier-Smith, 1998 INTRAPHYLUM Archamoebae (Cavalier-Smith, 1983) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 CLASS Entamoebea T. Cavalier-Smith, 1991 The entamoebids or entamoebae are a group of amoebozoa found as internal parasites or commensals of animals. The cells are uninucleate small, typically 10-100 μm across, and usually have a single lobose pseudopod taking the form of a clear anterior bulge. There are two major genera, Entamoeba and Endolimax. They include several species that are pathogenic in humans, most notably Entamoeba histolytica, which causes amoebic dysentery. Entamoebids lack mitochondria. This is a secondary loss, possibly associated with their parasitic life-cycle. Studies show they are close relatives of the pelobionts, another group of amitochondriate amoebae, but unlike them entamoebids retain dictyosomes. Both groups are now placed alongside other lobose amoebae in the phylum Amoebozoa. Studying Entamoeba invadens, David Biron of the Weizmann Institute of Science and coworkers found that about one third of the cells are unable to separate unaided and recruit a neighboring amoeba (dubbed the "midwife") to complete the fission. He writes: "When an amoeba divides, the two daughter cells stay attached by a tubular tether which remains intact unless mechanically severed. If called upon, the neighbouring amoeba midwife travels up to 200 μm towards the dividing amoeba, usually advancing in a straight trajectory with an average velocity of about 0.5 μm/s. The midwife then proceeds to rupture the connection, after which all three amoebae move on." They also reported a similar behavior in Dictyostelium. Entamoeba coli is a non-pathogenic species of entamoebid that is important clinically in humans only because it can be confused with Entamoeba histolytica, which is pathogenic, on microscopic examination of stained stool specimens. A simple finding of Entamoeba coli trophozoites or cysts in a stool specimen requires no treatment. Entamoeba histolytica is an anaerobic parasitic protozoan, classified as an entamoebid. It infects predominantly humans and other primates. Diverse mammals such as dogs and cats can become infected but usually do not shed cysts (the environmental survival form of the organism) with their feces, thus do not contribute significantly to transmission. The active (trophozoite) stage exists only in the host and in fresh feces; cysts survive outside the host in water and soils and on foods, especially under moist conditions on the latter. When swallowed they cause infections by excysting (to the trophozoite stage) in the digestive tract. Endolimax nana, a small entamoebid that is a commensal of the human intestine, causes no known disease. It is most significant in medicine because it can provide false positives for other tests, such as for the related species Entamoeba histolytica which causes amoebic dysentery, and because its presence indicates that the host once consumed feces. It forms cysts with four nuclei which excyst in the body and become trophozoites. Endolimax nana nuclei have a large endosome somewhat off-center and small amounts of visible chromatin or none at all. Actinopod reproduction may involve binary fission or the formation of swarmer cells, and sexual processes occur in some groups. Their mitochondrial cristae are usually tubular, but in some groups there are vesicular or flattened, plate-like cristae. | ![]() [1] SUBPHYLUM Lobosa CLASS Amoebaea Chaos diffluens, an amoeba. Photo released by Dr. Ralf Wagner. source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Chaos_diffluens.jpg ![]() [2] CLASS Amoebaea Mayorella (may-or -ell-a) a medium sized free-living naked amoeba with conical pseudopodia. Central body is the nucleus. Phase contrast. This picture was taken by David Patterson of material from Limulus-ridden sediments at Plum Island (Massachusetts USA) in spring and summer, 2001. NONCOMMERCIAL USE source: http://microscope.mbl.edu/script s/microscope.php?func=imgDetail&imageID= 515 | |
1,300,000,000 YBN | 188) Green Algae, composed of the 2 Phlya Chlorophyta (volvox, sea lettuce) and Charophyta (Spirogyra) evolve. Gene tic comparison shows Green Algae, composed of the 2 Phlya Chlorophyta (volvox, sea lettuce) and Charophyta (Spirogyra) evolving now. The Green Algae are the large group of algae from which the embryophytes (higher plants) emerged. As such they form a paraphyletic group, some people placing them in the Plantae Kingdom, while others placing them in the Protist Kingdom. Almost all forms have chloroplasts. They are bound by a double membrane, so presumably were acquired by direct endosymbiosis of cyanobacteria. All green algae have mitochondria with flat cristae. When present flagella are typically anchored by a cross-shaped system of microtubules, but these are absent among the higher plants and charophytes. They usually have cell walls containing cellulose, and undergo open mitosis without centrioles. Sexual reproduction varies from fusion of identical cells (isogamy) to fertilization of a large non-motile cell by a smaller motile one (oogamy). However, these traits show some variation, most notably among the basal green algae, called prasinophytes. The first land plants most likely evolved from green algae. Here is where the green algae separate from the ancestor of the first land plants. Spirogyra reproduce through conjugation, which either was inherited from prokaryotes or evolved a second time in eukaryotes. Some filamentous green algae (e.g. cladophora) are haplodiploid (alternate between haploid and diploid cycles that both have mitosis). 1. Phylum Chlorophyta (green algae) contains about 7,000 species. 2. Most live in the ocean but are more likely found in fresh water; they can even be found on moist land. 3. Green algae are believed to be closely related to the first plants because both of these groups a. have a cell wall that contains cellulose, b. possess chlorophylls a and b, and c. store reserve food as starch inside of the chloroplast. 4. Green algae are not always green; some have pigments that give them an orange, red, or rust color. 5. Body organizations include single cells, colonies, filaments and multicellular forms. C. Flagellated Green Algae 1. Chlamydomonas is a unicellular green alga less than 25 cm long. (Fig. 30.3) 2. It has a cell wall and a single, large, cup-shaped chloroplast with a pyrenoid for starch synthesis. 3. The chloroplast contains a light-sensitive eyespot (stigma) that directs the cell to light for photosynthesis. 4. Two long whip-like flagella project from the anterior end to propel the cell toward light. 5. When growth conditions are favorable, Chlamydomonas reproduces asexually with zoospores. 6. When growth conditions are unfavorable, Chlamydomonas reproduces sexually. a. Gametes from two different mating types join to form a zygote. b. A heavy wall forms around the zygote; a resistant zygospores survives until conditions are favorable. c. Some are heterogametes similar to sperm and egg that stores food, a condition called oogamy. d. In most, gametes are identical, a condition called isogamy. D. Filamentous Green Algae 1. Cell division in one plane produces end-to-end chains of cells or filaments. 2. Spirogyra is a filamentous algae found on surfaces of ponds and streams. a. It has ribbon-like spiral chloroplasts. (Fig. 30.4) b. Two strands may unite in conjugation and exchange genetic material, forming a diploid zygote. c. The zygotes withstand winter; in spring they undergo meiosis to produce haploid filaments. 3. Oedogonium is another filamentous algae. a. It has cylindrical cells with netlike chloroplasts. b. During sexual reproduction, there is a definite egg and sperm. E. Multicellular Green Algae 1. Multicellular Ulva is called sea lettuce because of its leafy appearance. (Fig. 30.5) 2. The thallus (body) is two cells thick but can be a meter long. 3. Ulva has an alternation of generations life cycle, as do plants, but the generations look alike. 4. The gametes look alike (isogametes) and the spores are flagellated. 5. In true plants, one generation is dominant, sperm and eggs are produced, and spores lack flagella. F. Colonial Green Algae 1. Volvox is a hollow sphere with thousands of cells arranged in a single layer. (Fig. 30.6) 2. Volvox cells resembles Chlamydomonas cells; a colony arises as if daughter cells fail to separate. 3. Volvox cells cooperate when flagella beat in a coordinated fashion. 4. Some cells are specialized forming a new daughter colony within the parental colony. 5. Daughter colonies are inside a parent colony until an enzyme dissolves part of a wall so it can escape. 6. Sexual reproduction involves oogamy Order Chlorococcales, probably includes the first coccoidal green algae, probably even the earliest eukaryotes, but unequivocal indentification in the Precambrien is unlikely to be achived. Spirogyra reproduce through conjugation, which either was inherited from prokaryotes or evolved a second time in eukaryotes. If inherited from prokaryotes, then spirogrya would be very old although the fossil record and Ribosomal RNA put them late compared to other algae. | ![]() [1] Micrograph of Volvox aureus. Copyright held by Dr. Ralf Wagner, uploaded to German Wikipedia under GFDL. Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts. Subject to disclaimers. source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vol vox ![]() [2] Photo of green algal growth (Enteromorpha sp.) on rocky areas of the ocean intertidal shore, indicating a nearby nutrient source (in this case land runoff). Photographed by Eric Guinther near Kahuku, O'ahu, Hawai'i. GFDL Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts Subject to disclaimers source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Intertidal_greenalgae.jpg | |
1,300,000,000 YBN | 209) Red Algae (Rhodophyta) evolve now. Gene tic comparison show Phylum Rhodophyta (red algae) evolves now. There are between 2500 and 6000 species in about 670 largely marine genera. Many red algae are haplodiploid (alternate between haploid and diploid cycles that both have mitosis). The red algae (Rhodophyta) are a large group of mostly multicellular, marine algae, including many notable seaweeds. Most of the coralline algae, which secrete calcium carbonate and play a major role in building coral reefs, belong here. Red algae such as dulse and nori are a traditional part of European and Asian cuisine and are used to make certain other products like agar and food additives. Many red algae have multicellular stages but these lack differentiated tissues and organs. Unlike most other algae, no cells with a flagellum are found in any member of the group. Unicellular forms typically live attached to surfaces rather than floating among the plankton, and both the larger female and smaller male gametes are non-motile, so that most have a low chance of fertilization. They have cell walls are made out of cellulose and thick gelatinous polysaccharides, which are the basis for most of the industrial products made from red algae. The chloroplasts of red algae are bound by a double membrane, like those of green plants; both groups (Archaeplastida) probably share a common origin. Their plastids formed by direct endosymbiosis of a cyanobacteria, and in red algae are pigmented with chlorophyll a and various proteins called phycobilins, which are responsible for their reddish color. Other algae that lack chlorophyll b appear to have acquired their chloroplasts from red algae, although their pigmentations are somewhat different. unicellular to multicellular (up to 1 m) mostly free-living but some parasitic or symbiotic, with chloroplasts containing phycobilins. Cell walls made of cellulose with mucopolysaccharides penetrated in many red algae by pores partially blocked by proteins (complex referred to as pit connections). Usually with separated phases of vegetative growth and sexual reproduction. Common and widespread, ecologically important, economically important (source of agar). No flagella. Ultrastructural identity: Mitochondria with flat cristae, sometimes associated with forming faces of dictyosomes. Thylakoids single, with phycobilisomes, plastids with peripheral thylakoid. During mitosis, nuclear envelope mostly remains intact but some microtubules of spindle extend from noncentriolar polar bodies through polar gaps in the nuclear envelope. Synapomorphy: No clear-cut feature available; possibly pit connections Composition: About 4,000 species. CLASS Florideophyceae CLASS Bangiophyceae CLASS Rhodellophyceae DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Plantae Haeckel, 1866 - plants SUBKINGDOM Biliphyta Cavalier-Smith, 1981 PHYLUM Rhodophyta Wettstein, 1922 - red algae SUBPHYLUM Rhodellophytina Cavalier-Smith, 1998 CLASS Rhodellophyceae™ Cavalier-Smith, 1998 SUBPHYLUM Macrorhodophytina Cavalier-Smith, 1998 CLASS Bangiophyceae CLASS Florideophyceae There is a debate as to if Rhodophyta are plants or protists. 1. Red algae (phylum Rhodophyta) are chiefly marine multicellular algae that live in warmer seawater. 2. They are generally much smaller and more delicate that brown algae. 3. Some are filamentous, but most are branched, having a feathery, flat, or ribbon-like appearance. (Fig. 30.7) 4. Coralline algae are red algae with cell walls with calcium carbonate; they contribute to coral reefs. 5. Sexual reproduction involves oogamy but the sperm are non-flagellated. 6. Their chloroplasts resemble cyanobacteria by containing chlorophyll a and the pigment phycobilin. 7. The food reserve (floridean starch) resembles glycogen. 8. Like brown algae, red algae are economically important. a. Mucilaginous material in cell walls is source of agar used in drug capsules, dental impressions, cosmetics. b. In the laboratory, agar is a major microbiological media, and when purified, is a gel for electrophoresis. c. Agar is used in food preparation to keep baked goods from drying and to set jellies and desserts. The taxonomy of the algae is still in a state of flux. | ![]() [1] Close-up of a red alga (Genus? Laurencia), Class Florideophyceae, Order=? a marine seaweed from Hawaii. GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Laurencia.jpg ![]() [2] Bangia atropurpurea Profile: unbranched filaments in tufts. Often forming dense fringes in the spalsh zone. Uniseriate at base, multiseriate above with protoplasts separate in a firm gelatinous sheath. Stellate chloroplasts. US NOAA PD source: http://www.glerl.noaa.gov/seagra nt/GLWL/Algae/Rhodophyta/Cards/Bangia.ht ml | |
1,280,000,000 YBN | 187) A eukaryote rhodophyte (red alga) is enslaved by a chromealveolate eukaryote to form a plastid in the chromealveolate. This kind of plastid is presumably inherited by all other chromalveolates (brown algae, diatoms, water molds, Dinoflagellata, Apicomplexa, ciliates) that have plastids. If this red alga endosymbiosis occured only once, then all chromalveolates with plastids inherited them and all without lost them. Ciliates presumably lost any inherited plastids. | ||
1,250,000,000 YBN | 201) Oldest widely accepted Rhodophyta (red algae) fossils (Bangiomorpha pubescens) from Hunting Formation, Somerset Island, arctic Canada. This is the oldest multicellular eukaryote fossil and the oldest fossil of a sexual species found yet. | ![]() [1] get images from Life on a Young Planet, Knoll source: Science 1990 vol 250 Butterfield N. J. A. H. Knoll K. Swett 1990 A bangiophyte red alga from the Proterozoic of Arctic Canada. Science 250: 104-107[ISI][Medline] ![]() [2] Figure 2. Griffithsia pacifica (Florideophyceae). Electron micrograph showing cytoplasm with numerous chloroplasts (C) and starch (S). Starch is the photosynthetic reserve and is deposited free in the cytoplasm. source: (American Journal of Botany. 2004;91:1494-1507.) | |
1,230,000,000 YBN | 153) Amino acid sequence comparison shows the protist and plant line separating here at 1,230 mybn (first plant). | ||
1,100,000,000 YBN | 75) Most ancient living fungi phylum "Microsporidia" evolves. Ribosomal RNA shows most ancient living fungi phylum "Microsporidia" evolving now. Microsporidia are parasites of animals, now considered to be extremely reduced fungi. Most infect insects, but they are also responsible for common diseases of crustaceans and fish, and have been found in most other animal groups, including humans and other mammals which can be parasitized by species of Encephalitozoon. Replication takes place within the host's cells, which are infected by means of unicellular spores. These vary from 1-40 μm, making them some of the smallest eukaryotes. They also have the shortest eukaryotic genomes. Microsporidia are unusual in lacking mitochondria, and also lack motile structures such as flagella. The spores are protected by a layered wall including proteins and chitin. Their interior is dominated by a unique coiled structure called a polar tube (not to be confused with the polar filaments of Myxozoa). In most cases there are two closely associated nuclei, forming a diplokaryon, but sometimes there is only one. Intracellular parasites, no mitochondria, ribosomes are unusual in being of prokaryotic size (70S) and lacking characteristic eukaryotic 5.8S ribosomal RNA as a separate molecule in the microsporidia but is incorporated into the 23S r RNA. binucleate haploid? During infection, the polar tube penetrates the host cell (the process has been compared by Patrick J. Keeling to "turning a garden hose inside out"), and the contents of the spore are pumped through it. Keeling likens the system to a combination of "harpoon and hypodermic syringe", adding that it is "one of the most sophisticated infection mechanisms in biology". Once inside the host cell, the sporoplasm grows, dividing or forming a multinucleate plasmodium before producing new spores. The plasmodium divides by merogony to produce merozoites that enter other host cells, to repeat merogony, or to undergo sporogony. The latter parasites divide by binary fission to produce numerous sporoblasts which develop into spores. The life cycle varies considerably. Some have a simple asexual life cycle, while others have a complex life cycle involving multiple hosts and both asexual and sexual reproduction. Different types of spores may be produced at different stages, probably with different functions including autoinfection (transmission within a single host). The Microsporidia often cause chronic, debilitating diseases rather than lethal infections. Effects on the host include reduced longevity, fertility, weight, and general vigor. Vertical transmission of microsporidia is frequently reported. Because they are unicellular, Microsporidia were traditionally treated as protozoa, and like other amitochondriate eukaryotes were considered to have diverged very early on. However, other genes place them alongside or within the Fungi, and this is supported by several chemical and morphological features. In particular they appear to be allied with the Zygomycota or Ascomycota. Comparison of tubulin gene sequences suggest that they are related to fungi; hosts include most invertebrate phyla; all classes of vertebrates, the greatest number of species being known from arthropods and fish; with growing and dividing stages (meronts and sporonts), and spores which are used for transmission between hosts; meronts with one nucleus or two closely adhering and synchronously dividing nuclei; with endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes and an atypical dictyosome but no mitochondria, flagella, or cytoskeletal structures; sporonts have more abundant endoplasmic reticulum and develop a surface coat which becomes the outer layer of the spore wall; spores unicellular with one or two nuclei, a polar tube (polar filament), the polaroplast and the posterior vacuole; cytoplasm and nucleus (or nuclei) become the infective agent (sporoplasm), as it emerges from the spore; meronts, ranging from small rounded cells to plasmodia or ribbon-like formations, divide repeatedly by binary fission, plasmotomy or multiple fission; merogony is followed by sporogony, in which cells known as sporonts are committed to spore production; sporonts, divide into sporoblasts, the number of which is characteristic of the genera; sporoblasts mature into spores; but individual life cycles are highly variable; meiosis occurs and this indicates that gametogenesis and fusion of gametes must occur but this has been recognised for only a few species; genera with an alternation of diplokaryotic and monokaryotic stages can be dimorphic and heterosporous. Genus descriptions are usually based on the type species. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Fungi (Linnaeus, 1753) Nees, 1817 - fungi PHYLUM Microsporidia (Balbiani, 1882) Weiser, 1977 | ![]() [1] Sporoblast of the Microsporidium Fibrillanosema crangonycis. Electron micrograph taken by Leon White. GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Fibrillanosema_spore.jpg ![]() [2] Spironema multiciliatum Spironema: Octosporoblastic sporogony producing horseshoe-shaped monokaryotic spores in sporophorous vesicles; monomorphic, diplokaryotic and monokaryotic; merogony - last generation merozoites are diplokaryotic; sporogony - initial division of the sporont nuclei is meiotic as indicated by the occurrence of synaptonemal complexes; spores are horse-shoe-shaped, with swollen ends in T. variabilis and have one elongate nucleus; exospore with three layers, endospore is of medium thickness; polaroplast composed of two lamellar parts, an anterior part of closely packed lamellae and a posterior part of wider compartments; polar tube is isofilar and forms, in the posterior quarter of the spore, 3-4 coils in a single rank (T. variabilis) or 8-10 coils in a single rank (T. chironomi); type species Toxoglugea vibrio in adipose tissue of larvae of Ceratopogon sp. (Diptera, Ceratopogonidae). Spironema (spire-oh-knee-ma) multiciliatum Klebs, 1893. Cells are lanceolate, relatively flattened and flexible. The cells have a spiral groove, long kinetics and a tail, which tapers posteriorly, and are about 15 - 21 microns without the tail. The nucleus is located anteriorly or near the centre of the cell. When the cells are squashed, the cells are more flexible. Food materials are seen under the cell surface. Rarely observed. This picture was taken by Won Je Lee using conventional photographic film using a Zeiss Axiophot microscope of material collected in marine sediments of Botany Bay (Sydney, Australia). The image description refers to material from Botany Bay. NONCOMMERCIAL USE source: http://microscope.mbl.edu/script s/microscope.php?func=imgDetail&imageID= 3928 | |
1,000,000,000 YBN | 154) Amino acid sequence comparison shows the plant and fungi line separating here at 1,000 mybn (first fungi). | ||
1,000,000,000 YBN | 223) Fungi phylum "Chytridiomycota" evolves. Ribosomal RNA place fungi phylum "Chytridiomycota" evolving now. Many chytrids are haplodiploid (alternate between haploid and diploid cycles that both have mitosis). Chytridiomycota is a division of the Fungi kingdom and contains only one class, Chytridiomycetes. The name refers to the chytridium (from the Greek, chytridion, meaning "little pot"): the structure containing unreleased spores. The chytrids are the most primitive of the fungi and are mostly saprobic (feed on dead species, degrading chitin and keratin). Many chytrids are aquatic (mostly found in freshwater). There are approximately 1,000 chytrid species, in 127 genera, distributed among 5 orders. Both zoospores and gametes of the chytrids are mobile by their flagella, one whiplash per individual. The thalli are coenocytic and usually form no true mycelium (having rhizoids instead). Some species are unicellular. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Fungi (Linnaeus, 1753) Nees, 1817 - fungi PHYLUM Chytridiomycota CLASS Chytridiomycetes™ (De Bary, 1863) Sparrow, 1958 Some chytrid species are known to kill frogs in large numbers by blocking the frogs' respiratory skins - the infection is referred to as chytridomycosis. Decline in frog populations led to the discovery of chytridomycosis in 1998 in Australia and Panama. Chytrids may also infect plant species; in particular, maize-attacking and alfalfa-attacking species have been described. | ![]() [1] Chytrids (Chytridiomycota): The Primitive Fungi These fungi are mostly aquatic, are notable for having a flagella on the cells (a flagella is a tail, somewhat like a tail on a sperm or a pollywog), and are thought to be the most primitive type of fungi. actual photo comes from: http://www.csupomona.edu/~jcclark /classes/bot125/resource/graphics/chy_al l_sph.html source: http://www.davidlnelson.md/Cazad ero/Fungi.htm ![]() [2] Chytridiomycota - Blastocladiales - zoospore of Allomyces (phase contrast illumination) X 2000 source: http://www.mycolog.com/chapter2b .htm | |
1,000,000,000 YBN | 324) Phylum Choanozoa (Mesomycetozoea/DRIPs, Choanoflagellates) evolves. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Protozoa (Goldfuss, 1818) R. Owen, 1858 - protozoa SUBKINGDOM Sarcomastigota (means=?) PHYLUM Amoebozoa (Lühe, 1913) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Choanozoa CLASS Choanoflagellatea (Choanoflagellates) CLASS Corallochytrea CLASS Mesomycetozoea Mendoza et al., 2001 (DRIPs) CLASS Cristidiscoidea | ||
1,000,000,000 YBN | 325) The Choanozoan "Mesomycetozoaea" (DRIPs) evolve. The Mesomycetozoea or DRIP clade are a small group of protists, mostly parasites of fish and other animals. One species, Rhinosporidium seeberi, infects birds and mammals, including humans. They are not particularly distinctive morphologically, appearing in host tissues as enlarged spheres or ovals containing spores, and most were originally classified in various groups of fungi, protozoa, and algae. However, they form a coherent group on molecular trees, closely related to both animals and fungi and so of interest to biologists studying their origins. The name DRIP is an acronym for the first protozoa identified as members of the group - Dermocystidium, the rosette agent, Ichthyophonus, and Psorospermium. Cavalier-Smith later treated them as the class Ichthyosporea, since they were all parasites of fish. Since other new members have been added, Mendoza et al. suggested changing the name to Mesomycetozoea, which refers to their evolutionary position. Note the name Mesomycetozoa (without a second e) is also used to refer to this group, but Mendoza et al. use it as an alternate name for the phylum Choanozoa. Assemblage identified from molecular studies, mostly pathogens, a few genera, no synapomorphy. Grouping formalized by Herr, Ajello, Taylor, Arseculeratne & Mendoza, 1999. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Protozoa (Goldfuss, 1818) R. Owen, 1858 - protozoa SUBKINGDOM Sarcomastigota (means=?) PHYLUM Amoebozoa (Lühe, 1913) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Choanozoa CLASS Choanoflagellatea (Choanoflagellates) CLASS Corallochytrea CLASS Mesomycetozoea Mendoza et al., 2001 (DRIPs) CLASS Cristidiscoidea | ![]() [1] Ichthyophonus, a fungus-like protistan that occurs in high prevalence in Pacific Ocean perch (Sebastes aultus) and yellowtail rockfish (Sebastes flavedus). Note the parasite forms branching hyphae-like structures. Ichthyophonus hoferi has caused massive mortalities in herring in the Atlantic ocean, and has recently been reported to cause disease in wild Pacific herring from Washington through Alaska. COPYRIGHTED EDU source: http://oregonstate.edu/dept/salm on/projects/images/16Ichthyophonus.jpg ![]() [2] Microscopic appearence of the organism is dependent on its stage of development. The stages include (1) spore at ''resting'' stage, (2) germinating spore, (3) hyphal stage. It is believed that there are two forms of Ichthyophonus, both belonging to one genus. One of them is known as the ''salmon'' form, occuring in freshwater and cold-preferring sea fishes: this form is characterized by its ability to produce long tubulose germ hyphae. The other is called the ''aquarium fish'' form, typical of the tropical freshwater fishes. This form is completely devoid of hyphae. Developmental cycle of Ichthyophonus hoferi: 1-5 - development of ''daughter'' spores, 7-11 - development of resting spore from the ''daughter'' spore, 12-19 - development of resting spore by fragmentation. COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.fao.org/docrep/field/ 003/AC160E/AC160E02.htm | |
1,000,000,000 YBN | 585) The Neoproterozoic (1.0-0.65Ga) is a period of dramatic global change and quickening reef evolution. The appearance of heavily calcified microbial elements (calcimicrobes; e.g. Girvanella and Renalcis) in the Tonian (1.0-0.85Ga), coincident with the disappearance of conical elements and decline in stromatolites, is a critical event. | ||
967,000,000 YBN | 97) A lens and light sensitive area evolve in unicellular eukaryote living objects. This is the first proto eye. The eye spot probably evolved from a plastid, and plastids may have only formed symbiotic relationships in euglenozoa much later, since the plastids in euglenozoa are enclosed in 3 membranes (the same as chloroplasts in plants), they are thought to have been formed from captured green algae which evolve much later. | ||
965,000,000 YBN | 155) Amino acid sequence comparison shows the fungi and pseudocoeles lines separating here at 965 mybn (first pseudocoel and first animal). | ||
900,000,000 YBN | 326) The Choanozoans "Choanoflagellates" and "Acanthoecida" evolve. The choanoflagellates are a group of flagellate protozoa. They are considered to be the closest relatives of the animals, and in particular may be the direct ancestors of sponges. Each choanoflagellate has a single flagellum, surrounded by a ring of hairlike protrusions called microvilli, forming a cylindrical or conical collar (choanos in Greek). The flagellum pulls water through the collar, and small food particles are captured by the microvilli and ingested. It also pushes free-swimming cells along, as in animal sperm, whereas most other flagellates are pulled by their flagella. Most choanoflagellates are sessile, with a stalk opposite the flagellum. A number of species are colonial, usually taking the form of a cluster of cells on a single stalk. Of special note is Proterospongia, which takes the form of a glob of cells, of which the external cells are typical flagellates with collars, but the internal cells are non-motile. The choanocytes (also known as "collared cells") of sponges have the same basic structure as choanoflagellates. Collared cells are occasionally found in a few other animal groups, such as flatworms. These relationships make colonial choanoflagellates a plausible candidate as the ancestors of the animal kingdom. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Protozoa (Goldfuss, 1818) R. Owen, 1858 - protozoa SUBKINGDOM Sarcomastigota (means=?) PHYLUM Amoebozoa (Lühe, 1913) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Choanozoa CLASS Choanoflagellatea (Choanoflagellates and Acanthoecida) ORDER Choanoflagellida™ W.S. Kent, 1880 - (Choanoflagellates) ORDER Acanthoecida CLASS Corallochytrea CLASS Mesomycetozoea Mendoza et al., 2001 (DRIPs) CLASS Cristidiscoidea Also identified in the Phylum Choanozoa are the Ichthyosporea. | ![]() [1] DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Protozoa (Goldfuss, 1818) R. Owen, 1858 - protozoa SUBKINGDOM Sarcomastigota (means=?) PHYLUM Choanozoa CLASS Choanoflagellatea (Choanoflagellates and Acanthoecida) ORDER Acanthoecida Saepicula: Cells solitary, lorica funnel-shaped, 2 chambers delimited by a waist; constructed of rod-shaped costal strips; posterior chamber obconical with 2 series of costae located more or less regularly around chamber, one series almost parallel to the long axis of cell and second series almost perpendicular to long axis; anterior chamber formed by ring of equally spaced longitudinal costae surmounted by single transverse costa; marine This image is based on a drawing provided by Won Je Lee. NONCOMMERCIAL USE source: http://microscope.mbl.edu/script s/microscope.php?func=imgDetail&imageID= 3229 ![]() [2] Choanoeca: Cells solitary with distinct, firm flask-shaped theca more or less closely investing protoplast, with short pedicel; collar relatively long, widely expanded; flagellum absent in adult, but produced prior to cell division for locomotory use by juvenile cell; in marine and brackish habitats, frequently attached to filamentous algae and hydrozoa Choanoeca (ko-an-o-eek-a), an unusual loricate collar flagellate (choanoflagellate) in that the usual form is without a flagellum. Flagellated motile stage is occasionally produced. Widely dispersed pseudopodial elements of the collar are evident in this image. Differential interference contrast. This picture was taken by David Patterson and Aimlee Laderman of material collected from a freshwater Atantic white cedar swamp at Cumloden near Woods Hole in Massachusetts, USA in spring and summer, 2001. NONCOMMERCIAL USE source: http://microscope.mbl.edu/script s/microscope.php?func=imgDetail&imageID= 170 | |
855,000,000 YBN | 286) A key step in metazoan multicellularity evolves, where a zygote produces differentiated cells that stick together to form one organism. Metazoan multicellularity appears to be different from colonialism (where independent cells of the same species work together and function as one unit), because one zygote produces all the cells in the organism. | ||
850,000,000 YBN | 81) First animal and first metazoan evolve. Metazoans are multicellular, but their cells perform different functions and originate from one cell(?). This is`also the beginning of the Animal Subkingdom "Radiata", species with radial symmetry. These are the sponges. There are only 3 kinds of metazoans: sponges, cnidarians, and bilaterians (which include all insects and vertibrates). Sponges are the first organisms whose DNA codes for more than one kind of cell. Sponges have 3 different cell types. Some cells form a body wall, some digest food, some form a skeletal frame. All sponge cells are totipotent and are capable of regrowing a new sponge. The two major subkingdoms of the Kingdom Animalia are Radiata (the radiates) and Bilateria (the bilaterians). | ![]() [1] source: http://www.museums.org.za/bio/me tazoa.htm ![]() [2] source: http://www.museums.org.za/bio/me tazoa.htm | |
850,000,000 YBN | 101) First homeobox, or "hox" genes evolve. These genes regulate the building of major body parts. | ||
850,000,000 YBN | 224) Genetic comparison shows Fungi division "Zygomycota" (bread molds, pin molds, microsporidia,...) evolving now. | ![]() [1] Figure 2. Zygomycota A: sporangia of Mucor sp. B: whorl of sporangia of Absidia sp. C: zygospore of Zygorhynchus sp. D: sporangiophore and sporangiola of Cunninghamella sp. source: http://www.botany.utoronto.ca/Re searchLabs/MallochLab/Malloch/Moulds/Cla ssification.html ![]() [2] Figure 3. Syncephalis, a member of the Zygomycota parasitic on other Zygomycota source: http://www.botany.utoronto.ca/Re searchLabs/MallochLab/Malloch/Moulds/Cla ssification.html | |
780,000,000 YBN | 79) Animal Phylum "Placozoa" evolves. Placozoans look like amoebas but are multicellular. There is only one known species, "Tricoplax adhaerens", and one other potential species "Tricoplax reptans" in the entire Placozoa phylum. Putative eggs have been observed, but they degrade at the 32-64 cell stage. Neither embryonic development nor sperm have been observed, however Trichoplax genomes show evidence of sexual reproduction. Asexual reproduction by binary fission is the primary mode of reproduction observed in the lab. The haploid number of chromosomes is six. It has the smallest amount of DNA yet measured for any animal with only 50 megabases (80 femtograms per cell). A trichoplax genome project is currently underway. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Radiata (Linnaeus, 1758) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - radiates INFRAKINGDOM Placozoa Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Placozoa™ Grell, 1971 | ||
750,000,000 YBN | 83) Animal Phlyum Ctenophora (comb jellies) evolves. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Radiata (Linnaeus, 1758) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - radiates INFRAKINGDOM Coelenterata Leuckart, 1847 PHYLUM Ctenophora Eschscholtz, 1829 - comb jellies CLASS Tentaculata CLASS Nuda | ||
750,000,000 YBN | 225) Genetic comparison shows Fungi division "Glomeromycota" (Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi) evolving now. | ![]() [1] germinating Gigaspora decipiens source: http://pages.unibas.ch/bothebel/ people/redecker/ff/glomero.htm ![]() [2] Archaeospora leptoticha spores source: http://pages.unibas.ch/bothebel/ people/redecker/ff/glomero.htm | |
700,000,000 YBN | 82) First cnidarians (coelantrates), jellyfish evolves. Jellyfish have photon detecting cells and a lens made of ?. | ||
700,000,000 YBN | 226) The second largest group of Fungi, the phylum "Basidiomycota" (most mushrooms, rusts, club fungi) evolve. Genetic comparison shows the second largest group of Fungi, the phylum "Basidiomycota" (most mushrooms, rusts, club fungi) evolving now. The Division Basidiomycota is a large taxon within the Kingdom Fungi that includes those species that produce spores in a club-shaped structure called a basidium. Essentially the sibling group of the Ascomycota, it contains some 30,000 species (37% of the described fungi) | ![]() [1] Amanita muscaria (Homobasidiomycetes) source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Agaricales.jpg ![]() [2] Basidiomycete Life Cycle tjv source: http://botit.botany.wisc.edu/ima ges/332/Basidiomycota/General_basidio/Ba sidiomycete_Life_Cycle_tjv.php?highres=t rue | |
700,000,000 YBN | 227) The largest Fungi phylum "Ascomycota" (yeasts, truffles, Penicillium, morels, sac fungi) evolves. Genetic comparison shows the largest Fungi phylum "Ascomycota" (yeasts, truffles, Penicillium, morels, sac fungi) evolving now. 47,000 described species. | ![]() [1] white truffle cutted photographed by myself GNU head Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the license is included in the section entitled ''Text of the GNU Free Documentation License.'' source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/f/fd/Truffle_washed_and_cu tted.jpg ![]() [2] EColi-Scerevisiae.jpg (50KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Wikimedia Commons logo This is a file from the Wikimedia Commons. The description on its description page there is shown below. Escherichia coli (little forms) & Saccharomyces cerevisiae (big forms) by MEB Public domain This file has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. This applies worldwide. brewer's yeast/baker's yeast source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:EColi-Scerevisiae.jpg | |
700,000,000 YBN | 228) Genetic comparison shows the largest and second largest lines of Fungi (Ascomycota and Basidiomycota) splitting now. | ||
680,000,000 YBN | 222) Genetic comparison shows the Class of Ascomycota Fungi called "Archaeascomycetes" (fission yeast, pneumonia fungus) evolving now. | ||
675,000,000 YBN | 156) Amino acid sequence comparison shows the pseudocoel and schizocoel lines separating here at 675 mybn (first schizocoel). | ||
650,000,000 YBN | 69) Start of Varanger Ice Age (650-590 mybn). | ||
650,000,000 YBN | 229) Genetic comparison shows the Ascomycota Fungi "Hemiascomycetes" evolving now. | ||
630,000,000 YBN | 91) First bilateral (has 2 sided symmetry) species evolves. Animal phylum Acoelomorpha (acoela flat worms and nemertodermatida) evolves. This begins the Subkingdom "Bilateria". lack a digestive track, anus and coelom. DO MAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians PHYLUM "Acoelomorpha" - acoelomorphs ORDER Acoela - acoels ORDER Nemertodermatida - nemertodermatids | ![]() [1] Convoluta pulchra Smith and Bush 1991, a typical mud-inhabiting acoel that feeds on diatoms source: ? | |
600,000,000 YBN | 231) Basidiomycota Fungi "Ustilaginomycetes" (corn smut fungus) and "Hymenomycetes" (white rot fungus) evolve. Genetic comparison shows the Basidiomycota Fungi "Ustilaginomycetes" (corn smut fungus) and "Hymenomycetes" (white rot fungus) evolving now. | ||
590,000,000 YBN | 70) End of Varanger Ice Age (650-590 mybn). | ||
590,000,000 YBN | 93) Protostomes evolve. Many phyla evolve at this time. Protostomes include the 3 infrakingdoms Ecdysozoa (a variety of worms and the arthropods {a huge group including all insects and crustaceans}), Platyzoa (rotifers and flatworms), and Lophotrochozoa (brachiopods {clams}, molluscs {snails}, and a variety of worms). | ||
580,000,000 YBN | 94) Earliest animal fossil from Doushantuo formation in China. | ||
580,000,000 YBN | 165) Earliest bilaterian fossil, Vernanimalcula, 178 um in length, from Doushantuo Formation, China. First fossil of organism with bilateral symmetry, mouth, digestive track, gut and anus. | ![]() [1] Fig. 2. Close-up images of prominent anatomical features of Vernanimalcula guizhouena. The scale bar represents 18 µm in (A), 32 µm in (B), 24 µm in (C), and 28 µm in (D). SO, sensory organ, i.e., external pit; LU, lumen; PH, pharynx; MO, mouth; CO, coelomic lumen; CW, mesodermal coelomic wall; GU, gut. (A) Detail of collared mouth, multilayered pharynx, and one anterior surface pit. In this image, which is from the holotype specimen (Fig. 1A), the floor of the pit can be seen to be composed of a specialized concave layer. Note the coelomic wall, which here as elsewhere in these specimens has a thickness of about 5 to 6 µm. (B) Mouth of a fourth specimen, Q3105, displaying collared mouth and pharynx, ventral view. (C) Lumen of pharynx from a fifth specimen, X10419, secondarily encrusted but revealing morphology of opening of pharynx into gut similar to that seen in the specimens shown in Fig. 1. (D) Close-up of spaced external pits, interpreted as possible sensory organs, from the same specimen as shown in Fig. 1B [compare (A)]. source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co ntent/full/sci;305/5681/218 ![]() [2] Fig. 1. Images of three different, fairly well preserved specimens of the bilaterally organized fossil animal Vernanimalcula guizhouena. Left panels show digitally recorded, transmitted light images of sections about 50 µm thick, which had been ground from larger rock samples, mounted on slides, and viewed through a light microscope. Right panels show color-coded representations of the images on the left. These were prepared by digital image overlay. Yellow, external ectodermal layer; ochre, coelomic mesodermal layer; red, surface pits; mauve, pharynx; light tan, endodermal wall of gut; gray-green, lumen of mouth; dark gray, paired coelomic cavities; lighter gray, lumen of gut; brown, ''gland-like'' structures, with central lumen (B); light green, mineral inclusions (C). The scale bar represents 40 µm in (A), 55 µm in (B), and 46 µm in (C). (A) Holotype specimen, X00305, slightly tilted, almost complete ventral level coronal section, passing through the ventrally located mouth. (B) Coronal section of second specimen, X08981, passing through dorsal wall of pharynx and displaying complete A-P length of digestive tract, including posterior end [not visible in (A)]. (C) Tilted coronal section of third specimen, X10475, possibly slightly squashed, passing through dorsal wall of pharynx and through the dorsal wall of the gut. For dimensions, see Table 1. source: | |
580,000,000 YBN | 318) Protostome Infrakingdom Ecdysozoa evolves. Ecdysozoa are animals that molt (lose their outer skins) as they grow. Ecdysozoa include: the Phylum "Chaetognatha" (Arrow Worms), the Superphylum "Aschelminthes", containing the 5 Phlya: "Kinorhyncha" (kinorhynchs) "Loricifera" (loriciferans) "Nematoda" (round worms) "Nematomorpha" (horsehair worms), "Priapulida" (priapulids) the Superphlyum "Panarthropoda" containing the 3 Phyla: "Arthropoda" (arthropods: insects, shell fish) "Onychophora" (onychophorans) "Tardigrada" (tardigrades) | ||
578,000,000 YBN | 92) First nematocyst (stinging cells) evolve on Jellyfish(?). | ||
575,000,000 YBN | 107) Start of fossils in Ediacaran fauna near Adelaide, Australia. | ||
574,000,000 YBN | 96) First neuron, nerve cell, and nervous system evolves in bilaterians. | ||
570,000,000 YBN | 95) Fluid filled cavity, coelom evolves in early bilaterians. | ||
570,000,000 YBN | 105) Deuterostomes evolve. This is the beginning of the Subkingdom Deuterostomia and Infrakingdom "Coelomopora" (Ambulacraria) with the two Phyla "Hemichordata" (acorn worms) and "Echinodermata" (sea cucumbers, sea urchins, starfish). DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes PHYLUM †Vetulicolia Shu et al., 2001 INFRAKINGDOM Coelomopora (Marcus, 1958) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 | ||
570,000,000 YBN | 311) Ecdysozoa phylum Chaetognatha (Arrow Worms) evolves. | ||
570,000,000 YBN | 345) Deuterostome Coelomorpha Phylum Hemichordonia (acorn worms) evolves. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes PHYLUM †Vetulicolia Shu et al., 2001 INFRAKINGDOM Coelomopora (Marcus, 1958) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Echinodermata Klein, 1734 ex De Brugière, 1789 - echinoderms PHYLUM Hemichordata (Bateson, 1885) auct. - hemichordates | ||
570,000,000 YBN | 346) Deuterostome Coelomorpha Phylum Echinodermata (sea cucumbers, sea urchins, sand dollars, star fish) evolves. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes PHYLUM †Vetulicolia Shu et al., 2001 INFRAKINGDOM Coelomopora (Marcus, 1958) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Echinodermata Klein, 1734 ex De Brugière, 1789 - echinoderms PHYLUM Hemichordata (Bateson, 1885) auct. - hemichordates | ||
565,000,000 YBN | 98) First circulatory system and red blood cells evolve in bilaterian worms. | ||
565,000,000 YBN | 327) Infrakingdom Platyzoa (includes Superphylum Gnathifera {gnathiferans}, Phylum Gastrotricha {gastrotrichs}, and Phylum Platyhelminthes {flatworms}) evolve. | ||
565,000,000 YBN | 347) Deuterostome Phylum Chordata evolves. Chordata is a very large group that contains all fish, amphibians, reptiles and mammals. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Tunicata Lamarck, 1816 - tunicates SUBPHYLUM Cephalochordata - lancelets SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates | ||
565,000,000 YBN | 348) Deuterstome Chordata Subphylum Tunicata (tunicates {sea squirts}) evolves. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Tunicata Lamarck, 1816 - tunicates SUBPHYLUM Cephalochordata - lancelets SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates | ||
562,000,000 YBN | 99) Segmentation evolves. | ||
561,000,000 YBN | 100) Filter feeding, filtering food and oxygen from water through a digestive system, evolves in segmented worms. | ||
560,000,000 YBN | 117) Oldest fossil of chordate, Ediacaran fossil. | ![]() [1] from adelaide, australia source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/t ech/3208583.stm | |
560,000,000 YBN | 330) The two Ecdysozoa Superphyla Ashelminthes (round worms, horsehair worms, priapulids) and Pananthropoda (arthropods, onychophorans, tardigrades) separate. | ||
560,000,000 YBN | 349) Deuterstome Chordata Subphylum Cephalochordata (lancelets) evolves. This is the first fish. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Tunicata Lamarck, 1816 - tunicates SUBPHYLUM Cephalochordata - lancelets SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates | ||
559,000,000 YBN | 103) First gastrotrichs evolve. | ||
550,000,000 YBN | 157) Amino acid sequence comparison shows the chordate line separating from echinoderm line here at 550 mybn (first chordates). | ||
550,000,000 YBN | 328) Ecdysozoa Superphylum "Ashelminthes" evolves. This includes the 5 Phyla: Kinorhyncha (kinorhynchs), Loricifera (loriciferans), Nematoda (round worms), Nematomorpha (horsehair worms), Priapulida (priapulids). DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Protostomia Grobben, 1908 - protostomes INFRAKINGDOM Ecdysozoa Aguinaldo et al., 1997 ex Cavalier-Smith, 1998 - ecdysozoans SUPERPHYLUM Aschelminthes PHYLUM Priapulida Théel, 1906 - priapulids PHYLUM Kinorhyncha Reinhard, 1887 - kinorhynchs PHYLUM Loricifera Kristensen, 1983 - loriciferans PHYLUM Nematoda (Rudolphi, 1808) Lankester, 1877 - round worms PHYLUM Nematomorpha Vejdovsky, 1886 - horsehair worms | ||
550,000,000 YBN | 329) Platyzoa Superphylum "Gnathifera" evolves. This includes the 5 Phyla: Gna thostomulida (gnathostomulids), Cycliophora (cycliophorans), Micrognathozoa, Rotifera (rotifers), Acanthocephala (acanthocephalans). DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Protostomia Grobben, 1908 - protostomes INFRAKINGDOM Platyzoa Cavalier-Smith, 1998 SUPERPHYLUM Gnathifera - gnathiferans PHYLUM Gnathostomulida (Ax, 1956) Riedl, 1969 - gnathostomulids PHYLUM Cycliophora Funch & Kristensen, 1995 - cycliophorans PHYLUM Micrognathozoa (Kristensen & Funch, 2000) PHYLUM Rotifera Cuvier, 1798 - rotifers PHYLUM Acanthocephala Kohlreuther, 1771 - acanthocephalans | ||
547,000,000 YBN | 331) The Protostome Infrakingdom Lophotrochozoa evolves. This includes brachiopods, bryozoans, clams, squids and octopuses (cephalopods), and snails. This infrakingdom is made of: Superphylum Lophophorata, Phylum Bryozoa (bryozoans), Phylum Entoprocta (entoprocts), Superphylum Eutrochozoa. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Protostomia Grobben, 1908 (protostomes) INFRAKINGDOM "Lophotrochozoa" (lophotrochozoans) SUPERPHYLUM Lophophorata PHYLUM Bryozoa Ehrenberg, 1831 (bryozoans) PHYLUM Entoprocta (Nitsche, 1869) (entoprocts) SUPERPHYLUM Eutrochozoa | ||
547,000,000 YBN | 332) The Lophotrochozoa Superphylum Lophophorata evolves. This includes the two Phyla Phoronida (phoronids) and Brachiopoda (brachiopods {clams, oysters, muscles}). DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Protostomia Grobben, 1908 (protostomes) INFRAKINGDOM "Lophotrochozoa" (lophotrochozoans) SUPERPHYLUM Lophophorata PHYLUM Phoronida (phoronids) PHYLUM Brachiopoda (brachiopods) | ||
547,000,000 YBN | 333) The Lophotrochozoa Phyla Phoronida (phoronids) evolves. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Protostomia Grobben, 1908 (protostomes) INFRAKINGDOM "Lophotrochozoa" (lophotrochozoans) SUPERPHYLUM Lophophorata PHYLUM Phoronida (phoronids) PHYLUM Brachiopoda (brachiopods) | ||
547,000,000 YBN | 334) The Lophotrochozoa Phylum Brachiopoda (brachiopods {clams, oysters, muscles}) evolves. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Protostomia Grobben, 1908 (protostomes) INFRAKINGDOM "Lophotrochozoa" (lophotrochozoans) SUPERPHYLUM Lophophorata PHYLUM Phoronida (phoronids) PHYLUM Brachiopoda (brachiopods) | ||
545,000,000 YBN | 335) The Lophotrochozoa Phylum Entoprocta (entoprocts) evolves. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Protostomia Grobben, 1908 (protostomes) INFRAKINGDOM "Lophotrochozoa" (lophotrochozoans) PHYLUM Entoprocta (Nitsche, 1869) - entoprocts | ||
543,000,000 YBN | 53) End Precambrian Eon, start Phanerozoic Eon. End Proterozoic Era, start Paleozoic Era. | ||
543,000,000 YBN | 104) The Platyzoa Phyla Platyhelminthes (flatworms) and Gastrotricha (gastrotrichs) evolve. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Protostomia Grobben, 1908 (protostomes) INFRAKINGDOM Platyzoa Cavalier-Smith, 1998 SUPERPHYLUM Gnathifera - gnathiferans PHYLUM Gastrotricha Metschnikoff, 1864 - gastrotrichs PHYLUM Platyhelminthes Gegenbaur, 1859 - flatworms | ||
543,000,000 YBN | 120) Start Cambrian period (543-490 mybn). | ||
543,000,000 YBN | 336) The Lophotrochozoa Phylum Bryozoa (Bryozoans or moss animals) evolves. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Protostomia Grobben, 1908 (protostomes) INFRAKINGDOM "Lophotrochozoa" (lophotrochozoans) PHYLUM Bryozoa Ehrenberg, 1831 - bryozoans | ||
543,000,000 YBN | 337) The Ecdysozoa Superphylum Panarthropoda (Arthropods, Onychophora, Tardigrada) evolves. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Protostomia Grobben, 1908 (protostomes) INFRAKINGDOM Ecdysozoa Aguinaldo et al., 1997 ex Cavalier-Smith, 1998 - ecdysozoans SUPERPHYLUM Panarthropoda PHYLUM Tardigrada (Spallanzani, 1777) Ramazzotti, 1962 - tardigrades PHYLUM Onychophora - onychophorans PHYLUM Arthropoda Latreille, 1829 - arthropods | ||
543,000,000 YBN | 338) The Ecdysozoa Phylum Arthropoda (insects, crustaceans) evolve. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Protostomia Grobben, 1908 (protostomes) INFRAKINGDOM Ecdysozoa Aguinaldo et al., 1997 ex Cavalier-Smith, 1998 - ecdysozoans SUPERPHYLUM Panarthropoda PHYLUM Tardigrada (Spallanzani, 1777) Ramazzotti, 1962 - tardigrades PHYLUM Onychophora - onychophorans PHYLUM Arthropoda Latreille, 1829 - arthropods | ||
543,000,000 YBN | 339) The Ecdysozoa Phylum Onychophora (onychophorans) evolves. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Protostomia Grobben, 1908 (protostomes) INFRAKINGDOM Ecdysozoa Aguinaldo et al., 1997 ex Cavalier-Smith, 1998 - ecdysozoans SUPERPHYLUM Panarthropoda PHYLUM Tardigrada (Spallanzani, 1777) Ramazzotti, 1962 - tardigrades PHYLUM Onychophora - onychophorans PHYLUM Arthropoda Latreille, 1829 - arthropods | ||
543,000,000 YBN | 340) The Ecdysozoa Phylum Tardigrada (tardigrades) evolves. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Protostomia Grobben, 1908 (protostomes) INFRAKINGDOM Ecdysozoa Aguinaldo et al., 1997 ex Cavalier-Smith, 1998 - ecdysozoans SUPERPHYLUM Panarthropoda PHYLUM Tardigrada (Spallanzani, 1777) Ramazzotti, 1962 - tardigrades PHYLUM Onychophora - onychophorans PHYLUM Arthropoda Latreille, 1829 - arthropods | ||
542,000,000 YBN | 131) First shell (or skeleton) evolves. | ![]() [1] Aldanella may be mollusc, if mollusc may be first known snail. shell is 1.5 mm in diameter. source: http://www.geology.ucdavis.edu/~ cowen/HistoryofLife/CH05images.html | |
541,000,000 YBN | 102) The Lophotrochozoa Superphylum Eutrochozoa (molluscs, ribbon, peanut, spoon, and segmented worms) evolves. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Protostomia Grobben, 1908 (protostomes) INFRAKINGDOM "Lophotrochozoa" (lophotrochozoans) SUPERPHYLUM Eutrochozoa PHYLUM Nemertea Schultze - ribbon worms PHYLUM Sipuncula (Raffinesque, 1814) Sedgwick, 1898 - peanut worms PHYLUM Mollusca (Linnaeus, 1758) Cuvier, 1795 - molluscs PHYLUM †Hyolitha PHYLUM Echiura Sedgwick, 1898 - spoon worms, echiurans PHYLUM Annelida Lamarck, 1809 - segmented worms | ||
541,000,000 YBN | 132) Archaeocyatha (early sponges) evolve. | ![]() [1] http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/porifera/ar chaeo.html source: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/por ifera/archaeo.html ![]() [2] http://www.geology.ucdavis.edu/~cowen/Hi storyofLife/CH05images.html source: http://www.geology.ucdavis.edu/~ cowen/HistoryofLife/CH05images.html | |
541,000,000 YBN | 341) The Lophotrochozoa Phylum Nemertea (ribbon worms) evolves. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Protostomia Grobben, 1908 (protostomes) INFRAKINGDOM "Lophotrochozoa" (lophotrochozoans) SUPERPHYLUM Eutrochozoa PHYLUM Nemertea Schultze - ribbon worms PHYLUM Sipuncula (Raffinesque, 1814) Sedgwick, 1898 - peanut worms PHYLUM Mollusca (Linnaeus, 1758) Cuvier, 1795 - molluscs PHYLUM †Hyolitha PHYLUM Echiura Sedgwick, 1898 - spoon worms, echiurans PHYLUM Annelida Lamarck, 1809 - segmented worms | ||
540,000,000 YBN | 133) Earliest trilobite fossil. | ||
539,000,000 YBN | 342) The Lophotrochozoa Phylum Mollusca (brachiopods, bryozoans, clams, mussels, squids and octopuses {cephalopods}, and snails) evolves. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Protostomia Grobben, 1908 (protostomes) INFRAKINGDOM "Lophotrochozoa" (lophotrochozoans) SUPERPHYLUM Eutrochozoa PHYLUM Nemertea Schultze - ribbon worms PHYLUM Sipuncula (Raffinesque, 1814) Sedgwick, 1898 - peanut worms PHYLUM Mollusca (Linnaeus, 1758) Cuvier, 1795 - molluscs PHYLUM †Hyolitha PHYLUM Echiura Sedgwick, 1898 - spoon worms, echiurans PHYLUM Annelida Lamarck, 1809 - segmented worms | ||
537,000,000 YBN | 343) The Lophotrochozoa Phylum Annelida (segmented worms) evolve. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Protostomia Grobben, 1908 (protostomes) INFRAKINGDOM "Lophotrochozoa" (lophotrochozoans) SUPERPHYLUM Eutrochozoa PHYLUM Nemertea Schultze - ribbon worms PHYLUM Sipuncula (Raffinesque, 1814) Sedgwick, 1898 - peanut worms PHYLUM Mollusca (Linnaeus, 1758) Cuvier, 1795 - molluscs PHYLUM †Hyolitha PHYLUM Echiura Sedgwick, 1898 - spoon worms, echiurans PHYLUM Annelida Lamarck, 1809 - segmented worms | ||
537,000,000 YBN | 344) The Lophotrochozoa Phylum Sipuncula (peanut worms) evolve. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Protostomia Grobben, 1908 (protostomes) INFRAKINGDOM "Lophotrochozoa" (lophotrochozoans) SUPERPHYLUM Eutrochozoa PHYLUM Nemertea Schultze - ribbon worms PHYLUM Sipuncula (Raffinesque, 1814) Sedgwick, 1898 - peanut worms PHYLUM Mollusca (Linnaeus, 1758) Cuvier, 1795 - molluscs PHYLUM †Hyolitha PHYLUM Echiura Sedgwick, 1898 - spoon worms, echiurans PHYLUM Annelida Lamarck, 1809 - segmented worms | ||
530,000,000 YBN | 350) Deuterstome Chordata Subphylum Vertebrata evolves. This Subphylum contains most fish, all amphibians, reptiles, and mammals. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates CLASS Agnatha INTRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates | ||
530,000,000 YBN | 351) Subphylum Vertebrata jawless fish (agnatha) evolve. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates CLASS Agnatha INTRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates | ||
530,000,000 YBN | 386) Oldest fossil vertebrate and fish. Haiko uichthys ercaicunensis: About 25 mm in length. | ![]() [1] Figure 4 The Lower Cambrian agnathan vertebrate Haikouichthys ercaicunensis Luo, Hu & Shu gen. et sp. nov. from Haikou, Yunnan. Specimen HZ-f-12-127. a, Entire specimen, anterior to the left; more posterior region appears to fade out into sediment, possibly representing decay of body; attempts to excavate this area were not successful. Scale bar equivalent to 5 mm. b, Detail of anterior to show putative gill bars, possible elements of cranial endoskeleton, and pericardic area; scale bar equivalent to 5 mm. c, Camera-lucida drawing of specimen to show interpretation. Numbers 1-6 indicate units of the branchial basket that are identified with some confidence; ?A-?C refer to less secure identifications. Two possible areas representing the pericardic cavity are indicated. To the anterior of ?C a triangular area with patches of diagenetic mineralization is one possibility; a fainter region to the posterior is the alternative location. COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou rnal/v402/n6757/fig_tab/402042a0_F4.html | |
520,000,000 YBN | 148) Hexactinellid sponge from the Hetang Formation, Southern China. | ![]() [1] A hexactinellid sponge from the Hetang Formation. Reconstruction on the left (scale bar = 5 cm). Photos courtesy of Xunlai Yuan. source: http://www.geol.vt.edu/paleo/Xia o/ | |
520,000,000 YBN | 205) Dinoflagellate biological markers measured in Kopli quarry, Tallinn, Estonia. | ||
507,000,000 YBN | 140) Aysheaia (onychophoran, also described as lobopod) fossil, from Burgess shale. | ![]() source: 1 & 2 http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/shale/paysh ia.htm ![]() source: 3 http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/onychoph/on ychophorafr.html | |
507,000,000 YBN | 142) Hallucigenia fossil, from Burgess shale. | ![]() [1] source: http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/sha le/pchoia.htm ![]() [2] source: | |
507,000,000 YBN | 145) Priapulid worm fossils of Burgess Shale. | ![]() [1] Ottoia, showing muscle bands and gut. Ottoia is a priapulid worm found commonly in the Burgess Shale. It was carnivorous, and probably lived in a burrow like modern priapulids. This specimen has been wetted and oriented to reflect the light, in order to show a delicate irridescent film which preserves details of muscle bands, the gut, and even the small hooks at one end of the worm (on the right -- unfortunately out of focus). Walcott quarry. source: http://www.geo.ucalgary.ca/~macr ae/Burgess_Shale/Ottoia_muscle.gif ![]() [2] Phylum Priapulida Ottoia Priapulid worm. Note the anterior proboscis (on the left) and the dark trace of the interior digestive tract. Ottoia was carnivorous. source: http://www.gpc.edu/~pgore/geolog y/geo102/burgess/burgess.htm | |
507,000,000 YBN | 146) Opabinia fossils of Burgess Shale. | ![]() source: http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/sha le/popabin.htm ![]() source: http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/sha le/popabin.htm | |
507,000,000 YBN | 147) Animalocaris fossils of Burgess Shale. | ![]() [1] diagram source: http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/sha le/panomal.htm ![]() [2] jaws source: http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/sha le/panomal.htm | |
507,000,000 YBN | 149) Marrella (Arthropod) fossils in Burgess Shale. | ![]() [1] diagram source: http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/sha le/pmarella.htm ![]() [2] fossil source: http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/sha le/pmarella.htm | |
505,000,000 YBN | 74) Oldest fossil of an artropod moulting. | ![]() [1] a, Specimen of M. splendens (ROM 56781) emerging and pulling out the flexible lateral spines from the old exoskeleton (exuvia). b, Camera lucida drawing of the same specimen. Scale bar for a and b, 5 mm. c, Reconstruction of Marrella (modified from ref. 8). COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou rnal/v429/n6987/fig_tab/429040a_F1.html | |
500,000,000 YBN | 230) Ascomycota Fungi "Pyrenomycetes" (head scab fungus, orange bread mold, rice blast fungus) and "Plectomycetes" (aspergillus, penicilin fungus, coccidiodomycosis fungus) evolve. Genetic comparison shows the Ascomycota Fungi "Pyrenomycetes" (head scab fungus, orange bread mold, rice blast fungus) and "Plectomycetes" (aspergillus, penicilin fungus, coccidiodomycosis fungus) evolving now. | ||
490,000,000 YBN | 121) Start Ordovician (490-443 mybn), end Cambrian period (543-490 mybn). | ||
475,000,000 YBN | 90) Genetic comparison shows the ancestor of all plants (Kingdom Plantae) evolving at this time (in the view that algae are protists and not plants). Genetic comparison shows the ancestor of all plants (Kingdom Plantae) evolving at this time (in the view that algae are single and multicellular protists and not plants). | ![]() source: http://protist.i.hosei.ac.jp/PDB 3/PCD3711/htmls/86.html ![]() source: http://protist.i.hosei.ac.jp/PDB /Images/Others/Glaucocystis/ | |
475,000,000 YBN | 232) Genetic comparison shows the non-vascular plant and vascular plant lines splitting now. | ||
475,000,000 YBN | 233) Genetic comparison shows Liverworts (Plant Division Marchantiophyta) evolving now. | ![]() [1] A thallose liverwort, Lunularia cruciata public domain source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liv erworts ![]() [2] Arachniopsis diacantha is an algae-like leafy liverwort of the family Lepidoziaceae. Arachniopsis diacantha, a liverwort from brazilian rain forest by J. Z. Berger public domain source: same | |
475,000,000 YBN | 244) Genetic comparison shows non-vascular plants (Bryophytes) (Liverworts, Hornworts, Mosses) evolving now. Many people view these plants and the beginning of the Plant kingdom and algae as being in the Protista kingdom. These plants lack vascular tissue that circulates liquids. They neither flower nor produce seeds, reproducing via spores. The order these three divisions evolved in is not fully known. Liverworts 9,000 Hornworts 100 species Mosses 15,000 | ![]() [1] Phaeoceros laevis (L.) Prosk. gnu source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Anthoceros_levis.jpg ![]() [2] Image of Phaeoceros (hornwort) spores taken by J. Ziffer. public domain source: wiki | |
475,000,000 YBN | 352) Subphylum Vertebrata jawless fish lampreys and hagfish lines separate. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates CLASS Agnatha INTRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates | ||
470,000,000 YBN | 234) Genetic comparison shows Hornworts (division Anthocerotophyta) evolving now. | ![]() [1] Phaeoceros laevis (L.) Prosk. gnu source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Anthoceros_levis.jpg ![]() [2] Image of Phaeoceros (hornwort) spores taken by J. Ziffer. public domain source: wiki | |
464,000,000 YBN | 398) Earliest fossil spore belonging to land plants. These spores look like the spores of living liverworts. | ||
460,000,000 YBN | 84) Earliest fungi fossil. | ![]() [1] Figure 1. (A to C and E to G) Fossil hyphae and spores from the Ordovician and (D and H) spores formed by extant glomalean fungi. (A and B) Overviews of the fossilized material. (C, E, F, and G) Fossil spore details. (C) Detail of (B). (D) A spore of present-day Glomus sp. S328 with layered wall structure. In (G), the arrow shows walls of a subtending hypha in connection with the spore wall. (H) A spore of present-day Glomus leptotichum, a member of the deeply divergent glomalean lineages. Images were obtained by light microscopy (28) of the specimens in air (A, C, F, and G), differential interference contrast microscopy of the specimens in polyvinylalcohol-lactoglycerol (D, E, and H), and confocal laser scanning microscopy with the autofluorescence of the material (B). All scale bars are 50 µm. source: | |
460,000,000 YBN | 235) Genetic comparison shows Mosses (division Bryophyta) evolving now. 15,000 species. | ![]() [1] A moss covered log. Photo by sannse at Mistley, England. GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mos s ![]() [2] life cycle of moss ladyofhats public domain source: same | |
460,000,000 YBN | 353) Jawed vertebrates (Infraphylum Gnathostomata) evolve. This large group includes all jawed fish, all amphibians, reptiles, and mammals. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates CLASS †Placodermi McCoy, 1848 CLASS Chondrichthyes - cartilaginous fishes CLASS †Acanthodii CLASS Osteichthyes Huxley, 1880 SUPERCLASS Tetrapoda Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods | ||
460,000,000 YBN | 354) Jawed vertebrate (Infraphylum Gnathostomata) Class Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fishes) evolve. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates CLASS †Placodermi McCoy, 1848 CLASS Chondrichthyes - cartilaginous fishes CLASS †Acanthodii CLASS Osteichthyes Huxley, 1880 SUPERCLASS Tetrapoda Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods | ||
450,000,000 YBN | 106) First chordates. The Chordata phylum includes all tunicates, fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. The living chordate with the oldest DNA design are tunicates. | ||
450,000,000 YBN | 158) Amino acid sequence comparison shows the gnathostome (vertebrates with a jaw bone) line separating from lamprey line here at 450 mybn (first gnathostome). | ||
443,000,000 YBN | 122) Start Silurian period (443-417), end Ordovician period (490-443 mybn). | ||
440,000,000 YBN | 360) In the Jawed Fishes, the Ray-finned fishes (Subclass Actinopterygii) evolve. Ray-finned fishes (Subclass Actinopterygii) are in Class Osteichthyes. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates CLASS Osteichthyes Huxley, 1880 SUBCLASS Actinopterygii - ray-finned fishes INFRACLASS Cladistia INFRACLASS Actinopteri | ||
428,000,000 YBN | 401) Oldest fossil of vascular land plants, Cooksonia. Oldest fossil of vascular land plants, Cooksonia pertoni. They have been found in an area stretching from Siberia to the Eastern USA, and in Brazil. They are found mostly in the area of Euramerica, and most of the type specimens are from Britain. Cooksonia were very small plants, only a few centimetres tall, and had a simple structure: They didn't have leaves, flowers or seeds. They had a simple stalk, that branched a few times. Each branch ended in a sporangium, a rounded structure that contained the spores. No specimen has been found attached to roots. Either it connected to the ground with very fine root hairs, the fossils are of fragments, or something entirely unanticipated. Some specimens have a dark stripe in the centre of their stalks which is interpreted as being the remains of water carrying tissue. Not all specimens have this stripe, either some Cooksonia lacked vasular tissue, or it was destroyed in the fossilization process. Oldest fossil of vascular land plants, Cooksonia pertoni, from England, UK. They have been found in an area stretching from Siberia to the Eastern USA, and in Brazil. They are found mostly in the area of Euramerica, and most of the type specimens are from Britain. Cooksonia were small, a few centimetres tall, and had a simple structure: They didn't have leaves, flowers, or seeds. They had a simple stalk, that branched a few times. Each branch ended in a sporangium, a rounded structure that contained the spores. No specimen has been found attached to roots. Either it connected to the ground with very fine root hairs, the fossils are of fragments, or something entirely unanticipated. Some specimens have a dark stripe in the centre of their stalks which is interpreted as being the remains of water carrying tissue. Not all specimens have this stripe, either some Cooksonia lacked vasular tissue, or it was destroyed in the fossilization process. The relationships between the known species of Cooksonia and modern plants remain unclear. They appear to represent plants that are near to the branching between Rhyniophyta and to the club mosses. It is considered likely that Cooksonia is not a clade but rather represents an evolutionary grade. Five species of Cooksonia have been clearly identified. C. pertoni, C. hemisphaerica, C. cambrensis, C. caledonica and C. paranensis. They are distiguished primarily by the shape of the sporangia. The first Cooksonia were discovered by W.H. Lang in 1937 and named in honour of Isabel Cookson, with whom he had collaborated. Cooksonia branches dichotomously (from 1 into 2 branches only). | ![]() [1] Cooksonia pertoni with three sporangia. Height of the plant 2.5 cm Pridolian (Upper Silurian) Shropshire, England. COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.xs4all.nl/~steurh/eng cook/ecookwal.html ![]() [2] Cooksonia pertoni, fossilised plant COPYRIGHTED UK source: http://owen.nhm.ac.uk/piclib/web images/0/0/900/936_sml.jpg | |
428,000,000 YBN | 402) Oldest fossil land animal, the millipede Pneumodesmus. | ||
425,000,000 YBN | 377) Coelacanths evolve. 2 living species known. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates CLASS Osteichthyes Huxley, 1880 SUBCLASS Sarcopterygii INFRACLASS Crossopterygii ORDER Actinistia - coelacanths | ||
417,000,000 YBN | 123) Start Devonian period (417-354 mybn), end Silurian period (443-417 mybn). | ||
417,000,000 YBN | 378) Lungfishes evolve. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates CLASS Osteichthyes Huxley, 1880 SUBCLASS Sarcopterygii ORDER Dipnoi - lungfishes | ||
412,000,000 YBN | 403) Oldest fossil lung fish. | ||
409,000,000 YBN | 404) Oldest fossil shark. | ||
400,000,000 YBN | 85) Earliest lichen fossil. | ||
400,000,000 YBN | 159) Amino acid sequence comparison shows the tetrapod (4 leg) line separating from the fish line here at 400 mybn (first tetrapod). | ||
400,000,000 YBN | 236) Genetic comparison shows the oldest line of living vascular plants from the Division "Lycophyta" evolving now. Genetic comparison shows the oldest line of living vascular plants (Tracheophytes) from the Division "Lycophyta" evolving now. 1,200 species. | ![]() [1] Lycopodiella cernua (L.) Pic. Serm. plant from windward O'ahu (Hawai'i) taken in December 2003 by Eric Guinther and released under the GNU Free Documentation License. gnu source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyc ophyte ![]() [2] Fossil trunk of Lepidodendron aculeatum showing leaf scars gnu source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lep idodendron | |
400,000,000 YBN | 399) Earliest fossil of an insect. This fossil also could have been winged. | ![]() [1] Rhyniognatha hirsti. COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-onli ne/earth/fossils/article-oldest-insect-f ossil/the-oldest-fossil-insect-in-the-wo rld.html | |
390,000,000 YBN | 355) Cartilaginous Fishes (Class Chondrichthyes) Subclass Subterbranchialia and Subclass Elasmobranchii (shark-like fishes) separate. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates CLASS Chondrichthyes - cartilaginous fishes SUBCLASS Elasmobranchii - shark-like fishes SUBCLASS Subterbranchialia | ||
390,000,000 YBN | 356) Subclass Subterbranchialia Superorder Holocephali (chimaeras: eg. elephant fish) evolves. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates CLASS Chondrichthyes - cartilaginous fishes SUBCLASS Elasmobranchii - shark-like fishes SUBCLASS Subterbranchialia SUPERORDER Holocephali | ||
380,000,000 YBN | 243) Genetic comparison shows the Fern line and the line that leads to Seed Plants (Gymnosperms and Angiosperms) separating now. | ||
380,000,000 YBN | 246) Genetic comparison shows the Spore producing and Seed producing plant lines separating now. Genetic comparison shows the Spore producing (ferns and all earlier plants) and Seed producing (Spermatophyta, Gymnosperms and Angiosperms) plant lines separating now. | ||
380,000,000 YBN | 405) Oldest fossil large trees. First forests. | ||
380,000,000 YBN | 406) Oldest fossil spider. | ||
375,000,000 YBN | 407) Oldest fossil amphibian, and land vertebrate. Oldest fossil amphibian, Acanthostega , from Greenland Also, the oldest evidence of land vertebrates. | ||
365,000,000 YBN | 160) Amino acid sequence comparison shows the amniote () line separating from the amphibian line here at 365 mybn (first amniote). | ||
360,000,000 YBN | 237) Genetic comparison shows Ferns (Plant Division "Pteridophyta") evolving now. Genetic comparison shows the Plant Division "Pteridophyta" (Ferns) evolving now. Whisk and Ophioglossiod ferns, Marattiod ferns, Horsetails, Lepto. ferns. Lepto. ferns 11,000 Horsetails 15 Marattio id ferns 240 Ophioglossoid ferns 110 Whisk 15 | ![]() [1] Ferns, Melbourne Botanical Gardens gnu source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fer n ![]() [2] An Australian tree fern growing on O'ahu, Hawai'i. Photographed by Eric Guinther. A tree fern unrolling a new frond GNU source: same | |
360,000,000 YBN | 408) Devonian mass extinction caused by ice age. | ||
354,000,000 YBN | 124) Start Carboniferous period (354-290 mybn), end Devonian period (417-354 mybn). | ||
350,000,000 YBN | 361) In the Ray-finned fishes Superdivision Chondrostei (sturgeons and paddlefish) evolves. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates CLASS Osteichthyes Huxley, 1880 SUBCLASS Actinopterygii - ray-finned fishes INFRACLASS Cladistia INFRACLASS Actinopteri | ||
350,000,000 YBN | 362) In the Ray-finned fishes Infradivsion Cladistia (Bichirs) evolves. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates CLASS Osteichthyes Huxley, 1880 SUBCLASS Actinopterygii - ray-finned fishes INFRACLASS Cladistia INFRACLASS Actinopteri | ||
340,000,000 YBN | 379) Tetrapods evolve. (Superclass Tetrapoda) DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates SUPERCLASS Tetrapoda Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods | ||
340,000,000 YBN | 380) Amphibians (Caecillians, frogs, toads, Salamanders) evolve. (Superclass Tetrapoda, Class Amphibia) DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates SUPERCLASS Tetrapoda Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods CLASS Amphibia Linnaeus, 1758 - amphibians | ||
330,000,000 YBN | 409) Oldest fossil conifer. | ||
325,000,000 YBN | 381) The Amphibians Caecillians evolve. (Superc lass Tetrapoda, Class Amphibia) DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates SUPERCLASS Tetrapoda Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods CLASS Amphibia Linnaeus, 1758 - amphibians SUBCLASS Lissamphibia Haeckel, 1866 ORDER Gymnophiona Rafinesque-Schmaltz, 1814 | ||
320,000,000 YBN | 238) Genetic comparison shows the oldest living Gymnosperms from the Plant Kingdom evolving now. Genetic comparison shows the oldest living Gymnosperms (Greek for "Naked Seed"), Cycads, from the Plant Kingdom evolving now. These are the first seed bearing plants. Gymnosperm Plant Divisions are: Pinophyta - Conifers "Pinaceae" 220 "Other conifers" 400 species Ginkgophyta - Ginkgo 1 species Cycadophyta - Cycads 130 species Gnetophyta - Gnetum, Ephedra, Welwitschia 80 species | ![]() [1] Leaves and female cone of Cycas revoluta GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyc ad ![]() [2] Leaves and male cone of Cycas revoluta Photo of Cycas (sago cycad) inflorescence, taken July 2001 by User:Stan Shebs Cycas revoluta - male plant GNU source: same | |
318,000,000 YBN | 242) Genetic comparison shows the Gymnosperms and Angiosperms lines separating now. | ||
315,000,000 YBN | 410) Oldest fossil reptile. Hylonomus was a small lizard-like reptile that was trapped in the trunk of a swamp tree in what is now Nova Scotia , Canada. | ||
315,000,000 YBN | 411) Oldest fossil of flying insect (mayfly?). Oldest fossil of flying insects (unless Devonian Rhyniognatha had wings). Fossil wings on giant mayflies, dragonflys, and dragonfly-like arthropods. | ||
315,000,000 YBN | 453) Allegheny mountains form as a result of the collision of Europe and eastern North America. | ||
310,000,000 YBN | 384) Egg evolves. This group, the Amniota, will branch into the 3 major Classes: Reptiles (Sauropsida), Birds (Aves), and Mammals (Synapsida). DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates SUPERCLASS Tetrapoda Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods SERIES Amniota | ||
310,000,000 YBN | 385) Reptiles evolve. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates SUPERCLASS Tetrapoda Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods SERIES Amniota CLASS Sauropsida | ||
305,000,000 YBN | 382) The Amphibians Frogs and Toads evolve. (Superclass Tetrapoda, Class Amphibia) DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates SUPERCLASS Tetrapoda Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods CLASS Amphibia Linnaeus, 1758 - amphibians SUBCLASS Lissamphibia Haeckel, 1866 ORDER Anura (Rafinesque, 1815) Hogg, 1839:152 | ||
305,000,000 YBN | 383) Amphibians Salamanders evolve. (Superclass Tetrapoda, Class Amphibia) DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates SUPERCLASS Tetrapoda Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods CLASS Amphibia Linnaeus, 1758 - amphibians SUBCLASS Lissamphibia Haeckel, 1866 ORDER Caudata Scopoli, 1777 | ||
300,000,000 YBN | 162) Amino acid sequence comparison shows that the common ancestor of all mammals, birds, and reptiles dates to here at 300 mybn. | ||
300,000,000 YBN | 387) Turtles, Tortoises and Terrapins evolve. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates SUPERCLASS Tetrapoda Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods SERIES Amniota CLASS Sauropsida SUBCLASS Anapsida ORDER Testudines - turtles | ||
290,000,000 YBN | 125) Start Permian period (290-248 mybn), end Carboniferous period (354-290 mybn). | ||
290,000,000 YBN | 239) Genetic comparison shows the second oldest living Gymnosperm, Ginkgo from the Plant Kingdom evolving now. Ginkgop hyta - Ginkgo 1 species | ![]() [1] * Description: Leaves of Ginkgo biloba. * Source: picure taken by Reinhard Kraasch in his own garden in August 2003 (from German wikipedia) * Licence: released per the GNU Free Documentation License by the photographer source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gin kgo ![]() [2] Name Ginkgo biloba Family Ginkgoaceae Image no. 1 Permission granted to use under GFDL by Kurt Stueber GNU Ginkgo fruit and leaves source: same | |
280,000,000 YBN | 388) Anapsids (iguanas and snakes) and diapsids (crocodiles) separate. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates SUPERCLASS Tetrapoda Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods SERIES Amniota CLASS Sauropsida SUBCLASS Diapsida INFRACLASS Lepidosauromorpha SUPERORDER Lepidosauria™ ORDER Sphenodontida FAMILY Sphenodontidae™ - tuataras | ||
270,000,000 YBN | 240) Genetic comparison shows the third oldest living Gymnosperms, Conifers (Plant division "Pinophyta") evolving now. Pinophyta - Conifers "Pinaceae" 220 "Other conifers" 400 species Kingdom: Plantae Division: Pinophyta Class: Pinopsida Order: Pinales Families: Pinaceae - Pine family Araucariaceae - Araucaria family Podocarpaceae - Yellow-wood family ciadopityaceae - Umbrella-pine family Cupressac eae - Cypress family (includes Sequoia, Redwoods, Cypress, Alerce {Second oldest}) Cephalotaxaceae - Plum-yew family Taxaceae - Yew family | ![]() [1] Closeup shot of a stem of needles (perhaps Norway spruce?) by USFWS and obtained from the GIMP photo library. United States Federal Government This work is in the public domain because it is a work of the United States Federal Government. This applies worldwide. See Copyright Close-up of pinophyte leaves (needles): Norway Spruce (Picea abies) source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pin ophyta ![]() [2] Native Pinus sylvestris forest, Scotland: Deeside, Mar Lodge, April 2005 GNU 1.2 source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pin aceae | |
260,000,000 YBN | 363) In the Ray-finned fishes Infradivision Actinopteri evolves. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates CLASS Osteichthyes Huxley, 1880 SUBCLASS Actinopterygii - ray-finned fishes INFRACLASS Cladistia INFRACLASS Actinopteri | ||
260,000,000 YBN | 364) In the Ray-finned fishes Infradivision Actinopteri, Gars evolve. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates CLASS Osteichthyes Huxley, 1880 SUBCLASS Actinopterygii - ray-finned fishes INFRACLASS Cladistia INFRACLASS Actinopteri | ||
255,000,000 YBN | 389) Tuataras evolve. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates SUPERCLASS Tetrapoda Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods SERIES Amniota CLASS Sauropsida SUBCLASS Diapsida INFRACLASS Lepidosauromorpha SUPERORDER Lepidosauria™ ORDER Sphenodontida FAMILY Sphenodontidae™ - tuataras | ||
251,000,000 YBN | 452) The supercontinent Pangea forms. | ||
250,000,000 YBN | 241) Genetic comparison shows the fourth oldest living Plant Division "Gnetales" evolving now. Gnetophyta - Gnetum, Ephedra, Welwitschia 80 species. | ![]() [1] Photo of a Welwitschia mirabilis, taken in the Ugab River valley in Namibia in October 2004 by Muriel Gottrop. The photo shows a female plant, recognizable by the oval shaped seed pods. Creative Commons License Creative Commons Attribution iconCreative Commons Share Alike icon This image is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution ShareAlike License v. 1.0: http://creativecommons.org/license s/by-sa/1.0/ source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wel witschia ![]() [2] Wikimedia Commons logo This is a file from the Wikimedia Commons. The description on its description page there is shown below. Genus Welwitschia Gnetopsida Oroginally uploaded by User:Roger_Zenner at the German Wikipedia on 24 Sept. 2004. Caption says it was photographed by Freddy Weber for User:Robert_Zenner in Auhust 2004 in Namibia. Info from German Wikipedia: Lizenz: Gemeinfrei (Public Domain), fotografiert von Freddy Weber (für Benutzer:Roger_Zenner) im August 2004 in Namibia. public domain source: same | |
250,000,000 YBN | 396) The Permian mass extinction event happens. This is the most devastating mass extinction event in the history of earth. Trilobites become extinct. | ![]() [1] Timeloine of mass extinctions. COPYRIGHTED Benjamin Cummings. source: http://io.uwinnipeg.ca/~simmons/ 16cm05/1116/16macro.htm | |
248,000,000 YBN | 54) End Paleozoic Era, start Mesozoic Era. | ||
248,000,000 YBN | 126) Start Triassic period (248-206 mybn), end Permian period (290-248 mybn). | ||
245,000,000 YBN | 392) Crocodiles, allegators, caimans evolve. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates SUPERCLASS Tetrapoda Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods SERIES Amniota CLASS Sauropsida SUBCLASS Diapsida INFRACLASS Archosauromorpha DIVISION Archosauria SUBDIVISION Crurotarsi - crurotarsans SUPERORDER Crocodylomorpha ORDER Crocodylia™ - crocodiles | ||
245,000,000 YBN | 393) Birds evolve. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates SUPERCLASS Tetrapoda Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods SERIES Amniota CLASS Aves Linnaeus, 1758 - birds | ||
240,000,000 YBN | 365) Actinopteri Superdivision Neopterygii evolves. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates CLASS Osteichthyes Huxley, 1880 SUBCLASS Actinopterygii - ray-finned fishes INFRACLASS Cladistia INFRACLASS Actinopteri SUPERDIVISION Neopterygii | ||
240,000,000 YBN | 366) In Superdivision Neopterygii, Subdivision Halecomorphi, Bow fish (Amiiformes) evolve. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates CLASS Osteichthyes Huxley, 1880 SUBCLASS Actinopterygii - ray-finned fishes INFRACLASS Cladistia INFRACLASS Actinopteri SUPERDIVISION Neopterygii | ||
240,000,000 YBN | 367) Bow fish evolve. In Superdivision Neopterygii, Division Halecostomi, Subdivision Halecomorphi, Bow fish (Amiiformes) evolve. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates CLASS Osteichthyes Huxley, 1880 SUBCLASS Actinopterygii - ray-finned fishes INFRACLASS Cladistia INFRACLASS Actinopteri SUPERDIVISION Neopterygii | ||
228,000,000 YBN | 412) Oldest dinosaur fossil, Eorapter was found in South America. Oldest dinosaur fossil. Eoraptor was found in South America . This little dinosaur was a cat-sized meat eater. | ||
220,000,000 YBN | 400) Oldest mammal fossil. This is a fingernail-sized skull found in Texas. | ||
215,000,000 YBN | 428) Oldest Pterosaur fossil. | ||
210,000,000 YBN | 368) Subdivision Teleostei (eels, herrings, anchovies, carp, minnows, piranha, salmon, trout, pike, perch, seahorse, cod) evolves. In Superdivision Neopterygii, Division Halecostomi, Subdivision Halecomorphi, Bow fish (Amiiformes) evolve. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates CLASS Osteichthyes Huxley, 1880 SUBCLASS Actinopterygii - ray-finned fishes INFRACLASS Cladistia INFRACLASS Actinopteri SUPERDIVISION Neopterygii | ||
210,000,000 YBN | 369) Bonytongues evolve. In Subdivision Teleostei Bonytongues evolve. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates CLASS Osteichthyes Huxley, 1880 SUBCLASS Actinopterygii - ray-finned fishes INFRACLASS Cladistia INFRACLASS Actinopteri SUPERDIVISION Neopterygii DIVISION Halecostomi SUBDIVISION Teleostei | ||
210,000,000 YBN | 390) Iguanas, chamaeleons, spiny lizards evolve. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates SUPERCLASS Tetrapoda Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods SERIES Amniota CLASS Sauropsida SUBCLASS Diapsida INFRACLASS Lepidosauromorpha SUPERORDER Lepidosauria™ ORDER Squamata SUBORDER Lacertilia INFRAORDER Iguania | ||
210,000,000 YBN | 391) Snakes, Skinks, Geckos evolve. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates SUPERCLASS Tetrapoda Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods SERIES Amniota CLASS Sauropsida SUBCLASS Diapsida INFRACLASS Lepidosauromorpha SUPERORDER Lepidosauria™ ORDER Squamata SUBORDER Serpentes (Linnaeus, 1758) - snakes | ||
210,000,000 YBN | 413) Oldest turtle fossil. Oldest turtle fossil, Proganochelys. | ||
209,500,000 YBN | 489) Triconodonta (extinct mammals) evolve. Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Order: Triconodonta | ||
206,000,000 YBN | 127) Start Jurassic period (206-144 mybn), end Triassic period (248-206 mybn). | ||
200,000,000 YBN | 370) Eels and tarpons (Elopocephala) evolve. In Subdivision Teleostei Eels and tarpons (Elopocephala) evolve. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates CLASS Osteichthyes Huxley, 1880 SUBCLASS Actinopterygii - ray-finned fishes INFRACLASS Cladistia INFRACLASS Actinopteri SUPERDIVISION Neopterygii DIVISION Halecostomi SUBDIVISION Teleostei | ||
199,000,000 YBN | 414) End of Triassic mass extinction, because of climate (temperature?, weather?) changes. Large outpourings of lava from break-up of Pangea may have caused climate change. 50% of life went extinct, including thecodonts and synapsids. | ||
190,000,000 YBN | 357) Subclass Elasmobranchii (shark-like fishes) divides into 2 divisions Squalea (rays, skates) and Galeomorphii (great white, hammerhead, nurse, sand tiger sharks). DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates CLASS Chondrichthyes - cartilaginous fishes SUBCLASS Elasmobranchii - shark-like fishes INFRACLASS Euselachii COHORT Neoselachii DIVISION Galeomorphii DIVISION Squalea | ||
190,000,000 YBN | 358) Division Squalea (rays, skates) evolve. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates CLASS Chondrichthyes - cartilaginous fishes SUBCLASS Elasmobranchii - shark-like fishes INFRACLASS Euselachii COHORT Neoselachii DIVISION Galeomorphii DIVISION Squalea ORDER Hexanchiformes - cowsharks and frilled sharks ORDER Echinorhiniformes ORDER Squaliformes - dogfish sharks and relatives SUPERORDER Hypnosqualea SUPERORDER Batoidea - rays | ||
190,000,000 YBN | 359) Division Galeomorphii (great white, hammerhead, nurse, sand tiger sharks) evolve. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates CLASS Chondrichthyes - cartilaginous fishes SUBCLASS Elasmobranchii - shark-like fishes INFRACLASS Euselachii COHORT Neoselachii DIVISION Galeomorphii ORDER Carcharhiniformes - ground sharks ORDER Heterodontiformes - bullhead sharks ORDER Lamniformes - mackerel sharks and relatives ORDER Orectolobiformes - carpet sharks DIVISION Squalea | ||
190,000,000 YBN | 371) Herrings and anchovies evolve. Herrings and anchovies (Division Clupeomorpha) evolve. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates CLASS Osteichthyes Huxley, 1880 SUBCLASS Actinopterygii - ray-finned fishes INFRACLASS Cladistia INFRACLASS Actinopteri SUPERDIVISION Neopterygii DIVISION Halecostomi SUBDIVISION Teleostei | ||
185,000,000 YBN | 194) Oldest diatom (Heterokonts or Chromalveolates) fossils. | ![]() source: http://www.nature.com/news/2003/ 030217/images/diatom_180.jpg ![]() source: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/chr omista/diatoms/diatomdiverse.jpg | |
180,000,000 YBN | 456) First mammals, Monotremes evolves. Monotremes lay eggs and are the oldest warm blooded species of record. Order: Monotremata (C.L. Bonaparte, 1837) or Subclass Prototheria (Gill, 1872:vi) Bi ota Domain Eukaryota - eukaryotes Kingdom Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals Subkingdom Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians Branch Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes Infrakingdom Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 Phylum Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates Subphylum Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates Infraphylum Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates Superclass Tetrapoda Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods Series Amniota Mammaliaformes Rowe, 1988 Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758 - mammals Subclass Prototheria Gill, 1872:vi Order Platypoda (Gill, 1872) McKenna in Stucky & McKenna in Benton, ed., 1993:740 Order Tachyglossa (Gill, 1872) McKenna in Stucky & McKenna in Benton, ed., 1993:740 | ||
175,000,000 YBN | 245) Genetic comparison shows the most ancient flowering plant (Angiosperm) still alive, "Amborella" evolving now. This begins the "broad-leaf" plants. There is only 1 species of Amborella still living. Angiosperms (flowering plants) are the first plant to produce fruits. A fruit is the ripened ovary, together with seeds, of a flowering plant. In many species, the fruit incorporates the ripened ovary and surrounding tissues. Fruits are the means by which flowering plants disseminate seeds. Class is "Palaeodicots"? | ![]() [1] Photo of Amborella trichopoda (Amborellaceae; photo © Sangtae Kim). source: http://tolweb.org/tree?group=ang iosperms ![]() [2] none source: http://www.ucsc.edu/currents/99- 00/08-30/amborella.photo2.htm | |
170,000,000 YBN | 372) Carp, minnows, Piranhas evolve. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates CLASS Osteichthyes Huxley, 1880 SUBCLASS Actinopterygii - ray-finned fishes INFRACLASS Cladistia INFRACLASS Actinopteri SUPERDIVISION Neopterygii DIVISION Halecostomi SUBDIVISION Teleostei | ||
170,000,000 YBN | 373) Salmon, Trout, Pike evolve. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates CLASS Osteichthyes Huxley, 1880 SUBCLASS Actinopterygii - ray-finned fishes INFRACLASS Cladistia INFRACLASS Actinopteri SUPERDIVISION Neopterygii DIVISION Halecostomi SUBDIVISION Teleostei | ||
165,000,000 YBN | 247) Genetic comparison shows the second oldest line of Angiosperms, the Water Lilies ("Nymphaeales") evolving now. 70 species. | ![]() [1] Nymphaea alba Nymphaea alba - image taken on 29 August 2004 in the outdoor botanical garden of Technion - Haifa, Israel public domain source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nym phaeaceae ![]() [2] Nymphaea colorata from Africa presume is gnu or pd source: same | |
150,000,000 YBN | 374) Lightfish and Dragonfish evolve. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates CLASS Osteichthyes Huxley, 1880 SUBCLASS Actinopterygii - ray-finned fishes INFRACLASS Cladistia INFRACLASS Actinopteri SUPERDIVISION Neopterygii DIVISION Halecostomi SUBDIVISION Teleostei | ||
150,000,000 YBN | 394) Oldest bird fossil, Archaeopteryx. The Archaeopteryx fossil is from the Solnhofen Limestone of the Upper Jurassic of Germany. Archaeopteryx is a member of the extinct Subclass Archaeornithes. There are many unsolved questions about birds. Did birds evolve flight from trees or from the ground? From what part of the body did feathers evolve? What colors were the first birds? Was Archaeopteryx warm blooded? Biota Domain Eukaryota - eukaryotes Kingdom Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals Subkingdom Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians Branch Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes Infrakingdom Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 Phylum Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates Subphylum Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates Infraphylum Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates Superclass Tetrapoda Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods Series Amniota Class Aves Linnaeus, 1758 - birds {Subclass †Archaeornithes} | ![]() [1] Archaeopteryx siemensii HMN 1880/81 (Berlin) COPYRIGHTED EDU source: http://www.oucom.ohiou.edu/dbms- witmer/dinoskulls02.htm ![]() [2] Archaeopteryx sp. JM 2257 (Eichstätt) COPYRIGHTED EDU source: http://www.oucom.ohiou.edu/dbms- witmer/dinoskulls02.htm | |
150,000,000 YBN | 395) Bird Confuciusornis fossil. Unlike Archaeopteryx, Confuciusornis had no teeth. Biota Domain Eukaryota - eukaryotes Kingdom Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals Subkingdom Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians Branch Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes Infrakingdom Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 Phylum Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates Subphylum Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates Infraphylum Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates Superclass Tetrapoda Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods Series Amniota Class Aves Linnaeus, 1758 - birds {Subclass †Archaeornithes} | ![]() [1] Confuciusornis source: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/dia psids/birds/confuciusornislg.jpg | |
146,000,000 YBN | 490) Multituberculata (extinct major branch of mammals) evolve. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammaliformes Order: Multituberculata Cope, 1884 | ||
145,000,000 YBN | 415) Oldest flower fossil. Oldest flower fossil, Archaefructus, in China, a submerged wetland plant. | ![]() [1] Archaefructus liaoningensis. The leaf-like structures on the stem of this 140 million year old fossil are pods containing the seeds, a characteristic unique to flowering plants. Credit: University of Florida. PD? source: http://science.nasa.gov/headline s/y2001/ast17apr_1.htm?list118443 ![]() [2] Archaefructus liaoningensis Sun, Dilcher, Zheng et Zhou (Sun et al., 1998). Fruiting axes and remains of two subtending leaves (Photo courtesy of David Dilcher). COPYRIGHTED EDU source: http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/deeptim e/virtualfossilcollection/Archaeofructus .html | |
144,000,000 YBN | 128) Start Cretaceous period (144-65 mybn), end Jurassic period (206-144 mybn). | ||
140,000,000 YBN | 457) Marsupials evolve. Biota Domain Eukaryota - eukaryotes Kingdom Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals Subkingdom Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians Branch Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes Infrakingdom Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 Phylum Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates Subphylum Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates Infraphylum Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates Superclass Tetrapoda Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods Series Amniota Mammaliaformes Rowe, 1988 Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758 - mammals Subclass Theriiformes (Rowe, 1988) McKenna & Bell, 1997:vii,36 Infraclass Holotheria (Wible et al., 1995) McKenna & Bell, 1997:vii,43 Superlegion Trechnotheria McKenna, 1975 Legion Cladotheria McKenna, 1975 Sublegion Zatheria McKenna, 1975 Infralegion Tribosphenida (McKenna, 1975) McKenna & Bell, 1997:vii,48 Supercohort Theria (Parker & Haswell, 1897) McKenna & Bell, 1997:viii,49 Cohort Marsupialia (Illiger, 1811) McKenna & Bell, 1997:viii,51 - marsupials Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Subclass: Marsupialia Illiger, 1811 Orders * Didelphimorphia * Paucituberculata * Microbiotheria * Dasyuromorphia * Peramelemorphia * Notoryctemorphia * Diprotodontia | ||
140,000,000 YBN | 458) Metornithes (early birds) evolve. | ![]() [1] Alvarezsaurid. COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrat es/Units/350Aves/350.200.html | |
138,000,000 YBN | 459) Ornithothoraces (early birds) evolve. | ![]() [1] Iberomesornis COPYRIGHTED, Iberomesornis COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.dinosauromorpha.de/th eropoda/iberomesornis.JPG ![]() source: http://www.lemanlake.com/photos/ biotope/biodiversite/iberomesornis.gif | |
136,000,000 YBN | 460) Enantiornithes (early birds) evolve. | ![]() [1] Sinornis santensis Artist: James Reece COPYRIGHTED AUSTRALIA source: http://www.amonline.net.au/chine se_dinosaurs/feathered_dinosaurs/photo07 .htm | |
134,000,000 YBN | 461) Ornithurae (early birds) evolve. | ![]() [1] fossil specimen of Chaoyangornis COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.sino-collector.com/en g/_private/cjyd/zjlt/hjs-hs/pic-l/hs0016 .jpg ![]() [2] Chaoyangia, modified from Hou et al. (1996) COPYRIGHTED EDU source: http://rainbow.ldeo.columbia.edu /courses/v1001/clover16.html | |
132,000,000 YBN | 462) Hesperornithiformes (early birds) evolve. | ![]() [1] Hesperornis. COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.savageancientseas.com /images/labels/hesperornis.jpg ![]() [2] Detail of a painting by Ely Kish, Copyright © Ely Kish; used with permission of Ely Kish (EMAIL) Hesperornis regalis Hesperornis (pronounced HES-per-OR-nis) means ''western bird''. Toothed marine birds of the Late Cretaceous seas COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.oceansofkansas.com/He sperornis/kish-01.jpg | |
130,000,000 YBN | 163) Amino acid sequence comparison shows the eutheria (placental mammals) line separating from the marsupial line here at 130 mybn (first placental mammals). | ||
130,000,000 YBN | 375) Perch, Plaice, seahorses evolve. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates CLASS Osteichthyes Huxley, 1880 SUBCLASS Actinopterygii - ray-finned fishes INFRACLASS Cladistia INFRACLASS Actinopteri SUPERDIVISION Neopterygii DIVISION Halecostomi SUBDIVISION Teleostei | ||
130,000,000 YBN | 376) Cod, hake, anglerfish evolve. DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates CLASS Osteichthyes Huxley, 1880 SUBCLASS Actinopterygii - ray-finned fishes INFRACLASS Cladistia INFRACLASS Actinopteri SUPERDIVISION Neopterygii DIVISION Halecostomi SUBDIVISION Teleostei | ||
128,000,000 YBN | 248) Genetic comparison shows the Angiosperm "Austrobaileyales" evolving now. 100 species living. A. scandens contains fruit, growing from its vines. The fruit is apricot-coloured and contain tightly packed seeds in the shape of chestnuts. The fruit is shaped in a similar fashion to that of a pear or eggplant. Fruit from Austrobaileya has been known to grow to sizes of 7 cm in length by 5 cm. | ![]() [1] Austrobaileya scandens (Austrobaileyaceae) mature fruit Lamins Hill via Malanda, Queensland date uncertain Larger image (81K) Robust vine in rainforest canopy. It is a single species in an Australian endemic family. Its pollen is the oldest recorded flowering plant pollen in Australia. See reference under Image 7-93. Mesophyll/notophyll vine forest. source: http://www.gu.edu.au/ins/collect ions/webb/html/6-15.html ![]() [2] Austrobaileya scandens C.T. White * Query NCU-3e or IPNI * Common Name: * Family: Austrobaileyaceae (Croiz.) Croiz. * Country of Origin: Australia - Queensland * Habitat: Mesophyll / notophyll vine forest * Eco-region(s): o AA0117 - Queensland tropical rain forests * Description: Evergreen, woody vines with loosely twining main stem and straight, leafy lateral branches endemic to the rainforests of northeast Queensland, Australia. This species is the only member of the genus and the genus is the only member of the family, Austrobaileyaceae. It is a very primitive angiosperm family although it is sometimes placed in the Magnoliales (Cronquist) or Laurales. Cronquist considers it an ''isolated small group, not wholly compatible with the bulk of either the Laurales or Magnoliales, but not sufficiently distinctive to constitute a family of its own.'' The flowers are rather large, solitary in the axils of the leaves, with a putrescent odor, probably pollinated by flies. Its pollen is the oldest recorded flowering plant pollen in Australia. source: http://florawww.eeb.uconn.edu/im ages/byspecies/AUSTROBAILEYA_SCANDENS_01 .JPG | |
128,000,000 YBN | 249) Genetic comparison shows the Angiosperm "Chloranthaceae" evolving now. 70 living species. | ![]() [1] Hedyosmum scaberrimum AB201a is from arizona.edu source: http://eebweb.arizona.edu/grads/ alice/Chloranthaceae/Hedyosmum%20scaberr imum%20AB201a.html ![]() [2] Scientific Name Chloranthus japonicus Location Vityaz inlet, Gamov Peninsula, Khasansky distr., Primorsky Territory (Russian Federation) Acknowledgements courtesy CalPhotos Copyright © 2001 Nick Kurzenko source: http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Chl oranthaceae | |
128,000,000 YBN | 250) Genetic comparison shows the Angiosperm group "Magnoliids" evolving now. 9,000 living species. Includes magnolias, nutmeg, avocado, sassafras, cinnamin, black and white pepper, camphor, bay (laurel) leaves. | ![]() [1] Magnolia This photo is a part of the Wikipedia:Plant photo collection I. Downloaded URL: http://tencent.homestead.com/files/magno lia.jpg Warning sign This image has no source information. Source information must be provided so that the copyright status can be verified by others. Unless the copyright status is provided and a source is given, the image will be deleted seven days after this template was added (see page history). If you just added this template, please use {{no source source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mag noliales ![]() [2] ~~~~~}} (to include the date here). Please consider using {{no source notified source: same | |
128,000,000 YBN | 251) Genetic comparison shows the Angiosperm "Ceratophyllaceae" evolving now. 6 living species. The oldest relative of all the eudicots. | ![]() [1] Ceratophyllum submersum Description: Ceratophyllum submersum; an aquatic plant. GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cer atophyllaceae ![]() [2] Ceratophyllum demersum Ceratophyllum_demersum3.jpg (78KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Common Hornwort (Ceratophyllum demersum) usgs source: same | |
128,000,000 YBN | 252) Genetic comparison shows the Angiosperm group "Monocotyledons" (Monocots) evolving now. Monocots are the second largest lineage of flowers after the Eudicots, and include lilies, palms, orchids, and grasses. Monocots are the second largest lineage of flowers after the Eudicots (formally Dicotyledons) with 70,000 living species (20,000 species of orchids, and 15,000 species of grasses). The two main orders of Monocots are "Base Monocots" and "Commelinids". All the grasses on earth come from this line of flowers (check). Base Monocots (Family Petrosaviaceae) Acorales Alismatales Asparagales (asparagus, onion, garlic, chives, agave, yucca, aloe, hyacinth, orchids, iris, saffron) Dioscoreales (yam) Liliales (lillies) Pandanales Commelinids (Family Dasypogonaceae) Arecales (palms,date palm, rattan, coconut) Commelinales Poales (grasses: maize {corn}, rice, barley, oat, millet, wheat, rye, sorghum, sugarcane, bamboo, grass, pineapple, water chestnut, papyrus {many alcohols, breads}) Zingiberales (cardamom, tumeric, myoga, banana, ginger, arrowroot) | ![]() [1] Sweet Flag (Acorus calamus) - spadix Spadix of Sweet Flag. usgs public domain source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aco rus ![]() [2] Ivy Duckweed (Lemna trisulca) Name Lemna trisulca Family Lemnaceae source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali smatales | |
128,000,000 YBN | 253) Genetic comparison shows the Angiosperm group Eudicots (includes most former dicotyledons) evolving now. Eudicots are the largest lineage of flowers. eudicots are also called "tricolpates" which refers to the structure of the pollen. The two main groups are the "rosids" and "asterids". * Basal eudicots o Ranunculales o Buxales o Trochodendrales o Proteales o Gunnerales o Berberidopsidales o Dilleniales o Caryophyllales o Saxifragales o Santalales o Vitales * Basal rosids o Crossosomatales o Geraniales o Myrtales * Eurosids I o Zygophyllales o Celastrales o Malpighiales o Oxalidales o Fabales o Rosales o Cucurbitales o Fagales * Eurosids II o Brassicales o Malvales o Sapindales * Basal asterids o Cornales o Ericales * Euasterids I o Garryales o Solanales o Gentianales o Lamiales o Unplaced: Boraginaceae * Euasterids II o Aquifoliales o Apiales o Dipsacales o Asterales | ||
128,000,000 YBN | 254) Genetic comparison shows the Angiosperm "Basal Eudicots" evolving now. Includes buttercup, clematis, poppies (opium and morphine), macadamia, lotus, sycamore. | ![]() [1] Creeping butercup (Ranunculus repens). GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Creeping_butercup_close_800.jpg ![]() [2] Clematis hybrid from http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/graphics/phot os/ public domain source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cle matis | |
128,000,000 YBN | 255) Genetic comparison shows the Angiosperm groups "Asterids" and "Rosids" evolving and separating now. | ||
128,000,000 YBN | 256) Genetic comparison shows the Angiosperm "Basal Rosids" evolving now. Incl udes Geranium, Pomegranate, myrtle, clove, guava, feijoa, allspice, eucalyptus. # Basal rosids * Crossosomatales * Geraniales * Myrtales | ![]() [1] A photo of the tree Staphylea colchica taken by me in Ã…rhus, Denmark GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cro ssosomatales ![]() [2] Blossom of Geranium sylvaticum, closeup, GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cra nesbill | |
128,000,000 YBN | 257) Genetic comparison shows the Angiosperm "Eurosids I" evolving now. includ es coca, flax, willow, violet, mangosteen, coca (cocaine), poinsettia, rubber tree, casava (manioc, yuca) {tapioca}, castor oil plant, Acerola ("Barbados cherry"), willow, poplar, aspen, violet {pansy}, beans (green, lima, fava {falafel}, kidney, pinto, navy, black, mung {sprouts}, popping), pea, peanut, soybean, lentil, chick pea (garbonzo) {falafel}, lupin, clover, alfalfa {sprouts}, cassia, jicama, tamarind, acacia, mesquite. | ![]() [1] Oriental Staff Vine Celastrus orbiculatus US NPS public domain source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sta ff_vine ![]() [2] Northern Grass of Parnassus (Parnassia palustris) GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Par nassiaceae | |
128,000,000 YBN | 258) Genetic comparison shows the Angiosperm "Eurosids I" Order "Celastrales" evolving now. includes coca, flax, willow, violet, mangosteen, coca (cocaine), poinsettia, rubber tree, casava (manioc, yuca) {tapioca}, castor oil plant, Acerola ("Barbados cherry"), willow, poplar, aspen, violet {pansy}, beans (green, lima, fava {falafel}, kidney, pinto, navy, black, mung {sprouts}, popping), pea, peanut, soybean, lentil, chick pea (garbonzo) {falafel}, lupin, clover, alfalfa {sprouts}, cassia, jicama, tamarind, acacia, mesquite. | ![]() [1] Oriental Staff Vine Celastrus orbiculatus US NPS public domain source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sta ff_vine ![]() [2] Northern Grass of Parnassus (Parnassia palustris) GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Par nassiaceae | |
128,000,000 YBN | 259) Genetic comparison shows the Angiosperm "Eurosids I" Order "Malpighiales" evolving now. includes gambooge, mangosteen, coca {cocaine, drink}, rubber tree, cassava (manioc) {used like potato, tapioca}, castol oil, poinsettia, flax, acerola (barbados cherry), willow, poplar, aspen, violet (pansy). | ![]() [1] mangosteen public domain source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gar cinia ![]() [2] Mangosteen fruit public domain source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Man gosteen | |
128,000,000 YBN | 260) Genetic comparison shows the Angiosperm, "Eurosids I" Order "Oxalidales" evolving now. includes Cephalotus Follicularis (fly-cather plant), wood sorrel family (leaves show "sleep movements"), oca (edible tuber) | ![]() [1] Oxalis regnellii atropurpurea (Regnell's Sorrel) GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxa lidaceae ![]() [2] Common wood sorrel GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Com mon_wood_sorrel | |
128,000,000 YBN | 261) Genetic comparison shows the Angiosperm, "Eurosids I" Order "Fabales" evolving now. includes beans (green, lima, kidney, pinto, navy, black, mung {sprouts}, fava {falafel}, cow (black-eyed), popping), pea, peanut, soy {tofu, miso, tempeh, milk}, lentil, chick pea (garbonzo) {falafel}, lupin, clover, alfalfa {sprouts}, cassia, jicama, Judas tree, tamarind, acacia, mesquite, Judas tree | ![]() [1] Abrus precatorius (Black-eyed Susan) USGS public domain source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abr us ![]() [2] Desert false indigo (Amorpha fruticosa) public domain source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amo rpha | |
128,000,000 YBN | 262) Genetic comparison shows the Angiosperm, "Eurosids I" Order "Rosales" evolving now. includes hemp (cannibis, marijuana) {rope, oil, recreational drug}, hackberry, hop {beer}, breadfruit, cempedak, jackfruit, marang, paper mulberry, fig, banyan, strawberry, rose, red raspberry, black raspberry, blackberry, cloudberry, loganberry, salmonberry, thimbleberry, serviceberry, chokeberry, quince, loquat, apple, crabapple, pair, plums, cherries, peaches, apricots, almonds, jujube, elm | ![]() [1] U.S. 'Marihuana' production permit, from the film Hemp for Victory. In the U.S.A., hemp is legally prohibited, but during World War II, farmers were encouraged to grow hemp for cordage, to replace manila hemp from Japanese-controlled areas. public domain source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hem p ![]() [2] Cannabis sativa, US Fish and wildlife service public domain source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Can nabis_sativa | |
128,000,000 YBN | 263) Genetic comparison shows the Angiosperm, "Eurosids I" Order "Cucurbitales" evolving now. includes watermelon, musk, cantaloupe, honeydew, casaba, cucumbers, gourds, pumpkins, squashes (acorn, buttercup, butternut, cushaw, hubbard, pattypan, spaghetti), zucchini, begonia | ![]() [1] White bryony (Bryonia dioica). GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:White_bryony_male_800.jpg ![]() [2] watermelon public domain source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Vampire_watermelon.jpg | |
128,000,000 YBN | 264) Genetic comparison shows the Angiosperm, "Eurosids I" Order "Fagales" evolving now. includes Birch, Hazel {nut}, Filbert {nut}, Chestnut, Beech {nut}, Oak {nut, cork}, walnut, pecan, hickory, bayberry | ![]() [1] Alnus serrulata (Tag Alder) Male catkins on right, mature female catkins left Johnsonville, South Carolina GFDL source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Tagalder8139.jpg ![]() [2] Speckled Alder (Alnus incana subsp. rugosa) - leaves GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Alnus_incana_rugosa_leaves.jpg | |
128,000,000 YBN | 265) Genetic comparison shows the Angiosperm "Monocotyledon" (Monocot) group "Base Monocots" evolving now. ORDER Acorales ORDER Alismatales ORDER Asparagales (asparagus, onion, garlic, chives, agave, yucca, aloe, hyacinth, orchids, iris) ORDER Dioscoreales (yam) ORDER Liliales (lily) ORDER Pandanales * Family Petrosaviaceae | ![]() [1] Sweet Flag (Acorus calamus) - spadix Spadix of Sweet Flag. usgs public domain source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aco rus ![]() [2] Ivy Duckweed (Lemna trisulca) Name Lemna trisulca Family Lemnaceae source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali smatales | |
128,000,000 YBN | 266) Genetic comparison shows the Angiosperm "Monocotyledon" (Monocot) group "Commelinids" evolving now. Commelinid s Arecales (palms,date palm, rattan, coconut) Commelinales Poales (grasses: maize {corn}, rice, barley, oat, millet, wheat, rye, sorghum, sugarcane, bamboo, grass, pineapple, water chestnut, papyrus {many alcohols, breads}) Zingiberales (cardamom, tumeric, myoga, banana, ginger, arrowroot) (Family Dasypogonaceae) (new order?) | ![]() [1] Manila dwarf coconut palm from http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/graphics/phot os/ Manila dwarf coconut palm thumbnail A Manila dwarf coconut palm on the grounds of the Tropical Agriculture Research Station in Mayaguez, Puerto Rico. dept of ag public domain source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Are cales ![]() [2] coconut GOV public domain source: http://www.nps.gov/kaho/KAHOckLs /KAHOplnt/images/IMG_03957.jpg | |
128,000,000 YBN | 267) Genetic comparison shows the Angiosperm "Core Eudicots" evolving now. Includes carnation, cactus, caper, buckwheat, rhubarb, sundew, venus flytrap, pitcher plants {old world}, beet, quinoa, spinach, currant, sweet gum, peony, with-hazel, mistletoe, grape. ORDER Gunnerales ORDER Berberidopsidales ORDER Aextoxicaceae ORDER Dilleniales ORDER Caryophyllales (carnation, beet, spinach, quinoa, cactus {prickly pear, peyote/mescaline}, caper, buckwheat, rhubarb, sundew, venus flytrap, pitcher plants {old world}) ORD ER Saxifragales (gooseberry, sweet gum, currants, peony, witch-hazel) ORDER Santalales (sandalwood, mistletoe) ORDER Vitales (grape {wine, juice, jelly, raisen, oil, dolma}) | ![]() [1] Carnation in flower Beschreibung: Gartennelke (Dianthus caryophyllus) creative commons source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Car nation ![]() [2] Beets GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bee t | |
128,000,000 YBN | 268) Genetic comparison shows the Angiosperm "Eurosids I" Order "Zygophyllales" evolving now. includes | ![]() [1] Bulnesia sarmientoi is a South American tree species that inhabits the north of Argentina as well as southern Brazil and Paraguay. It is one of several species known as palo santoin Spanish. [1] Source: Libro del Ãrbol, Tome II, edited by Celulosa Argentina S. A., Buenos Aires, Argentina, October 1975. The visual material is not explicitly copyrighted, but the editors thank Mr. Jorge Vallmitjana for his ''photographic contribution''. Argentina copyright source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Bulnesia_sarmientoi.jpg ![]() [2] Fagonia, US NPS public domain source: http://www.nps.gov/jotr/activiti es/blooms/flwrpix/fagonia.jpg | |
128,000,000 YBN | 269) Genetic comparison shows the Angiosperm "Eurosids II" evolving now. inclu des | ||
128,000,000 YBN | 270) Genetic comparison shows the Angiosperm "Eurosids II" Order "Brassicales" evolving now. includes horseradish, rapeseed, mustard {plain, brown, black, indian, sarepta, asian}, rutabaga, kale, Chinese broccoli (kai-lan), cauliflower, collard greens, cabbage (white and red {coleslaw, sauerkraut}), kohlrabi, broccoli, watercress, radish, wasabi, mignonette, papaya mignonette, mallows, soapberry, citris, mahogany, cashew, frankincense, cacao (chocolate), cola {kola nuts, caffeine} | ![]() [1] Aethionema grandiflora, GFDL by Kurt Stueber source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Aethionema_grandiflora0.jpg ![]() [2] Arabidopsis thaliana, GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Arabidopsis_thaliana.jpg | |
128,000,000 YBN | 271) Genetic comparison shows the Angiosperm "Eurosids II" Order "Malvales" evolving now. includes okra, marsh mallow, kola nut, cotton, hibiscus, balsa, cacao {chocolate}, soapberry, citris, mahogany, cashew, frankincense | ![]() [1] Bixa orellana L., floro en Lavras, Minas Gerais, Brazilo, GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Bixa.jpg ![]() [2] Cistus incanus - image taken on 30 March 2004, on the slopes of Mount Carmel, Israel. public domain source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Cistus_incanus.jpg | |
128,000,000 YBN | 272) Genetic comparison shows the Angiosperm "Eurosids II" Order "Sapindales" evolving now. includes maple, buckeye, horse chestnut, longan, lychee, rambutan, guarana, bael, orange, lemon, grapefruit, lime, tangerine, pomelo, kumquat, langsat, duku, mahogany, cashew, mango, pistachio, sumac, peppertree, poison-ivy, frankincense | ![]() [1] Field Maple foliage and flowers, Acer campestre. GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Acer-campestre.JPG ![]() [2] Sugar Maple from www.dnr.cornell.edu NOT GNU source: http://www.dnr.cornell.edu/ext/f orestrypage/sfda/graphics/crop%20tree%20 sugar%20maple.jpg | |
128,000,000 YBN | 273) Genetic comparison shows the Angiosperm "Basal Asterids" evolving now. | ||
128,000,000 YBN | 274) Genetic comparison shows the Angiosperm "Basal Asterids" Order "Cornales" evolving now. Includes dogwoods, tupelos, dove tree | ![]() [1] European Cornel (Cornus mas) Paris, France, cc source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Cornus_mas_flowers.jpg ![]() [2] Common Dogwood flowering (Cornus sanguinea) non commercial source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Cornussanguinea1web.jpg | |
128,000,000 YBN | 275) Genetic comparison shows the Angiosperm "Basal Asterids" Order "Ericales" evolving now. Includes kiwifruit (kiwi), Impatiens, ebony, persimmon, heather, crowberry, rhododendrons, azalias, cranberries, blueberries, lingonberry, bilberry, huckleberry, brazil nut, primrose, sapodilla, mamey sapote (sapota), chicle, balatá, canistel, pitcher plants {carniverous}, tea {Camellia sinensis} | ![]() [1] Actinidia fruit. kiwifruit. public domain source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Actinidia_fruit.jpg ![]() [2] Actinidia deliciosa. kiwifruit, cc source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Kiwi_aka.jpg | |
128,000,000 YBN | 276) Genetic comparison shows the Angiosperm "Euasterids I" evolving now. | ||
128,000,000 YBN | 277) Genetic comparison shows the Angiosperm "Euasterids I" order "Garryales" evolving now. includes | ![]() [1] Garrya elliptica foliage and catkins. GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Garrya_elliptica.jpg ![]() [2] Aucuba japonica. GFDL by Kurt Stueber source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Aucuba_japonica1.jpg | |
128,000,000 YBN | 278) Genetic comparison shows the Angiosperm "Euasterids I" order "Solanales" evolving now. includes deadly nightshade or belladonna, capsicum (bell pepper, paprika, Jalapeño, Pimento), cayenne pepper, datura, tomatos, mandrake, tobacco, petunia, tomatillo, potato, eggplant, morning glory, sweet potato, water spinach | ![]() [1] Atropa belladonna. Deadly nightshade. GFDL by Kurt Stueber source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Atropa_bella-donna1.jpg ![]() [2] Berries of the belladonna. Atropa bella-donna. Deadly nightshade. GFDL by Kurt Stueber source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Atropa_bella-donna0.jpg | |
128,000,000 YBN | 279) Genetic comparison shows the Angiosperm "Euasterids I" order "Gentianales" evolving now. includes gentian, dogbane, carissa (Natal plum), oleander, logania, coffee | ![]() [1] Anthocleista grandiflora. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Anthocleista_grandiflora.jpg ![]() [2] bartonia virginica. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Bartonia_virginica.jpg | |
128,000,000 YBN | 280) Genetic comparison shows the Angiosperm "Euasterids I" order "Lamiales" evolving now. includes lavender, mint, peppermint, basil, marjoram, oregano, perilla, rosemary, sage, savory, thyme, teak, sesame, corkscrew plants, bladderwort, snapdragon, olive, ash, lilac, jasmine | ![]() [1] Common Bugle (Ajuga reptans) GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Ajuga-reptans01.jpg ![]() [2] Calamintha grandiflora. GFDL by Kurt Stueber source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Calamintha_grandiflora2.jpg | |
128,000,000 YBN | 281) Genetic comparison shows the Angiosperm "Euasterids I" (unplaced) family "Boraginaceae" evolving now. includes forget-me-not | ![]() [1] Fiddleneck, species not determined. in Claremont Canyon Regional Preserve, Alameda County, California. GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Fiddleneck.jpg ![]() [2] Italian Bugloss (Anchusa azurea). GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Anchusa_azurea_flores.jpg | |
128,000,000 YBN | 282) Genetic comparison shows the Angiosperm "Euasterids II" order "Aquifoliales" evolving now. includes holly | ![]() [1] English holly (female), GNU FDL. source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:English_holly.jpg ![]() [2] Ilex aquifolium (L.) GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Acebo.jpg | |
128,000,000 YBN | 283) Genetic comparison shows the Angiosperm "Euasterids II" order "Apiales" evolving now. includes dill, angelica, chervil, celery, caraway, cumin, sea holly, poison hemlock, coriander (cilantro), carrot, lovage, parsnip, anise, fennel, cicely, parsley, ivy, ginseng | ![]() [1] Variegated Ground-elder (Aegopodium podagraria L.) in flower. GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Ground-elder_bloom.jpg ![]() [2] An established spread of variegated Ground-elder (Aegopodium podagraria L.). GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Ground-elder.jpg | |
128,000,000 YBN | 284) Genetic comparison shows the Angiosperm "Euasterids II" order "Dipsacales" evolving now. includes Elderberry, Honeysuckle, Teasel, Corn Salad | ![]() [1] Adoxa moschatellina (L.). 2005 Vellefrey et Vellefrange (France). GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Adoxa_moschatellina01.jpg ![]() [2] Danewort inflorescence. Sambucus ebulus (L.). European Dwarf Elder. GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Sambucus_nigra_flori_bgiu.jpg | |
128,000,000 YBN | 285) Genetic comparison shows the Angiosperm "Euasterids II" order "Asterales" evolving now. includes burdock, tarragon, daisy, marigold, Safflower, chrysanthemum (mum), chickory, endive, artichoke, Sunflower, sunroot (Jerusalem artichoke), lettuce, chamomile, black-eyed susan, black salsify, dandelion, zinnia | ![]() [1] Ray floret, typical for flowers of the family Asteraceae. GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Ray.floret01.jpg ![]() [2] disc floret, typical part of a flower of the family Asteraceae. GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Disc_floret01.jpg | |
120,000,000 YBN | 463) Neornithes (modern birds) evolve. More important anatomical characteristics include horn beak; teeth absent; fused limb bones. In addition Neornithes have a fully-separated four-chambered heart and typically exhibit complex social behaviors. | ||
112,000,000 YBN | 481) Steropodon galmani, an extinct monotreme, the earliest platypus-like species, lives. | ||
110,000,000 YBN | 416) Sauroposiedon, a long-neck brachiosaur (sauropod) fossil. Sauropos iedon fossil, a long-neck (sauropod) brachiosaur from Oklahoma, possibly the tallest animal of all time, at an estimated height of 60 feet. | ||
105,000,000 YBN | 417) Argentinosaurus, a long-neck titanosaur (sauropod) fossil. Argentino saurus, a long-neck (sauropod) titanosaur from South America, possibly the longest animal of all time, at an estimated 130 to 140 feet length. | ||
105,000,000 YBN | 491) Afrotheres (elephants, manatees, aardvarks) evolve. Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Subclass: Theria Infraclass: Eutheria (Huxley, 1880) Superorde r Afrotheria: | ||
100,000,000 YBN | 164) Amino acid sequence comparison shows the mammal line separating from the primate line here at 100 mybn (first primates). | ||
100,000,000 YBN | 418) Carnotaurus fossil, a horned, meat-eating (theropod) dinosaur from South America. Carnotaurus fossil, a horned, meat-eating (theropod) dinosaur from South America. The fossil includes skin impressions of its face. | ||
100,000,000 YBN | 464) Tinamiformes (modern birds) evolve. More important anatomical characteristics include horn beak; teeth absent; fused limb bones. In addition Neornithes have a fully-separated four-chambered heart and typically exhibit complex social behaviors. | ![]() [1] Phylum : Chordata - Class : Aves - Order : Tinamiformes - Family : Tinamidae - Species : Crypturellus tataupa (Tataupa tinamou) Given to the wikipedia by the owner, Marcos Massarioli. Status GNU source: http://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima gem:Crypturellus_tataupa.JPG | |
100,000,000 YBN | 465) Ratites (ostrich, emu, cassowary, kiwis) evolve. | ||
100,000,000 YBN | 480) Kollikodon ritchiei, an extinct monotreme lives. | ||
95,000,000 YBN | 419) Spinosaurus fossil, perhaps the largest meat-eating dinosaur, estimated to have been 45 to 50 feet long. Spinos aurus fossil, perhaps the largest meat-eating dinosaur, estimated to have been 45 to 50 feet long. The only skeleton ever found was destroyed during World War 2. | ||
95,000,000 YBN | 498) Xenarthrans (Sloths, Anteaters, Armadillos) evolve. Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Subclass: Theria Infraclass Edentata: Superorder Xenarthra: | ||
85,000,000 YBN | 466) Galliformes (Chicken, Duck, Goose, Turkey, Pheasants, Peacocks, Quail) evolve. | ||
85,000,000 YBN | 467) Anseriformes (water birds) evolve. | ||
85,000,000 YBN | 499) Laurasuatheres evolve. This is a major line of mammals that include: bats, camels, pigs, deer, sheep, hippos, whales, horses, rhinos, cats, dogs, bears, seals, walrus). Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder: Euarchontoglires | ||
84,000,000 YBN | 454) Laramide (Rocky) mountains form. | ||
82,000,000 YBN | 420) Hadrosaurs, duck-billed dinosaurs are common. Duck-billed dinosaurs (hadrosaurs) were common like Corythyosaurus , Edmontosaurus , Lambeosaurus , Maiasaurus , and Parasaurolophus . Maiasaurs are examples of dinosaurs from which fossil nests, eggs, and baby dinosaurs have been found. | ||
82,000,000 YBN | 500) Shrews, moles, hedgehogs (Laurasuatheres) evolve. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder Laurasiatheria | ||
80,000,000 YBN | 421) Protoceratops, an early shield-headed (ceratopsian) dinosaur fossil. Protoceratops, an early shield-headed (ceratopsian) dinosaur fossil. It was the first dinosaur discovered with fossil eggs. These eggs and nests were found in Mongolia in the 1920's. | ||
80,000,000 YBN | 422) Raptor (dromaeosaur) fossils. Rapt ors (dromaeosaurs) are Cretaceous dinosaurs, which had large, hook claws on their feet. Velociraptor is one example. The most famous Velociraptor is a skeleton preserved in combat with a Protoceratops from Mongolia, China . | ||
80,000,000 YBN | 482) American and true opossums (American Marsupials) evolve. This is the Marsupial Order Didelphimorphia. Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Subclass: Marsupialia Order: Didelphimorphia Gill, 1872 Family: Didelphidae Gray, 1821 | ||
80,000,000 YBN | 501) Bats (Laurasuatheres) evolve. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder Laurasiatheria | ||
78,000,000 YBN | 502) Camels, Pigs, Deer, Sheep, Hippos, Whales (Laurasuatheres) evolve. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder Laurasiatheria | ||
77,000,000 YBN | 483) Shrew opossums (American Marsupials) evolve. This is the Marsupial Order Paucituberculata. 6 surviving species confined to Andes mountains in South America. Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Subclass: Marsupialia Order: Paucituberculata Ameghino, 1894 Family: Caenolestidae Trouessart, 1898 | ||
76,000,000 YBN | 503) Horses, Tapirs, Rhinos (Laurasuatheres) evolve. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder Laurasiatheria | ||
75,000,000 YBN | 204) Oldest fossil of testate amoeba from Grand Canyon, USA. | ![]() source: Life on a Young Planet | |
75,000,000 YBN | 423) Ceratopsian (shield-headed) dinosaurs are common. Ceratopsian (shield-headed) dinosaurs were common in the late Cretaceous. Examples are Monoclonius , and Styrakosaurus . Triceratops, which lived at the end of Cretaceous, was the largest of its kind, reaching 30 feet in length. | ||
75,000,000 YBN | 492) Aardvark (Afrotheres) evolves. Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Subclass: Theria Infraclass: Eutheria (Huxley, 1880) Superorde r Afrotheria: | ||
75,000,000 YBN | 504) Cats, Dogs, Bears, Weasels, Hyenas, Seals, Walruses (Laurasuatheres) evolve. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder Laurasiatheria | ||
75,000,000 YBN | 505) Pangolins (Laurasuatheres) evolve. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder Laurasiatheria | ||
75,000,000 YBN | 506) Euarchontoglires evolve. This is a major line of mammals that includes rats, squirrels, rabbits, lemurs, monkeys, apes, and humans. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder Euarchontoglires | ||
73,000,000 YBN | 484) Bandicoots and Bilbies (Australian Marsupials) evolve. This is the Marsupial Order Peramelemorphia. Kingdo m: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Subclass: Marsupialia Order: Peramelemorphia Ameghino, 1889 | ||
70,000,000 YBN | 424) Two of the largest meat-eating dinosaurs of all time exist. Tyrannosaurus rex is the top predator in North America and Giganotosaurus is in South America. | ||
70,000,000 YBN | 425) Ankylosaurs (shield back and/or club tails) evolve. The armored ankylosaurs (had a shield back or clubbed tail) was the most heavily armored land-animals in the history of earth. These plant-eating were low to the ground for optimal protection. Many had spikes that stuck out from their bone-covered back. Ankylosaurus even had bony plates on its eyelids. | ||
70,000,000 YBN | 426) Mososaurs, sea serpents evolve. | ||
70,000,000 YBN | 493) Tenrecs and golden moles (Afrotheres) evolve. Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Subclass: Theria Infraclass: Eutheria (Huxley, 1880) Superorde r Afrotheria: | ||
70,000,000 YBN | 494) Elephant Shrews (Afrotheres) evolve. Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Subclass: Theria Infraclass: Eutheria (Huxley, 1880) Superorde r Afrotheria: | ||
70,000,000 YBN | 507) The ancestor of all rabbits, hares and pikas evolve. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder Euarchontoglires | ||
70,000,000 YBN | 516) The ancestor of Tree Shrews and Colugos evolves. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder Euarchontoglires Order: Dermoptera (Illiger, 1811) Family: Cynocephalidae (Simpson, 1945) | ||
65,500,000 YBN | 397) End of Cretaceous mass extinction event happens. Dinosaurs become extinct. Also called the K-T (Kretaceous-Tertiary) extinction. Huge amounts of lava erupted from India, and a comet or meteor collided with the Earth in what is now the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico. No large animals survived on land, in the air, or in the sea. | ![]() [1] Timeline of mass extinctions. COPYRIGHTED Benjamin Cummings. source: http://io.uwinnipeg.ca/~simmons/ 16cm05/1116/16macro.htm ![]() [2] Cretaceous meteor impact. COPYRIGHTED Benjamin Cummings. source: http://io.uwinnipeg.ca/~simmons/ 16cm05/1116/16macro.htm | |
65,000,000 YBN | 55) End Mesozoic Era, start Cenozoic Era. | ||
65,000,000 YBN | 129) Start Tertiary period (65-1.8 mybn), end Cretaceous period (144-65 mybn). | ||
65,000,000 YBN | 427) Largest Pterasaur, Quetzalcoatlus evolve. Pterasaurs, the flying reptiles of the Mesozoic reached their largest size with Quetzalcoatlus, which had a wing span of 40 ft. This was the largest flying animal of all time. | ||
65,000,000 YBN | 429) Rapid increase in new species of fossil mammals after the extinction of the dinosaurs. Most early Cenozoic mammal fossils are small. | ||
65,000,000 YBN | 468) Gruiformes (cranes and rails) evolve. | ||
65,000,000 YBN | 470) Strigiformes (owls) evolve. | ||
65,000,000 YBN | 485) Marsupial moles (Australian marsupials) evolve. This is the Marsupial Order Peramelemorphia. Kingdo m: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Subclass: Marsupialia Order: Notoryctemorphia Kirsch, in Hunsaker, 1977 Family: Notoryctidae Ogilby, 1892 Genus: Notoryctes Stirling, 1891 | ||
65,000,000 YBN | 486) Tasmanian Devil, Numbat (Australian marsupials) evolve. This is the Marsupial Order Dasyuromorphia. Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Subclass: Marsupialia Order: Dasyuromorphia Gill, 1872 | ||
65,000,000 YBN | 487) Monita Del Monte (Australian marsupial) evolves. This is the Marsupial Order Microbiotheria. Kingdom : Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Subclass: Marsupialia Order: Microbiotheria Ameghino, 1889 Family: Microbiotheriidae Ameghino, 1887 Genus: Dromiciops Thomas, 1894 Species: D. gliroides | ||
65,000,000 YBN | 488) Wombats, Kangeroos, Possums, Koalas (Australian marsupials) evolve. Genetic comparison show Wombats, Kangeroos, Possums, Loalas (Australian marsupials) evolve. This is the Marsupial Order Diprotodontia. Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Subclass: Marsupialia Order: Diprotodontia Owen, 1866 | ||
65,000,000 YBN | 508) The ancestor of all rats, mice, gerbils, voloes, lemmings, and hamsters evolves. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder Euarchontoglires | ||
65,000,000 YBN | 509) The ancestor of all Beavers, Pocket gophers, Pocket mice and kangaroo rats evolves. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder Euarchontoglires | ||
65,000,000 YBN | 807) Cetardiodactyla branch. The ancestor of camels and llamas splits with the ancestor of the rest of the Even-Toed Ungulates (Cetardiodactyla/Artiodactyla: pigs, ruminants, hippos, dolphins and whales). This is just after death of dinosaurs. Both these ancestors are still small and probably look like shrews. formerly Artiodactyla | ![]() [1] Fig. 2. Molecular time scale for the orders of placental mammals based on the 16,397-bp data set and maximum likelihood tree of ref. 14 with an opossum outgroup (data not shown), 13 fossil constraints (Materials and Methods), and a mean prior of 105 mya for the placental root. Ordinal designations are listed above the branches. Orange and green lines denote orders with basal diversification before or after the K/T boundary, respectively. Black lines depict orders for which only one taxon was available. Asterisks denote placental taxa included in the ''K/T body size'' taxon set. The composition of chimeric taxa, including caniform, caviomorph, strepsirrhine, and sirenian, is indicated elsewhere (14). Numbers for internal nodes are cross-referenced in the supporting information. COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.pnas.org/content/vol1 00/issue3/images/large/pq0334222002.jpeg | |
63,000,000 YBN | 510) The ancestor of all Springhares and Scaly-tailed Squirrels evolves. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder Euarchontoglires | ||
63,000,000 YBN | 517) The ancestor of Lemurs evolves. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder: Euarchontoglires Order: Primates Suborder: Strepsirrhini Infraorder: Lemuriformes (Gray, 1821) | ||
63,000,000 YBN | 587) Primates evolve. Most likely in Africa or the Indian subcontinent. King dom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder: Euarchontoglires Order: Primates | ||
63,000,000 YBN | 588) Widespread appearance of primates starts at base of Eocene. Cantius and Teilhardina are the earliest euprimates in North America, followed quickly by Steinius and others. Cantius an dTeilhardina also appear in Europe with Donrussellia. | ![]() [1] Smilodectes (lemur-like family Adapidae from the Eocene Epoch) COPYRIGHTED EDU source: http://anthro.palomar.edu/earlyp rimates/first_primates.htm | |
62,000,000 YBN | 495) Elephants (Afrotheres) evolve. Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Subclass: Theria Infraclass: Eutheria (Huxley, 1880) Superorde r Afrotheria: | ||
60,000,000 YBN | 430) In South America, Andes mountians begin to form. | ||
60,000,000 YBN | 431) Oldest fossil rodent. | ||
60,000,000 YBN | 432) Creodont, cat-like species, like Oxyaena are common. | ||
60,000,000 YBN | 586) Oldest potential primate fossil in Morocco. Genus Altialasius , known only from several isolated teeth. Kingd om: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder: Euarchontoglires Order: Primates | ||
60,000,000 YBN | 796) Largest terrestrial carnivorous mammal yet found, Andrewsarchus skull dates from now {verify}. Andrewsarchus lived 60-32 mybn. | ||
60,000,000 YBN | 808) The ancestors of pigs splits from the line that leads to the Ruminants (cattle, goats, sheep, giraffes, bison, buffalo, deer, wildebeast, antelope), hippos, dolphins, and whales. | ![]() [1] Fig. 2. Molecular time scale for the orders of placental mammals based on the 16,397-bp data set and maximum likelihood tree of ref. 14 with an opossum outgroup (data not shown), 13 fossil constraints (Materials and Methods), and a mean prior of 105 mya for the placental root. Ordinal designations are listed above the branches. Orange and green lines denote orders with basal diversification before or after the K/T boundary, respectively. Black lines depict orders for which only one taxon was available. Asterisks denote placental taxa included in the ''K/T body size'' taxon set. The composition of chimeric taxa, including caniform, caviomorph, strepsirrhine, and sirenian, is indicated elsewhere (14). Numbers for internal nodes are cross-referenced in the supporting information. COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.pnas.org/content/vol1 00/issue3/images/large/pq0334222002.jpeg | |
59,000,000 YBN | 496) Hyraxes (Afrotheres) evolve. Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Subclass: Theria Infraclass: Eutheria (Huxley, 1880) Superorde r Afrotheria: | ||
59,000,000 YBN | 497) Manatees and Dugong (Afrotheres) evolve. Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Subclass: Theria Infraclass: Eutheria (Huxley, 1880) Superorde r Afrotheria: | ||
58,000,000 YBN | 511) The ancestor of all Dormice, Mountain Beaver, Squirrels and Marmots evolves. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder Euarchontoglires | ||
58,000,000 YBN | 524) Primate Tarsiers evolve. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder: Euarchontoglires Order: Primates Suborder: Haplorrhini Infraorder: Tarsiiformes Gregory, 1915 Family: Tarsiidae (Gray, 1825) Genus: Tarsius (Storr, 1780) | ||
57,000,000 YBN | 433) Oldest hooved mammal fossil. This is the ancestor of all hooved mammals, including cows, deer, horses and pigs. | ||
55,000,000 YBN | 435) Unitatherium are largest land animals. | ||
55,000,000 YBN | 436) Oldest horse fossil. Oldest fossil horse, Hyractotherium , the oldest horse was tiny, about the size of a dog). | ||
55,000,000 YBN | 512) Gundis evolves. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder Euarchontoglires | ||
55,000,000 YBN | 809) Lines that lead to Ruminants and Hippos split. | ![]() [1] Fig. 2. Molecular time scale for the orders of placental mammals based on the 16,397-bp data set and maximum likelihood tree of ref. 14 with an opossum outgroup (data not shown), 13 fossil constraints (Materials and Methods), and a mean prior of 105 mya for the placental root. Ordinal designations are listed above the branches. Orange and green lines denote orders with basal diversification before or after the K/T boundary, respectively. Black lines depict orders for which only one taxon was available. Asterisks denote placental taxa included in the ''K/T body size'' taxon set. The composition of chimeric taxa, including caniform, caviomorph, strepsirrhine, and sirenian, is indicated elsewhere (14). Numbers for internal nodes are cross-referenced in the supporting information. COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.pnas.org/content/vol1 00/issue3/images/large/pq0334222002.jpeg | |
54,970,000 YBN | 434) Oldest primate skull. From the Hunan Province, China. Other fossils from the same genus are found in Europe. the earliest euprimates can be distinguished as Cantius, Donrussellia and Teilhardina. | ![]() [1] Figure 3: Strict consensus of 33 equally parsimonious trees with the optimization of activity patterns. COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou rnal/v427/n6969/fig_tab/nature02126_F3.h tml ![]() [2] FIGURE 1. The skull of Teilhardina asiatica sp. nov. (IVPP V12357). a, Dorsal view of the skull. b, Reconstruction of the skull based on IVPP V12357, with grey shadow indicating the missing parts. Scale bar, 5 mm. COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou rnal/v427/n6969/fig_tab/nature02126_F1.h tml | |
54,000,000 YBN | 810) The line that leads to Hippos and the line to dolphins and whales split. | ![]() [1] Fig. 2. Molecular time scale for the orders of placental mammals based on the 16,397-bp data set and maximum likelihood tree of ref. 14 with an opossum outgroup (data not shown), 13 fossil constraints (Materials and Methods), and a mean prior of 105 mya for the placental root. Ordinal designations are listed above the branches. Orange and green lines denote orders with basal diversification before or after the K/T boundary, respectively. Black lines depict orders for which only one taxon was available. Asterisks denote placental taxa included in the ''K/T body size'' taxon set. The composition of chimeric taxa, including caniform, caviomorph, strepsirrhine, and sirenian, is indicated elsewhere (14). Numbers for internal nodes are cross-referenced in the supporting information. COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.pnas.org/content/vol1 00/issue3/images/large/pq0334222002.jpeg | |
53,500,000 YBN | 812) Oldest fossils of dolphins and whales semiaquatic "Pakicetus". | ![]() [1] Fig. 2. Molecular time scale for the orders of placental mammals based on the 16,397-bp data set and maximum likelihood tree of ref. 14 with an opossum outgroup (data not shown), 13 fossil constraints (Materials and Methods), and a mean prior of 105 mya for the placental root. Ordinal designations are listed above the branches. Orange and green lines denote orders with basal diversification before or after the K/T boundary, respectively. Black lines depict orders for which only one taxon was available. Asterisks denote placental taxa included in the ''K/T body size'' taxon set. The composition of chimeric taxa, including caniform, caviomorph, strepsirrhine, and sirenian, is indicated elsewhere (14). Numbers for internal nodes are cross-referenced in the supporting information. . COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.pnas.org/content/vol1 00/issue3/images/large/pq0334222002.jpeg ![]() [2] Illustration by Carl Buell, and taken from http://www.neoucom.edu/DEPTS/ANAT/Pakice tid.html This image is copyrighted. The copyright holder allows anyone to use it for any purpose, provided that this statement is added to its caption: ''Illustration by Carl Buell, and taken from http://www.neoucom.edu/Depts/Anat/Pakice tid.html '' source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Pakicetus.jpg | |
51,000,000 YBN | 513) OW Porcupines evolve. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder Euarchontoglires | ||
50,000,000 YBN | 437) Oldest elephant fossil. Oldest elephant fossil, an unnamed fossil from Algeria. | ||
50,000,000 YBN | 438) Himalayan mountains start to form as India collides with Eurasia. This will continue for millions of years. | ||
50,000,000 YBN | 518) Primates Lorises, Bushbabbies, Pottos evolve. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder: Euarchontoglires Order: Primates Suborder: Strepsirrhini Infraorder: Lemuriformes (Gray, 1821) | ||
50,000,000 YBN | 816) Oldest Ambulocetus (early whale) fossil. | ||
49,000,000 YBN | 439) The largest meat-eating land animals of the Paleocene and Eocene epochs were flightless birds, like Diatryma from America , and Gastornis from Europe. | ||
49,000,000 YBN | 472) Caprimulgiformes (nightjars, night hawks, potoos, oilbirds) evolve. | ||
49,000,000 YBN | 474) Falconiformes (falcons, hawks, eagles, Old World vultures) evolve. | ||
49,000,000 YBN | 514) African mole rats, cane rates, dassle rats evolve. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder Euarchontoglires | ||
49,000,000 YBN | 515) NW porcupines, guinea pigs, agoutis, capybara evolve. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder Euarchontoglires | ||
46,000,000 YBN | 817) Oldest Rodhocetus (early whale) fossil. | ||
45,000,000 YBN | 519) Primate Aye-aye evolves. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder: Euarchontoglires Order: Primates Suborder: Strepsirrhini Infraorder: Lemuriformes (Gray, 1821) | ||
40,000,000 YBN | 440) In Europe the Alpines start to form. | ||
40,000,000 YBN | 441) Oldest fossil of Miacis, a weasel-like ancestor of bears and dogs. | ||
40,000,000 YBN | 525) The ancestor of all New World Monkeys evolves. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder: Euarchontoglires Order: Primates Suborder: Haplorrhini Infraorder: Simiiformes Parvorder: Platyrrhini (E. Geoffroy, 1812) | ||
40,000,000 YBN | 815) Oldest Basilosaurus (early whale) fossil. Renamed by "Zeuglodon" by Richard Owen because is mammal not reptile (saurus=lizard). | ||
37,000,000 YBN | 442) Oldest fossil of dog, Hesperocyon. Oldest fossil of dog, similar to a weasel, Hesperocyon. | ||
37,000,000 YBN | 471) Apodiformes (hummingbirds, swifts) evolve. | ||
37,000,000 YBN | 473) Coliiformes (mouse birds) evolve. | ||
37,000,000 YBN | 475) Cuculiformes (cuckoos, roadrunners, possibly hoatzin) evolve. | ||
37,000,000 YBN | 476) Piciformes (woodpeckers, toucans) evolve. | ||
34,000,000 YBN | 813) Toothed whales (dolphin, sperm whale, killer whale) and Baleen whales (blue, humpback, gray whale) lines split. | ![]() [1] Fig. 2. Molecular time scale for the orders of placental mammals based on the 16,397-bp data set and maximum likelihood tree of ref. 14 with an opossum outgroup (data not shown), 13 fossil constraints (Materials and Methods), and a mean prior of 105 mya for the placental root. Ordinal designations are listed above the branches. Orange and green lines denote orders with basal diversification before or after the K/T boundary, respectively. Black lines depict orders for which only one taxon was available. Asterisks denote placental taxa included in the ''K/T body size'' taxon set. The composition of chimeric taxa, including caniform, caviomorph, strepsirrhine, and sirenian, is indicated elsewhere (14). Numbers for internal nodes are cross-referenced in the supporting information. . COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.pnas.org/content/vol1 00/issue3/images/large/pq0334222002.jpeg | |
34,000,000 YBN | 814) Earliest Baleen whale fossil. | ||
30,000,000 YBN | 443) Indrictotherium lives in India, and is the largest land mammal in the history of earth. | ||
30,000,000 YBN | 520) Primate True Lemurs evolves. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder: Euarchontoglires Order: Primates Suborder: Strepsirrhini Infraorder: Lemuriformes (Gray, 1821) | ||
28,000,000 YBN | 477) Passeriformes (perching songbirds) evolve. This Order includes many common birds: crow, jay, sparrow, warbler, mockingbird, robin, orioles, bluebirds, vireos, larks, finches. More than half of all species of bird are passerines. Sometimes known as perching birds or, less accurately, as songbirds, the passerines are one of the most spectacularly successful vertebrate orders: with around 5,400 species, they are roughly twice as diverse as the largest of the mammal orders, the Rodentia. Small to moderately large modern land birds; aegithognathous palate; large brain size and intelligence; unique syringeal anatomy; unique insertion of forearm muscles; tarsi covered with small scales; large, reversed incumbent hallux; anisodactyl foot; hallux independently moveable; plantar tendons; bundled sperm with coiled head; metabolic rates up to 50% higher than comparable non-passarines of same size; complex nest-building behaviors; altricial young; vocal plasticity. | ||
28,000,000 YBN | 811) The Dolphin and Whale line split. *see Toothed and baleen split. | ![]() [1] Fig. 2. Molecular time scale for the orders of placental mammals based on the 16,397-bp data set and maximum likelihood tree of ref. 14 with an opossum outgroup (data not shown), 13 fossil constraints (Materials and Methods), and a mean prior of 105 mya for the placental root. Ordinal designations are listed above the branches. Orange and green lines denote orders with basal diversification before or after the K/T boundary, respectively. Black lines depict orders for which only one taxon was available. Asterisks denote placental taxa included in the ''K/T body size'' taxon set. The composition of chimeric taxa, including caniform, caviomorph, strepsirrhine, and sirenian, is indicated elsewhere (14). Numbers for internal nodes are cross-referenced in the supporting information. COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.pnas.org/content/vol1 00/issue3/images/large/pq0334222002.jpeg | |
27,000,000 YBN | 521) Primates Wooly and Leaping Lemurs evolve. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder: Euarchontoglires Order: Primates Suborder: Strepsirrhini Infraorder: Lemuriformes (Gray, 1821) Su perfamily: Lemuroidea Family: Indridae (Burnett, 1828) | ||
25,000,000 YBN | 444) Oldest cat fossil. Oldest cat fossil, Proailurus. | ||
25,000,000 YBN | 522) Primates Sportive Lemurs evolve. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder: Euarchontoglires Order: Primates Suborder: Strepsirrhini Infraorder: Lemuriformes (Gray, 1821) Su perfamily: Lemuroidea Family: Lepilemuridae (Gray, 1870) Genus: Lepilemur (I. Geoffroy, 1851) | ||
25,000,000 YBN | 523) Primates Mouse and Dwarf Lemurs evolve. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder: Euarchontoglires Order: Primates Suborder: Strepsirrhini Infraorder: Lemuriformes (Gray, 1821) Su perfamily: Cheirogaleoidea (Gray, 1873) Family: Cheirogaleidae (Gray, 1873) | ||
25,000,000 YBN | 531) The two major lines which lead to Old World Monkeys and hominids (lesser and great apes) split. There are 20 surviving genera and around 100 species of Old World Monkey. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder: Euarchontoglires Order: Primates Suborder: Haplorrhini Parvorder: Catarrhini Superfamily: Cercopithecoidea (Gray, 1821) Family: Cercopithecidae (Gray, 1821) | ![]() [1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of catarrhine primate evolution. The branching order shown for the living species is well-supported by numerous molecular phylogenetic studies (for example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24 and 25]). We present the dates of divergence calculated by Goodman and colleagues [11], on the understanding that these are still rough estimates and more precise measurements are needed, especially for the Old World monkeys. The fossil species (genus names in italics) were placed on this tree by parsimony analyses of relatively large morphological datasets [4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by the thicker lines; these lines are attached to the tree as determined by the parsimony analyses, although the dates of the attachment points are our best guesses. Species found in Africa are in red and species found in Eurasia are in black. The continental locations of the ancestral lineages were inferred by parsimony using the computer program MacClade [30]. The intercontinental dispersal events required, at a minimum, to explain the distribution of the living and fossil species are indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D &_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW- UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC -U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_ rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243 %231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243& view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34 6c64e2e6be03c3865e | |
24,000,000 YBN | 662) Ancestor of all Apes and Hominids loses tail. This may be a genetic mutation or because a tail might be an obstacle for species like gibbons that swing from branch to branch as opposed to more ancient primates that leap from branches. Based on 22my Egyptopithecus fossils which is thought to not have had a tail {check}. | ||
23,000,000 YBN | 478) Echidnas (monotremes) evolve. Biota Domain Eukaryota - eukaryotes Kingdom Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals Subkingdom Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians Branch Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes Infrakingdom Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 Phylum Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates Subphylum Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates Infraphylum Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates Superclass Tetrapoda Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods Series Amniota Mammaliaformes Rowe, 1988 Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758 - mammals Subclass Prototheria Gill, 1872:vi Order Platypoda (Gill, 1872) McKenna in Stucky & McKenna in Benton, ed., 1993:740 Order Tachyglossa (Gill, 1872) McKenna in Stucky & McKenna in Benton, ed., 1993:740 Family Tachyglossidae Gill, 1872 - spiny anteaters Genus Zaglossus Gill, 1877 - long-nosed echidna Genus Tachyglossus™ Illiger, 1811 - short-nosed echidna Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Order: Monotremata Family: Tachyglossidae Gill, 1872 | ||
23,000,000 YBN | 479) Duck-Billed Platypus (Monotremes) evolve. Biota Domain Eukaryota - eukaryotes Kingdom Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals Subkingdom Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians Branch Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes Infrakingdom Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 Phylum Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates Subphylum Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates Infraphylum Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates Superclass Tetrapoda Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods Series Amniota Mammaliaformes Rowe, 1988 Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758 - mammals Subclass Prototheria Gill, 1872:vi Order Platypoda (Gill, 1872) McKenna in Stucky & McKenna in Benton, ed., 1993:740 Family Ornithorhynchidae (Gray, 1825) Burnett, 1830 Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Order: Monotremata Family: Ornithorhynchidae Genus: Ornithorhynchus Blumenbach, 1800 Species: O. anatinus | ||
22,000,000 YBN | 526) Titis, Sakis and Uakaris (New World Monkeys) evolve. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder: Euarchontoglires Order: Primates Suborder: Haplorrhini Infraorder: Simiiformes Parvorder: Platyrrhini (E. Geoffroy, 1812) Family: Pitheciidae (Mivart, 1865) | ||
22,000,000 YBN | 527) Howler, Spider and Woolly monkeys (New World Monkeys) evolve. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder: Euarchontoglires Order: Primates Suborder: Haplorrhini Infraorder: Simiiformes Parvorder: Platyrrhini (E. Geoffroy, 1812) Family: Atelidae (Gray, 1825) | ||
22,000,000 YBN | 528) Capuchin and Squirrel monkeys (New World Monkeys) evolve. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder: Euarchontoglires Order: Primates Suborder: Haplorrhini Infraorder: Simiiformes Parvorder: Platyrrhini (E. Geoffroy, 1812) Family: Cebidae (Bonaparte, 1831) | ||
22,000,000 YBN | 558) Afropithecus evolves in Africa. | ![]() [1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of catarrhine primate evolution. The branching order shown for the living species is well-supported by numerous molecular phylogenetic studies (for example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24 and 25]). We present the dates of divergence calculated by Goodman and colleagues [11], on the understanding that these are still rough estimates and more precise measurements are needed, especially for the Old World monkeys. The fossil species (genus names in italics) were placed on this tree by parsimony analyses of relatively large morphological datasets [4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by the thicker lines; these lines are attached to the tree as determined by the parsimony analyses, although the dates of the attachment points are our best guesses. Species found in Africa are in red and species found in Eurasia are in black. The continental locations of the ancestral lineages were inferred by parsimony using the computer program MacClade [30]. The intercontinental dispersal events required, at a minimum, to explain the distribution of the living and fossil species are indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D &_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW- UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC -U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_ rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243 %231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243& view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34 6c64e2e6be03c3865e ![]() [2] Afropithecus turkanensis cranium, KNM-WK 16999 (type specimen) a: Occlusal aspect b: Superior aspect c:'' Right lateral aspect d: Frontal aspect e: Detail of glabella and frontal region taken at right angles. COPYRIGHTED source: afropithecus.pdf | |
22,000,000 YBN | 559) Proconsul evolves in East Africa. | ![]() [1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of catarrhine primate evolution. The branching order shown for the living species is well-supported by numerous molecular phylogenetic studies (for example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24 and 25]). We present the dates of divergence calculated by Goodman and colleagues [11], on the understanding that these are still rough estimates and more precise measurements are needed, especially for the Old World monkeys. The fossil species (genus names in italics) were placed on this tree by parsimony analyses of relatively large morphological datasets [4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by the thicker lines; these lines are attached to the tree as determined by the parsimony analyses, although the dates of the attachment points are our best guesses. Species found in Africa are in red and species found in Eurasia are in black. The continental locations of the ancestral lineages were inferred by parsimony using the computer program MacClade [30]. The intercontinental dispersal events required, at a minimum, to explain the distribution of the living and fossil species are indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D &_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW- UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC -U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_ rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243 %231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243& view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34 6c64e2e6be03c3865e ![]() [2] Proconsul COPYRIGHTED EDU source: http://www.andromeda.rutgers.edu /~biosci/RutgersHumanEcology/Proconsul.j pg | |
22,000,000 YBN | 560) Aegyptopithecus evolves in East Africa. | ![]() [1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of catarrhine primate evolution. The branching order shown for the living species is well-supported by numerous molecular phylogenetic studies (for example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24 and 25]). We present the dates of divergence calculated by Goodman and colleagues [11], on the understanding that these are still rough estimates and more precise measurements are needed, especially for the Old World monkeys. The fossil species (genus names in italics) were placed on this tree by parsimony analyses of relatively large morphological datasets [4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by the thicker lines; these lines are attached to the tree as determined by the parsimony analyses, although the dates of the attachment points are our best guesses. Species found in Africa are in red and species found in Eurasia are in black. The continental locations of the ancestral lineages were inferred by parsimony using the computer program MacClade [30]. The intercontinental dispersal events required, at a minimum, to explain the distribution of the living and fossil species are indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D &_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW- UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC -U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_ rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243 %231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243& view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34 6c64e2e6be03c3865e ![]() [2] i draw it on macromedia flash 26 oct 2005 Mateus Zica 14:30, 26 October 2005 (UTC) GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:AegpPte.png | |
21,000,000 YBN | 529) Night (or Owl) monkeys (New World Monkeys) evolve. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder: Euarchontoglires Order: Primates Suborder: Haplorrhini Infraorder: Simiiformes Parvorder: Platyrrhini (E. Geoffroy, 1812) Family: Aotidae (Poche, 1908 (1865)) Genus: Aotus (Illiger, 1811) | ||
21,000,000 YBN | 530) Tamarins and Marmosets (New World Monkeys) evolve. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder: Euarchontoglires Order: Primates Family: Cebidae Subfamily: Callitrichinae Gray, 1821 | ||
21,000,000 YBN | 556) Kenyapithecus evolves in Africa. | ![]() [1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of catarrhine primate evolution. The branching order shown for the living species is well-supported by numerous molecular phylogenetic studies (for example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24 and 25]). We present the dates of divergence calculated by Goodman and colleagues [11], on the understanding that these are still rough estimates and more precise measurements are needed, especially for the Old World monkeys. The fossil species (genus names in italics) were placed on this tree by parsimony analyses of relatively large morphological datasets [4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by the thicker lines; these lines are attached to the tree as determined by the parsimony analyses, although the dates of the attachment points are our best guesses. Species found in Africa are in red and species found in Eurasia are in black. The continental locations of the ancestral lineages were inferred by parsimony using the computer program MacClade [30]. The intercontinental dispersal events required, at a minimum, to explain the distribution of the living and fossil species are indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D &_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW- UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC -U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_ rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243 %231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243& view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34 6c64e2e6be03c3865e ![]() [2] Ape Evolution Branching Diagram COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.ablongman.com/html/an thro/phys/databank/fig5.24.html | |
20,000,000 YBN | 549) The ancestor of all the homonids (Lesser and Great Apes), moves over land from Africa into Europe and Asia. An alternative theory has this ancestor in Africa, with a large number of Africa to Eurasia migrations by later species. | ![]() [1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of catarrhine primate evolution. The branching order shown for the living species is well-supported by numerous molecular phylogenetic studies (for example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24 and 25]). We present the dates of divergence calculated by Goodman and colleagues [11], on the understanding that these are still rough estimates and more precise measurements are needed, especially for the Old World monkeys. The fossil species (genus names in italics) were placed on this tree by parsimony analyses of relatively large morphological datasets [4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by the thicker lines; these lines are attached to the tree as determined by the parsimony analyses, although the dates of the attachment points are our best guesses. Species found in Africa are in red and species found in Eurasia are in black. The continental locations of the ancestral lineages were inferred by parsimony using the computer program MacClade [30]. The intercontinental dispersal events required, at a minimum, to explain the distribution of the living and fossil species are indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D &_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW- UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC -U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_ rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243 %231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243& view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34 6c64e2e6be03c3865e ![]() [2] Figure 1. Potential contacts between Africa and Eurasia during the past 40 million years, based upon geological and faunal evidence (after [28 and 29]). (a) Late Eocene, approximately 40 million years ago. The Tethys seaway prevents migration between Africa and Eurasia. Uplifting in the western region of the Arabian peninsula coincides with the rifting of the future Red Sea. (b) Early Miocene, approximately 20 million years ago. The Red Sea begins to form, while potential land bridges exist between Africa and Eurasia. (c) Late Miocene, approximately 10 million years ago. The Red Sea continues to grow, and potential connections between Africa and Eurasia exist along the Indian Ocean margin. COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D &_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW- UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC -U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_ rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243 %231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243& view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34 6c64e2e6be03c3865e | |
20,000,000 YBN | 561) Genetic evidence that complex human language (with perhaps 5 or more sounds) evolves in early Homo species. Perhaps first the use of simple sounds themselves, later combining sounds to form multisound words will evolve. These simple sounds will evolve into the less than 50 basic sounds that make up all human language now. | ![]() [1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of catarrhine primate evolution. The branching order shown for the living species is well-supported by numerous molecular phylogenetic studies (for example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24 and 25]). We present the dates of divergence calculated by Goodman and colleagues [11], on the understanding that these are still rough estimates and more precise measurements are needed, especially for the Old World monkeys. The fossil species (genus names in italics) were placed on this tree by parsimony analyses of relatively large morphological datasets [4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by the thicker lines; these lines are attached to the tree as determined by the parsimony analyses, although the dates of the attachment points are our best guesses. Species found in Africa are in red and species found in Eurasia are in black. The continental locations of the ancestral lineages were inferred by parsimony using the computer program MacClade [30]. The intercontinental dispersal events required, at a minimum, to explain the distribution of the living and fossil species are indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D &_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW- UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC -U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_ rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243 %231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243& view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34 6c64e2e6be03c3865e | |
18,000,000 YBN | 537) Ancestor of all Gibbons (Lesser Ape Hominids) evolves in Eurasia. 12 species of Gibbons. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder: Euarchontoglires Order: Primates Superfamily: Hominoidea Family: Hylobatidae (Gray, 1870) Gibbons are very sexual, and polygamous. | ![]() [1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of catarrhine primate evolution. The branching order shown for the living species is well-supported by numerous molecular phylogenetic studies (for example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24 and 25]). We present the dates of divergence calculated by Goodman and colleagues [11], on the understanding that these are still rough estimates and more precise measurements are needed, especially for the Old World monkeys. The fossil species (genus names in italics) were placed on this tree by parsimony analyses of relatively large morphological datasets [4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by the thicker lines; these lines are attached to the tree as determined by the parsimony analyses, although the dates of the attachment points are our best guesses. Species found in Africa are in red and species found in Eurasia are in black. The continental locations of the ancestral lineages were inferred by parsimony using the computer program MacClade [30]. The intercontinental dispersal events required, at a minimum, to explain the distribution of the living and fossil species are indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D &_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW- UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC -U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_ rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243 %231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243& view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34 6c64e2e6be03c3865e ![]() [2] Figure 1. Potential contacts between Africa and Eurasia during the past 40 million years, based upon geological and faunal evidence (after [28 and 29]). (a) Late Eocene, approximately 40 million years ago. The Tethys seaway prevents migration between Africa and Eurasia. Uplifting in the western region of the Arabian peninsula coincides with the rifting of the future Red Sea. (b) Early Miocene, approximately 20 million years ago. The Red Sea begins to form, while potential land bridges exist between Africa and Eurasia. (c) Late Miocene, approximately 10 million years ago. The Red Sea continues to grow, and potential connections between Africa and Eurasia exist along the Indian Ocean margin. COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D &_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW- UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC -U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_ rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243 %231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243& view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34 6c64e2e6be03c3865e | |
16,000,000 YBN | 555) Oreopithecus evolves in Eurasia (or Africa?). Fossils found in Italy (and possibly East Africa). May have been (earliest) bipedal walker. | ![]() [1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of catarrhine primate evolution. The branching order shown for the living species is well-supported by numerous molecular phylogenetic studies (for example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24 and 25]). We present the dates of divergence calculated by Goodman and colleagues [11], on the understanding that these are still rough estimates and more precise measurements are needed, especially for the Old World monkeys. The fossil species (genus names in italics) were placed on this tree by parsimony analyses of relatively large morphological datasets [4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by the thicker lines; these lines are attached to the tree as determined by the parsimony analyses, although the dates of the attachment points are our best guesses. Species found in Africa are in red and species found in Eurasia are in black. The continental locations of the ancestral lineages were inferred by parsimony using the computer program MacClade [30]. The intercontinental dispersal events required, at a minimum, to explain the distribution of the living and fossil species are indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D &_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW- UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC -U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_ rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243 %231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243& view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34 6c64e2e6be03c3865e ![]() [2] Oreopithecus bambolii COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.gurche.com/content_re cent_apes_504.htm | |
15,000,000 YBN | 553) Lufengpithecus evolves in China. | ![]() [1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of catarrhine primate evolution. The branching order shown for the living species is well-supported by numerous molecular phylogenetic studies (for example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24 and 25]). We present the dates of divergence calculated by Goodman and colleagues [11], on the understanding that these are still rough estimates and more precise measurements are needed, especially for the Old World monkeys. The fossil species (genus names in italics) were placed on this tree by parsimony analyses of relatively large morphological datasets [4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by the thicker lines; these lines are attached to the tree as determined by the parsimony analyses, although the dates of the attachment points are our best guesses. Species found in Africa are in red and species found in Eurasia are in black. The continental locations of the ancestral lineages were inferred by parsimony using the computer program MacClade [30]. The intercontinental dispersal events required, at a minimum, to explain the distribution of the living and fossil species are indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D &_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW- UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC -U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_ rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243 %231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243& view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34 6c64e2e6be03c3865e ![]() [2] Lufengpithecus Skull The original Lufengpithecus relic was thought to be a variant of Sivapithecus but was later classified on its own. This fossil is described as having a 'characteristically broad, low face and large interorbital distance.' However the last feature in particular makes me wonder about the reconstruction of the skull. COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.lamma.net/lufeng.htm | |
14,000,000 YBN | 532) The Old World Monkey family divides into Cercopithecinae (Macaques and Baboons) and Colobinae (Colobus and Proboscis monkies). There are 20 surviving genera and around 100 species of Old World Monkey. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder: Euarchontoglires Order: Primates Suborder: Haplorrhini Parvorder: Catarrhini Superfamily: Cercopithecoidea (Gray, 1821) Family: Cercopithecidae (Gray, 1821) | ||
14,000,000 YBN | 542) Orangutans evolve in Asia. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder: Euarchontoglires Order: Primates Superfamily: Hominoidea Family: Hominidea Subfamily: Ponginae (Elliot, 1912) Genus: Pongo (Lacépède, 1799) | ||
13,000,000 YBN | 551) Dryopithecus evolves in Eurasia. (or East Africa?) This is the oldest fossil of the family Hominidae. | ![]() [1] Image: John Gurche Dryopithecus stage 1 reconstruction COPYRIGHTED source: http://sciam.com/gallery.cfm?art icleID=0006FD89-5BA7-1F18-B4FD80A84189EE DF&seq_no=1 ![]() [2] Image: John Gurche Dryopithecus final reconstruction COPYRIGHTED source: http://sciam.com/gallery.cfm?art icleID=0006FD89-5BA7-1F18-B4FD80A84189EE DF&seq_no=3 | |
13,000,000 YBN | 552) Graecopithecus (Ouranopithecus) evolves in India and Pakistan. Sivapith ecus indicus is an extinct primate and a possible ancestor to the modern orangutan. Specimens of Sivapithecus indicus, roughly 12.5 million to 10.5 million years old (Miocene), have been found at the Petwar plateau in Pakistan as well as in parts of India. The animal was about the size of a chimpanzee but had the facial morphology of an orangutan; it ate soft fruit (detected in the toothwear pattern) and was probably mainly arboreal. | ![]() [1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of catarrhine primate evolution. The branching order shown for the living species is well-supported by numerous molecular phylogenetic studies (for example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24 and 25]). We present the dates of divergence calculated by Goodman and colleagues [11], on the understanding that these are still rough estimates and more precise measurements are needed, especially for the Old World monkeys. The fossil species (genus names in italics) were placed on this tree by parsimony analyses of relatively large morphological datasets [4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by the thicker lines; these lines are attached to the tree as determined by the parsimony analyses, although the dates of the attachment points are our best guesses. Species found in Africa are in red and species found in Eurasia are in black. The continental locations of the ancestral lineages were inferred by parsimony using the computer program MacClade [30]. The intercontinental dispersal events required, at a minimum, to explain the distribution of the living and fossil species are indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D &_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW- UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC -U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_ rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243 %231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243& view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34 6c64e2e6be03c3865e ![]() [2] Image #506 - Sivapithecus indicus COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.gurche.com/content_re cent_apes_506.htm | |
10,500,000 YBN | 538) Crested Gibbons evolve. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder: Euarchontoglires Order: Primates Superfamily: Hominoidea Family: Hylobatidae (Gray, 1870) | ||
10,000,000 YBN | 533) Colobus monkeys (Old World Monkey) evolve. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder: Euarchontoglires Order: Primates Suborder: Haplorrhini Parvorder: Catarrhini Superfamily: Cercopithecoidea (Gray, 1821) Family: Cercopithecidae (Gray, 1821) | ||
10,000,000 YBN | 534) Langurs and Proboscis monkeys (Old World Monkey) evolve. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder: Euarchontoglires Order: Primates Suborder: Haplorrhini Parvorder: Catarrhini Superfamily: Cercopithecoidea (Gray, 1821) Family: Cercopithecidae (Gray, 1821) Subfamily: Colobinae (Jerdon, 1867) | ||
10,000,000 YBN | 535) Guenons (Old World Monkey) evolve. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder: Euarchontoglires Order: Primates Suborder: Haplorrhini Parvorder: Catarrhini Superfamily: Cercopithecoidea (Gray, 1821) Family: Cercopithecidae (Gray, 1821) Subfamily: Cercopithecinae (Gray, 1821) | ||
10,000,000 YBN | 536) Macaques, Baboons, Mandrills (Old World Monkey) evolve. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder: Euarchontoglires Order: Primates Suborder: Haplorrhini Parvorder: Catarrhini Superfamily: Cercopithecoidea (Gray, 1821) Family: Cercopithecidae (Gray, 1821) Subfamily: Cercopithecinae (Gray, 1821) | ||
9,000,000 YBN | 550) The ancestor of the Gorilla, Chimpanzee, and archaic humans moves over land from Eurasia back into Africa. Alternatively, this ancestor could have evolved in Africa if many earlier ancestors frequently migrated to Eurasia. | ![]() [1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of catarrhine primate evolution. The branching order shown for the living species is well-supported by numerous molecular phylogenetic studies (for example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24 and 25]). We present the dates of divergence calculated by Goodman and colleagues [11], on the understanding that these are still rough estimates and more precise measurements are needed, especially for the Old World monkeys. The fossil species (genus names in italics) were placed on this tree by parsimony analyses of relatively large morphological datasets [4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by the thicker lines; these lines are attached to the tree as determined by the parsimony analyses, although the dates of the attachment points are our best guesses. Species found in Africa are in red and species found in Eurasia are in black. The continental locations of the ancestral lineages were inferred by parsimony using the computer program MacClade [30]. The intercontinental dispersal events required, at a minimum, to explain the distribution of the living and fossil species are indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D &_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW- UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC -U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_ rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243 %231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243& view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34 6c64e2e6be03c3865e ![]() [2] Figure 1. Potential contacts between Africa and Eurasia during the past 40 million years, based upon geological and faunal evidence (after [28 and 29]). (a) Late Eocene, approximately 40 million years ago. The Tethys seaway prevents migration between Africa and Eurasia. Uplifting in the western region of the Arabian peninsula coincides with the rifting of the future Red Sea. (b) Early Miocene, approximately 20 million years ago. The Red Sea begins to form, while potential land bridges exist between Africa and Eurasia. (c) Late Miocene, approximately 10 million years ago. The Red Sea continues to grow, and potential connections between Africa and Eurasia exist along the Indian Ocean margin. COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D &_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW- UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC -U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_ rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243 %231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243& view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34 6c64e2e6be03c3865e | |
8,000,000 YBN | 544) Common ancestor of chimpanzee and human lives in Africa. This is when the line that leads to chimpanzees and the line that leads to humans separates. This date conflicts with genetic comparison which puts this at 6my. There are very few chimpanzee fossils found. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder: Euarchontoglires Order: Primates Superfamily: Hominoidea Family: Hominidea Subfamily: Homininae Tribe: Hominini Subtribe: Paninina Genus: Pan (Oken, 1816) Some argue that interbreeding between a chimp ancestor and human ancestor may have resulted in a more recent genetic relationship. | ![]() [1] evolution of the first hominids COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.portalciencia.net/ant roevoerga.html ![]() [2] Drzewo rodowe człowiekowatych (hominidów). hominid evolution COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.wiw.pl/Biologia/Ewolu cjonizm/EwolucjaCzlowieka/BigImage.asp?c p=1&ce=2 | |
7,750,000 YBN | 539) Siamang evolve. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder: Euarchontoglires Order: Primates Superfamily: Hominoidea Family: Hylobatidae (Gray, 1870) Genus: Symphalangus (Gloger, 1841) Species: S. syndactylus | ||
7,000,000 YBN | 469) Podicipediformes (grebes) evolve. | ||
7,000,000 YBN | 543) Gorillas evolves. in Africa. King dom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder: Euarchontoglires Order: Primates Superfamily: Hominoidea Family: Hominidea Subfamily: Ponginae (Elliot, 1912) Genus: Gorilla (I. Geoffroy, 1852) | ||
7,000,000 YBN | 565) "Toumai" (genus Sahelanthropus) fossils, possibly the earliest bipedal homonid, found in Chad, central Africa date to this time. There is a conflict between the genetic date of 6 million for the chimpanzee-hominid split, and this and other fossils that indicate that this split was earlier. The fossil name is "Toumai", found in Chad, central Africa. This fossil poses a problem in that being 7 million years old, this puts it past the genetic distance between a common human and chimpanzee ancestor. Richard Dawkins explains 4 possibilities: 1) this species walked on all fours 2) bipedalism evolved quicky after the chimp/hominid split 3) bipedalism may have evolved more than once 4) chimps and gorillas evolved from a bipedal ancestor Other possibilities include, 1) inaccurate genetic estimate, 2) inaccurate fossil dating, 3) inaccurate fossil reconstruction (the skull was disfigured and had to be reconstructed in 3D on a computer), 4) inaccurate identification of bones as hominid (some people claim it is a female monkey or female gorilla ). | ![]() [1] evolution of the first hominids COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.portalciencia.net/ant roevoerga.html ![]() [2] Drzewo rodowe człowiekowatych (hominidów). hominid evolution COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.wiw.pl/Biologia/Ewolu cjonizm/EwolucjaCzlowieka/BigImage.asp?c p=1&ce=2 | |
6,100,000 YBN | 566) Orrorin fossils, perhaps the second oldest hominid ancestor date from this time. in Kenya, east Africa. about the size of a modern chimpanzee. Brigitte Senut and Martin Pickford, the finders of Orrorin, argue that Orrorin is on the direct line leading to modern humans, whereas most of the members of the genus Australopithecus are not. (see image) | ![]() [1] evolution of the first hominids COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.portalciencia.net/ant roevoerga.html ![]() [2] Drzewo rodowe człowiekowatych (hominidów). hominid evolution COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.wiw.pl/Biologia/Ewolu cjonizm/EwolucjaCzlowieka/BigImage.asp?c p=1&ce=2 | |
6,000,000 YBN | 540) Hylobates Gibbons evolve. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder: Euarchontoglires Order: Primates Superfamily: Hominoidea Family: Hylobatidae (Gray, 1870) Genus: Hylobates (Illiger, 1811) | ||
6,000,000 YBN | 541) Hoolock Gibbon evolves. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder: Euarchontoglires Order: Primates Superfamily: Hominoidea Family: Hylobatidae (Gray, 1870) Genus: Hoolock (Mootnick & Groves, 2005) | ||
6,000,000 YBN | 1490) Argentavis magnificens ("Magnificent Argentine Bird") the largest flying bird ever known lives in Argentina. | Argentina | ![]() [1] Argentavis magnificens COPYRIGHTED source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/scien ce/nature/6262740.stm#map ![]() [2] This handout illustration recieved courtesy of Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS) shows Argentavis magnificens, the world's largest known flying bird with a wingspan of 7 meters, (7.6 yds) about the size of a Cessna 152 aircraft, soaring across the Miocene skies of the Argentinean Pampas six million years ago. Like today’s condors, Argentavis was a lazy glider that relied either on updrafts, in the rocky Andes, or thermals, on the grassy pampas, to provide lifting power.(AFP/PNAS-HO/Jeff Martz) COPYRIGHTED source: http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20070 703/ap_on_sc/biggest_bird;_ylt=An2dhz0Fn wfN7LIRXnKg7VfMWM0F |
5,800,000 YBN | 569) Ardipithicus fossils, a genus of early hominins, dates from this time. T wo species †Ardipithecus kadabba, 5.8 to 5.2 mybn †Ardipithecus ramidus, 5.4 to 4.2 mybn size of modern chimpanzee. | ![]() [1] evolution of the first hominids COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.portalciencia.net/ant roevoerga.html ![]() [2] Drzewo rodowe człowiekowatych (hominidów). hominid evolution COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.wiw.pl/Biologia/Ewolu cjonizm/EwolucjaCzlowieka/BigImage.asp?c p=1&ce=2 | |
5,500,000 YBN | 567) Two-leg walking (bipedalism) evolves in early hominids. Richard Dawkins describes the major theories of why two leg walking evolved from four leg walking: 1) to carry food home, for later use or for others (leopard uses jaw) 2) as an adaption to squat feeding (turning over stones to look for insects) 3) for males to show their penises, and for females to hide their vaginas. I am adding: 4) that walking was a sign of dominance or superiority, perhaps made the body look larger, and a female more sophisticated(?). 5) easier to use hand held weapons (and tools?). Don Johanson hypothesized that as Africa changed from jungle to savannah, hominids had to travel farther for food, thus making two-leg walking more efficient , but this claim is disputed by one experiment by Taylor and Rowntree which indicates that there is no energy gain from 4-leg to 2-leg movement. | ![]() [1] evolution of the first hominids COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.portalciencia.net/ant roevoerga.html ![]() [2] Drzewo rodowe człowiekowatych (hominidów). hominid evolution COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.wiw.pl/Biologia/Ewolu cjonizm/EwolucjaCzlowieka/BigImage.asp?c p=1&ce=2 | |
5,000,000 YBN | 554) Gigantopithecus evolves in China. | ![]() [1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of catarrhine primate evolution. The branching order shown for the living species is well-supported by numerous molecular phylogenetic studies (for example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24 and 25]). We present the dates of divergence calculated by Goodman and colleagues [11], on the understanding that these are still rough estimates and more precise measurements are needed, especially for the Old World monkeys. The fossil species (genus names in italics) were placed on this tree by parsimony analyses of relatively large morphological datasets [4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by the thicker lines; these lines are attached to the tree as determined by the parsimony analyses, although the dates of the attachment points are our best guesses. Species found in Africa are in red and species found in Eurasia are in black. The continental locations of the ancestral lineages were inferred by parsimony using the computer program MacClade [30]. The intercontinental dispersal events required, at a minimum, to explain the distribution of the living and fossil species are indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D &_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW- UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC -U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_ rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243 %231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243& view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34 6c64e2e6be03c3865e ![]() [2] Bill Munns stands next to his model of a Gigantopithecus male, a quadrupedal, fist-walking creature that also could have stood erect, as bears do. COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.uiowa.edu/~bioanth/gi ganto.html | |
4,400,000 YBN | 547) Australopithecus evolves. in Africa. Australopithecus afarensis?. Ki ngdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder: Euarchontoglires Order: Primates Superfamily: Hominoidea Family: Hominidea Genus: Australopithecus (R.A. Dart, 1925) detail: Note that australopithecus is one of 9 Genera (which includes Pan {chimps}, and Homo {humans}) all in subtribe Himinina. So one of these 8 other Genera must be the closest ancestor to Homo. Biota Domain Eukaryota - eukaryotes Kingdom Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals Subkingdom Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians Branch Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 - deuterostomes Infrakingdom Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998 Phylum Chordata Bateson, 1885 - chordates Subphylum Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates Infraphylum Gnathostomata auct. - jawed vertebrates Superclass Tetrapoda Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods Series Amniota Mammaliaformes Rowe, 1988 Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758 - mammals Subclass Theriiformes (Rowe, 1988) McKenna & Bell, 1997:vii,36 Infraclass Holotheria (Wible et al., 1995) McKenna & Bell, 1997:vii,43 Superlegion Trechnotheria McKenna, 1975 Legion Cladotheria McKenna, 1975 Sublegion Zatheria McKenna, 1975 Infralegion Tribosphenida (McKenna, 1975) McKenna & Bell, 1997:vii,48 Supercohort Theria (Parker & Haswell, 1897) McKenna & Bell, 1997:viii,49 Cohort Placentalia (Owen, 1837) McKenna & Bell, 1997:viii,80 Magnorder Epitheria (McKenna, 1975) McKenna & Bell, 1997:viii, 102 Superorder Preptotheria (McKenna, 1975) McKenna in Stucky & McKenna in Benton, ed., 1993:747 Grandorder Archonta (Gregory, 1910) McKenna, 1975:41 Order Primates Linnaeus, 1758 - primates Suborder Euprimates (Hoffstetter, 1978) McKenna & Bell, 1997:viii,328 Infraorder Haplorhini (Pocock, 1918) McKenna & Bell, 1997:336 Parvorder Anthropoidea (Mivart, 1864) McKenna & Bell, 1997:340 Superfamily Cercopithecoidea (Gray, 1821) Gregory & Hellman, 1923:14 Family Hominidae Gray, 1825 Subfamily Homininae™ (Gray, 1825) Delson & Andrews in Luckett & Szalay, eds., 1975:441 Tribe Hominini™ (Gray, 1825) Delson & P. Andrews in Luckett & Szalay, eds., 1975:441 Subtribe Hominina™ (Gray, 1825) Delson & P. Andrews in Luckett & Szalay, eds., 1975:441 Genus Pan Oken, 1816:xi - chimpanzees Genus †Sahelanthropus Brunet et al., 2002 Genus †Orrorin Senut et al., 2001 Genus †Ardipithecus White et al., 1995 Genus †Praeanthropus Genus †Australopithecus R.A. Dart, 1925 Genus †Kenyanthropus (M.G. Leakey et al., 2001) Genus †Paranthropus Broom, 1938 Genus Homo™ Linnaeus, 1758 - people | ![]() [1] Australopithecus squinted at the blue African sky. He had never seen a star in broad daylight before, but he could see one today. White. Piercing. Not as bright as the Sun, yet much more than a full moon. Was it dangerous? He stared for a long time, puzzled, but nothing happened, and after a while he strode across the savanna unconcerned. Millions of years later, we know better. ''That star was a supernova, one of many that exploded in our part of the galaxy during the past 10 million years,'' says astronomer Mark Hurwitz of the University of California-Berkeley. Right: Human ancestors, unconcerned by odd lights in the daytime sky. This image is based on a painting featured in The Economist. PD source: http://science.nasa.gov/headline s/y2003/06jan_bubble.htm?list847478 ![]() [2] Image Source * http://www.familie-rebmann.de/photo11.ht m COPYRIGHTED CLAIMED FAIR USE source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Laetoliafar.jpg.jpg | |
4,000,000 YBN | 445) Oldest Australopithecus fossil in Africa. | ||
3,700,000 YBN | 570) Laetoli footprints date to this time. Thought to be made by australopithicus afarensis. Some analysts have noted that the smaller of the two clearest trails bears telltale signs that suggest whoever left the prints was burdened on one side -- perhaps a female carrying an infant on her hip. | ![]() [1] In 1976 during a fossil hunt lead by Mary Leakey at a site called Laetoli in Tanzania a palaeontologist called Andrew Hill happened to look down and notice some unusual dents in the hardened ash that formed a dry stream bed. Looking more closely these dents appeared to be mammal footprints. COPYRIGHTED UK source: http://www.liv.ac.uk/premog/imag es/laetoli_1.jpg ![]() [2] Laetoli Footprints COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.modernhumanorigins.ne t/laetolifoot.html | |
3,500,000 YBN | 568) Kenyanthropus fossils date from this time. in Kenya, east Africa. Tim White argues that this skull has 4,000 individual bone pieces which could be easily deformed, and that in the absence of other skulls Kenyanthropus being a new genus needs to be verified. may simply be a specimen of Australopithecus afarensis. | ![]() [1] evolution of the first hominids COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.portalciencia.net/ant roevoerga.html ![]() [2] Drzewo rodowe człowiekowatych (hominidów). hominid evolution COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.wiw.pl/Biologia/Ewolu cjonizm/EwolucjaCzlowieka/BigImage.asp?c p=1&ce=2 | |
3,180,000 YBN | 571) Australopithecus afarensis fossil, "Lucy", date to this time. | ![]() [1] Full replica of Lucy's (Australopithecus afarensis) remains in the Museo Nacional de AntropologÃa at Mexico City. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Lucy_Mexico.jpg | |
3,000,000 YBN | 446) North and South America connect. | ||
2,700,000 YBN | 564) Paranthropus, a line of extinct bipedal early homonids evolves in Africa. It is interesting to know that Paranthropus shared the earth with some early examples of the Homo genus, such as H. habilis, H. ergaster, and possibly even H. erectus. Australopithecus afarensis and A. anamenis had, for the most part, disappeared by this time. Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Order: Primates Family: Hominidae Genus: Paranthropus Broom, 1938 | ![]() [1] Skull of Paranthropus boisei. From Smithsonian Institute website. COPYRIGHTED CLAIMED FAIR USE source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Zinj3.jpg ![]() [2] evolution of the first hominids COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.portalciencia.net/ant roevoerga.html | |
2,500,000 YBN | 447) Oldest Homo Habilis fossil. This is the earliest member of the genus Homo. This is when the human brain begins to get bigger. Homo habilis is thought to be the ancestor of Homo ergaster. Homo Habilis evolved in Africa. As the habilis brain grows, habilis gains a larger memory. | ![]() [1] KNM ER 1813 Homo habilis This image is from the website of the Smithsonian Institution [1] and may be copyrighted. The Smithsonian Institution explicitly considers the use of its content for non-commercial educational purposes to qualify as fair use under United States copyright law, if: 1. The author and source of the content is clearly cited. 2. Any additional copyright information about the photograph from the Smithsonian Institution website is included. 3. None of the content is modified or altered. source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:KNM_ER_1813.jpg ![]() [2] red= Homo rudolfensis black=Homo habilis COPYRIGHTED source: http://sesha.net/eden/Eerste_men sen.asp | |
2,450,000 YBN | 589) Homo Habilis evolve smaller, thinner and less body hair. except head hair, facial hair, airpit, chest and genitals. This is thought to be driven by male sexual selection of less haired females, perhaps because less hair meant less body lice aqnd so was more desireable. No other still living apes have taken this direction. | ||
SCIENCE | |||
2,400,000 YBN | 455) Oldest formed stone tools. This begins the "Stone Age", the Paleolithic ("Old Stone Age"). | ||
2,400,000 YBN | 827) End of Pleistocene (PlISTOSEN) epoch, start of Holocene epoch. This is the start of the Mesolithic part of the Stone Age. | ||
2,000,000 YBN | 545) Bonobos (Chimpanzees) evolve. in Africa. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder: Euarchontoglires Order: Primates Superfamily: Hominoidea Family: Hominidea Subfamily: Homininae Tribe: Hominini Subtribe: Paninina Genus: Pan (Oken, 1816) | ||
2,000,000 YBN | 546) Common Chimpanzees evolve. in Africa. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder: Euarchontoglires Order: Primates Superfamily: Hominoidea Family: Hominidea Subfamily: Homininae Tribe: Hominini Subtribe: Paninina Genus: Pan (Oken, 1816) | ||
2,000,000 YBN | 593) Homo Ergaster leaves Africa into Europe and Asia. Ergaster is the first hominid to leave Africa. | ||
1,900,000 YBN | 563) Homo Ergaster evolves in Africa. | ![]() [1] Homo ergaster. Capacité crânienne de 800 à 950 cm3 COPYRIGHTED source: http://ma.prehistoire.free.fr/er gaster.htm ![]() [2] Turkana Boy COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.anthropology.at/virta nth/evo_links/turkana%20boy.jpg | |
1,800,000 YBN | 130) Start Quaternary period (1.8 mybn-now), end Tertiary period (65-1.8 mybn). | ||
1,800,000 YBN | 449) Oldest Homo erectus fossil outside of Africa. Homo Erectus evolves from Homo Ergaster in Asia. Homo sapiens have been around for only some 200,000 years, but Homo erectus is thought to have lived for 1 million years from 1.5 million to 500,000 years before now. | ||
1,800,000 YBN | 826) End Tertiary period (65-1.8 mybn), start Quaternary period (1.8 mybn-now). This is also the start of the start of Pleistocene (PlISTOSEN) epoch. | ||
1,500,000 YBN | 562) Oldest Homo Ergaster near-complete hominid skeleten (Turkana Boy) from East Africa. | ![]() [1] Turkana Boy COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.anthropology.at/virta nth/evo_links/turkana%20boy.jpg ![]() [2] Turkana Boy next to human COPYRIGHTED source: http://mywebpages.comcast.net/mk ent595/Hominids11.JPEG | |
1,500,000 YBN | 583) Ealiest evidence of use of fire, from Swartkrans in South Africa. These were Australopithecus (or Paranthropus) robustus and an early species of Homo, possibly Homo erectus. | ||
1,440,000 YBN | 448) Most recent Homo Habilis fossil. This skull shows that Homo habilis and Homo erectus both were living at this time. | Kenya, Africa | |
1,000,000 YBN | 1479) Earliest Homo genus bone (a tooth) in Western Europe. | Madrid, Spain | ![]() [1] This picture released by Fundacion Atapeurca shows a human tooth found in the Atapuerca Sierra, near Burgos. Spanish researchers on Friday said they had unearthed a human tooth more than one million years old, which they estimated to be the oldest human fossil remain ever discovered in western Europe.(AFP/FA-HO) COPYRIGHTED source: http://news.yahoo.com/photo/0706 29/photos_od_afp/815788affc9d457a9223e39 1c7eea36a;_ylt=AsmNyfUR9BdumtPpp6IQZZPQO rgF |
790,000 YBN | 584) Ealiest evidence of controlled use of fire, from Israel. The presence of burned seeds, wood, and flint at the Acheulian site of Gesher Benot Ya`aqov in Israel is suggestive of the control of fire by humans nearly 790,000 years ago. The distribution of the site's small burned flint fragments suggests that burning occurred in specific spots, possibly indicating hearth locations. Wood of six taxa was burned at the site, at least three of which are edible-olive, wild barley, and wild grape. | ![]() [1] Fig. 2. Cross section of burned Olea europaea subsp. oleaster (wild olive) specimen. Wood is diffuse porous; vessels are solitary and in short radial multiples. Bar, 0.5 mm COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co ntent/full/304/5671/725/FIG2 ![]() [2] Fig. 3. Burned grain of Aegilops cf. geniculata: dorsal view of a basal fragment (this grain is also shown in fig. S2). Parts of husk and embryo are clearly seen. Bar, 1 mm. COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co ntent/full/304/5671/725/FIG3 | |
200,000 YBN | 548) Humans (Homo sapiens) evolve in Africa. Kingdom: Animalia Class: Mammalia Subclass: Eutheria Superorder: Euarchontoglires Order: Primates Superfamily: Hominoidea Family: Hominidae Subfamily: Homininae Tribe: Hominini Genus: Homo Species : H. sapiens Subspecies: H. s. sapiens | ||
200,000 YBN | 590) This is the beginning of the transition from the verbal language of chimps and monkeys, that will result in the short staccato language humans use now. Either the majority of the 50 basic sounds were learned simulateneously for all sapiens by word of mouth or those 50 basic sounds evolved before the sapiens dispersed throughout eurasia. Since sapiens spread out over Europe and Asia did not develop one language with the same sounds used for each word, it seems unlikely that the 50 basic sounds that are found in all of those languages would not be unified for all sapiens, and that more likely the majority of those sounds evolved in a smaller group in Africa and were then dispersed into Europe, Asia, and then Australia and the Americas. It is difficult to determine when but perhaps Homo sapiens in Africa evolved a larger vocabulary of sounds used to label objects and activities than more ancient primates. These sounds eventually become shortened and more finely controlled, ultimately evolving to become the 50 basic sounds used to construct words in all human languages. These first sounds are probably vowels before any consonents evolve. Perhaps these vowels are: U (food), o (mama), O (no), E (eat) and perhaps i (big), e (bed), u (cup). (These sounds are in use by the first Sumerian writing.) For centuries early human language may have been vowels only until consonents attached to vowels were regularly used. The first consonents were probably (the so-called "stop consonents") T and D, then K and G, then perhaps B and P. But it may be impossible to know the order, and the number of years between the three sound families. Initially, this language is very simple, one sound applying to many objects and situations. Some time near here, words made of more than one sound (compound sounds/words) evolved (how many species evolved the ability of compound sound words?). Now objects and situations might have compound sounds, although still basically one word. In addition, the skill of imitating sounds becomes better. Clearly many mammals and birds have a vocabulary of remembered sounds, which are used to label other species, objects, and situations. Chimpanzees use sounds that sound similar to sounds humans make, for example the U (in food), and perhaps "E", although not succinctly enunciated in short duration breaths. Perhaps there were even other sounds that were lost to the past. If simultaneously learned, this had to happen through inter-tribal trading and interaction which required object name translation. And then those new sounds had to be remembered, accepted, and included into both tribes native language. Because the same sounds exist in all languages, but most languages use different combinations of these 50 sounds to make words, one conclusion is that the individual sounds evolved before the dispersion, because clearly, there was not enough sharing and interaction to make one language for all eurasia, a language where each object is described with a word that has the same sounds. That sapiens could not form a single language, I think is evidence that they probably cold not share sounds easily either, which supports a 50 sounds learned before dispersal throughout Eurasia, and of course clearly before dispersal to Australia and the Americas, since those native people appear to have used the same sounds, although different combinations of sounds for words. Clearly some less common vowel sounds evolved later based on these main sounds, for example "i" (big), "u" (cup), "v" (food), etc. | ||
195,000 YBN | 161) Oldest human (Homo sapiens) skull, in Ethiopia, Africa. | ||
190,000 YBN | 595) Homo sapiens start to show dramatic increase in creative ability which includes: more diversity in stone tool types, and regular stool tools for specific uses, artifacts carved from bone, antler and ivory in addition to stone burials were accompanied by ritual or ceremony and contained a rich diversity of grave goods living structures and well-designed fireplaces were constructed hunting of dangerous animal species and fishing occurred regularly higher population densities abundant and elaborate art as well as items of personal adornment were widespread raw materials such as flint and shells were traded over large distances This transformation did not occur in Neanderthals. | ||
190,000 YBN | 600) Very uncertain when, but the S, Z, s family of sounds evolves in early sapien language. Perhaps this was an imitation of snakes. This family of sounds may be the original of the J, j, t, and w (as in "the") sounds. | ||
170,000 YBN | 592) It is very difficult to determine, but at some point the "L", "M", "N", and "R" family of sounds were invented by early Homo sapiens presumably in Africa. Sapien language has not yet taken on the present "staccato" form of combined short duration sounds, although objects are probably labeled with multi sound words. There is a clear difference between these sounds when a word is started with one of these sounds, and these sounds form clearly distinct and new sound inventions (l,m,n,r). | ||
160,000 YBN | 591) Second oldest human (Homo sapiens) skull, like the oldest in Ethiopia, Africa. | ![]() [1] The oldest known fossil of modern humans, dating back 160,000 years. Photo © 2000 David L. Brill, Brill Atlanta) COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.berkeley.edu/news/med ia/releases/2003/06/11_idaltu.shtml ![]() [2] Visualization of what sapien looked like [t: notice hair is not curly, but straight] Image © J. Matternes source: http://www.berkeley.edu/news/med ia/releases/2003/06/11_idaltu.shtml | |
150,000 YBN | 601) The short duration family of sounds (B,D,G,K,P,T) evolves in early sapien language. Initially, these sounds may have formed (naturally) before the long vowel sound (for example a "B" sound when opening the mouth to howl a vowel sound). This begins the "short duration" language, where each sound, including vowels, and open consonents (l,m,n,r) are shortened to short durations. This is basically the form of language all humans use today, short duration (50 ms each) sounds from a family of only 50 sounds, combined together to form words used to describe objects and activities (nouns), movements and actions (verbs), and later a second word added to further describe objects, adjectives. Since these sounds (B,D,G,K,P,T) are so easily spoken, some people probably think that these sounds may have evolved first, but listening to chimpanzees and other primates, it is clear that vowels are more easily spoken, and the muscle control to make short duration sounds (to quickly close the windpipe), necessary for this family of sounds, evolved later. This is still a large amount of speculation, but clearly the 50 major sounds can be grouped into at least 4 major groups, which must have originated at different times (and ofcourse, developed into new sounds at some later time). | ||
130,000 YBN | 450) Neanderthals evolve from Homo ergaster in Europe and Western Asia. Oldest Neanderthal fossil in Croatia. N eanderthal mitochondrial DNA has been compared to sapiens and a common ancestor of the two is estimated to be 500,000, long before the oldest sapien fossils in Africa, which supports the idea that sapiens did not evolve or interbreed with Neanderthals. By 130,000 years ago, after a long period of independent evolution in Europe, Neanderthals were so anatomically different from homo ergaster that they are best classified as a separate species, Homo neanderthalensis. This is a classical example of geographic isolation leading to a speciation event. Neanderthals and early sapiens living at this time both are characterized by: # a virtual lack of tools fashioned out of bone, antler or ivory # burials lacked grave goods and signs of ritual or ceremony # hunting was usually limited to less dangerous species and evidence for fishing is absent # population densities were apparently low # no evidence of living structures exist and fireplaces are rudimentary # evidence for art or decoration is also lacking | ||
120,000 YBN | 572) Wurm glaciation starts. lasts from 120,000 to 20,000 ybn. Connects land bridge between Asia and Americas. | ||
95,000 YBN [93000 BCE] | 594) Homo sapiens move north out of Africa. It is not clear if this is the primary dispersal. Some people think the main sapiens dispersal did not happen until 45,000 ybn. . | ![]() [1] The northern route (along the Danube) is represented by the 'classic' Aurignacian technologies, while the southern (Mediterranean) route is represented by the 'proto-Aurignacian' bladelet technologies (Fig. 3)-with their inferred origins in the preceding early Upper Palaeolithic technologies in the Near East and southeastern Europe. Dates (in thousands of years bp) indicate the earliest radiocarbon dates for these technologies in different areas, expressed in thousands of radiocarbon years before present (bp). (These are likely to underestimate the true (calendar) ages of the sites by between 2,000 and 4,000 yr; see ref. 32). Dashed lines indicate uncertain routes. COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou rnal/v432/n7016/fig_tab/nature03103_F1.h tml ![]() [2] The figure shows the geographical and temporal distribution of hominid populations, based on fossil finds, using different taxonomic schemes. The new finds from Herto4, 5 (H) represent early Homo sapiens. a, This reflects the view that both Neanderthals and modern humans derived from a widespread ancestral species called H. heidelbergensis2. b, However, evidence is growing that Neanderthal features have deep roots in Europe2, 8, so H. neanderthalensis might extend back over 400,000 years. The roots of H. sapiens might be similarly deep in Africa, but this figure represents the alternative view that the ancestor was a separate African species called H. rhodesiensis. Different views of early human evolution are also shown. Some workers prefer to lump the earlier records together and recognize only one widespread species, H. erectus2 (shown in a). Others recognize several species, with H. ergaster and H. antecessor (or H. mauritanicus) in the West, and H. erectus only in the Far East8 (shown in b). Adapted with permission from refs 8, 11. 8. Hublin, J.-J in Human Roots: Africa and Asia in the Middle Pleistocene (eds Barham, L. & Robson-Brown, K.) 99-121 (Western Academic & Specialist Press, Bristol, 2001). 11. Rightmire, G. P. in Human Roots: Africa and Asia in the Middle Pleistocene (eds Barham, L. & Robson-Brown, K.) 123-133 (Western Academic & Specialist Press, Bristol, 2001). COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou rnal/v423/n6941/fig_tab/423692a_F1.html | |
92,000 YBN [90000 BCE] | 597) Oldest human (Homo sapiens) skull outside Africa, in Israel. The Jebel Qafzeh skull. This may represent an early and presumably short lived movement of early sapiens. | ![]() [1] Figure 2: Three-quarter view of the Mousterian cranium Qafzeh 9 from Jebel Qafzeh in Israel, about 92,000 years old. Photo: Tsila Sagiv/IDAM. COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.metmuseum.org/special /Genesis/tattersall_lecture.asp?printFla g=1&refPage=1 ![]() [2] Qafzeh Cave COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.hf.uio.no/iakh/forskn ing/sarc/iakh/lithic/AmudNet/Asites2.htm l | |
60,000 YBN [58000 BCE] | 573) Oldest evidence of humans in Americas, from a rock shelter in Pedra Furada, Brazil. is controversial. Some people argue that the chipped stones are geoartifacts, but the artifact finders argue that the chips are too regular to be made from falling rocks. | ||
60,000 YBN [58000 BCE] | 577) Sapiens sailing from Southeast Asia reach Australia. | ||
53,300 YBN [51300 BCE] | 557) Most recent Homo Erectus fossil in Java. Shows that Homo erectus lived at the same time as Homo sapiens. These ages are 20,000 to 400,000 years younger than previous age estimates for these hominids and indicate that H. erectus may have survived on Java at least 250,000 years longer than on the Asian mainland, and perhaps 1 million years longer than in Africa. | ||
43,000 YBN [41000 BCE] | 1187) The oldest known mine, "Lion Cave" in Swaziland, Africa is in use. At this site, which by radiocarbon dating is 43,000 years old, paleolithic humans mined for the iron-containing mineral hematite, which they ground to produce the red pigment ochre. Sites of a similar age where Neanderthals may have mined flint for weapons and tools have been found in Hungary. | Swaziland, Africa | |
42,000 YBN [40000 BCE] | 596) Oldest Homo sapiens fossil in Australia. "Mungo Man" | ||
40,000 YBN [38000 BCE] | 598) Oldest Homo sapiens fossil in Europe. from the Cro-Magnon site in France 40,000 also marks the decline of Neaderthal populations until their extinction 10,000 years later. | ||
38,000 YBN [36000 BCE] | 574) Second oldest evidence of humans in Americas, from Orogrande cave, in New Mexico. At Old Crow Basin, in the Yukon, broken mammoth bones date at 25,000 to 40,000 years. | ![]() [1] Pendejo Cave from approximately north. Several human figures near the mouth give the scale. A. H. Harris photo, 2 Feb 1991. COPYRIGHTED EDU source: http://www.utep.edu/leb/paleo/si te62.htm | |
35,000 YBN [33000 BCE] | 451) Most recent Neandertal fossil. | ||
32,000 YBN [01/01/30000 BCE] | 1262) The Chauvet Cave paintings in Southern France are created and are the oldest known human made paintings. | Southern France | ![]() [1] Drawings of horses from Chauvet Cave GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Chauvethorses.jpg |
30,000 YBN [28000 BCE] | 575) Mitochondrial DNA shows a sapiens migration to the Americas here. | ||
30,000 YBN [28000 BCE] | 599) Oldest Homo sapiens fossil in China. from the Zhoukoudian Cave in China | ||
20,000 YBN [18000 BCE] | 576) Y Chromosome DNA shows a sapiens migration to the Americas here. | ||
20,000 YBN [18000 BCE] | 1291) Frankhthi cave, (Greek Σπήλαι_ 9;ν Φράγχθ_ 1;) in the Peloponnese, is occupied by paleolithic people. This cave will be occupied until 3000 BCE. | in the Peloponnese, in the southeastern Argolid, is a cave overlooking the Argolic Gulf opposite the Greek village of Koilada. | |
13,000 YBN [11000 BCE] | 578) The earliest bones of a human in the Americas, from the California Channel Islands date to now. The three bones were discovered on the Channel Islands, on a ridge called Arlington, just off the California coastline. | ![]() [1] The bones were found 40 years ago on an island off the coast of California. COPYRIGHTED source: http://edition.cnn.com/NATURE/99 06/08/ancient.woman/ ![]() [2] Map of Southern California with the Channel Islands identified Underlying map is an aerial map obtained from NASA (original: http://earthobservatory.nasa .gov/NaturalHazards/Archive/Nov2004/Cali fornia_TMO_2004304_lrg.jpeg The labeling is by me PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Channelislandsca.jpg | |
13,000 YBN [11000 BCE] | 579) "Spirit Caveman", skull found in Nevada, dates to now. | ![]() [1] The bones were found 40 years ago on an island off the coast of California. COPYRIGHTED source: http://edition.cnn.com/NATURE/99 06/08/ancient.woman/ ![]() [2] Skull wars:' Facial reconstruction of the 'Spirit Cave Man,' based on bones found in Spirit Cave, Churchill County, Nevada (David Barry--Courtesy Nevada State Museum; facial reconstruction by Sharon Long) COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.abotech.com/Articles/ firstamericans.htm | |
12,500 YBN [10500 BCE] | 582) Human artifacts from Monte Verde, southern Chile. This date puts the possibility of walking over the Being Straight in doubt. | ![]() [1] Mastodon tusk fragment with polished and probably worked edge (Tom Dillehay) COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.archaeology.org/onlin e/features/clovis/ ![]() [2] Two lanceolate basalt points and a slate perforator (Tom Dillehay) COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.archaeology.org/onlin e/features/clovis/ | |
11,500 YBN [9500 BCE] | 581) Spear Head from Clovis, New Mexico. | ![]() [1] Fluted projectile points unearthed in Clovis, New Mexico, provide the earliest reliably dated evidence of human habitation in North America. The 11,500-year-old artifacts have been associated with small groups of people believed to have descended from Siberian ancestors who crossed an ancient land mass that spanned Siberia and Alaska. Some scientists are now pondering whether other early peoples arrived in the Americas by boat. Photograph copyright David L. Arnold, National Geographic Society source: http://news.nationalgeographic.c om/news/2003/11/1106_031106_firstamerica ns.html | |
11,130 YBN [9130 BCE] | 1292) Göbekli Tepe is formed by Neolithic people in Southwestern Turkey. The oldest stone buildings are located in Göbekli Tepe, and are evidence that hunter gatherer people built structures before learning agriculture. | =9130BCE | ![]() [1] Göbekli Tepe may hold first human writings Prehistory specialist of the German Archeological Institute in Berlin announced the findings of a South Eastern Turkish Excavation site near Sanliurfa called Göbekli Tepe (''Nabelberg'') . Klaus Schmidt claims the 11 600 old stone markings of this temple are the worlds earliest known form of writing. ''The geometrical forms and small animal reliefs are surely more than just ornamentations. Humans somewhat wanted to communicate with future humans here '' he says in a February 14, 2006 Berliner Morgenpost article. Excavator Schmidt interprets Goebekli Tepe as a center for a complicated dead cult and adds, ''This was monumental architecture, 6000 years before the pyramids.'' The monoliths were lower than the surrounding walls indicating that the intention was not architectural in erecting them. COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.lahana.org/blog/Gobek litepe.htm ![]() [2] None COPYRIGHTED source: http://terraeantiqvae.blogia.com /2006/061203-gobekli-tepe-turquia-.-en-b usca-del-paraiso-de-adan-y-eva.php |
11,000 YBN [9000 BCE] | 1290) Spirit Cave (Thai: ถ้ำผีŬ 9;มน) is occupied by Hoabinhian hunter gatherer people. This cave is occupied by the Hoabinhian people from about 9000 until 5500 BCE. | Pangmapha district, Mae Hong Son Province, northwest Thailand | |
10,700 YBN [8700 BCE] | 829) Oldest copper (and metal) artifact, from Northern Iraq. This starts the "Copper Age" (Chalcolithic). This is a copper ear ring. Copper is the first metal shaped by humans. | ||
10,350 YBN [8350 BCE] | 828) Cities described as Neolithic ("New Stone Age") start to appear. | ||
10,000 YBN [01/01/8000 BCE] | 1259) Clay tokens of various geometrical shapes are used for counting in Sumer. Neolithic (clay) tokens of various geometrical shapes replace Palaeolithic notched tallies. These geometrical tokens probably represent different quantities, and probably do not represent the type of commodity because clay objects have been found which are presumed to represent the various commodities. These geometrical tokens will be used without disruption for 5000 years, when the use of abstract numbers occurs, which in turn will lead to writing around 5300 YBN, and then to mathematics around 4600 YBN. These tokens are the first clay objects of the Near East, and they are the first to use most of the basic geometric forms, such as spheres, triangles, discs, cylinders, cones, tetrahedrons, rhombuses, quadrangles, etc. | Syria, Sumer and Highland Iran | ![]() [1] Pre-literate counting and accounting MS 5067/1-8 NEOLITHIC PLAIN COUNTING TOKENS POSSIBLY REPRESENTING 1 MEASURE OF GRAIN, 1 ANIMAL AND 1 MAN OR 1 DAY'S LABOUR, RESPECTIVELY ms5067/1-8Counting tokens in clay, Syria/Sumer/Highland Iran, ca. 8000-3500 BC, 3 spheres: diam. 1,6, 1,7 and 1,9 cm , (D.S.-B 2:1); 3 discs: diam. 1,0x0,4 cm, 1,1x0,4 cm and 1,0x0,5 cm (D.S.-B 3:1); 2 tetrahedrons: sides 1,4 cm and 1,7 cm (D.S.-B 5:1). Exhibited: The Norwegian Intitute of Palaeography and Historical Philology (PHI), Oslo, 13.10.2003- COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im ages/ms5067.jpg ![]() [2] MS 4631 BULLA-ENVELOPE WITH 11 PLAIN AND COMPLEX TOKENS INSIDE, REPRESENTING AN ACCOUNT OR AGREEMENT, TENTATIVELY OF WAGES FOR 4 DAYS' WORK, 4 MEASURES OF METAL, 1 LARGE MEASURE OF BARLEY AND 2 SMALL MEASURES OF SOME OTHER COMMODITY ms4631Bulla in clay, Syria/Sumer/Highland Iran, ca. 3700-3200 BC, 1 spherical bulla-envelope (complete), diam. ca. 6,5 cm, cylinder seal impressions of a row of men walking left; and of a predator attacking a deer, inside a complete set of plain and complex tokens: 4 tetrahedrons 0,9x1,0 cm (D.S.-B.5:1), 4 triangles with 2 incised lines 2,0x0,9 (D.S.-B.(:14), 1 sphere diam. 1,7 cm (D.S.-B.2:2), 1 cylinder with 1 grove 2,0x0,3 cm (D.S.-B.4:13), 1 bent paraboloid 1,3xdiam. 0,5 cm (D.S.-B.8:14). Context: MSS 4631-4646 and 5114-5127are from the same archive. Total number of bulla-envelopes worldwide is ca. 165 intact and 70 fragmentary. COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im ages/ms4631.jpg |
10,000 YBN [8000 BCE] | 1478) Oldest domesticated plants in the Americas. Squash in Peru and Mexico. | Peru and Mexico | |
9,000 YBN [7000 BCE] | 1288) Mehrgarh an Indus Valley neolithic city begins now. Mehrgarh is one of the most important Neolithic (7000 BCE to 3200 BCE) sites in archaeology. Mehrgarh lies on the "Kachi plain of Baluchistan, Pakistan, and is one of the earliest sites with evidence of farming (wheat and barley) and herding (cattle, sheep and goats) in South Asia. | ![]() [1] Early farming village in Mehrgarh, c. 7000 BCE, with houses built with mud bricks. (Musée Guimet, Paris). The image was downloaded from the website of the Indus and Mehrgarh archaeological mission, Musée Guimet, by Fowler&fowler«Talk» 22:56, 6 March 2007 (UTC) COPYRIGHTED FAIRUSE source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Neolithic_mehrgarh.jpg ![]() [2] A relief map of Pakistan showing Mehrgarh This is an annotated version of a relief map of Pakistan in the public domain([1]). The map was annotated by Fowler&fowler«Talk» 08:07, 7 March 2007 (UTC) and rereleased to the public domain. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Mehrgarh_pakistan_rel96.JPG | |
9,000 YBN [7000 BCE] | 1289) Jarmo, a Neolithic settlement in Iraq is founded. | Iraq | ![]() [1] This map has been uploaded by Electionworld from en.wikipedia.org to enable the Wikimedia Atlas of the World . Original uploader to en.wikipedia.org was John D. Croft, known as John D. Croft at en.wikipedia.org. Electionworld is not the creator of this map. Licensing information is below. Self made map and text GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Sumer1.jpg |
8,600 YBN [6600 BCE] | 848) Symbols created on a tortoise shell from a neolithic grave in China may be ancestors of Chinese writing. In 2003, symbols carved into 8,600-year-old tortoise shells were discovered in China. The shells were found buried with human remains in 24 Neolithic graves unearthed at Jiahu in Henan province, western China. According to archaeologists, the writing on the shells had similarities to written characters used thousands of years later during the Shang dynasty, which lasted from 1700 BC-1100 BC. This creates a space of about 5,000 years between these symbols and the next oldest which may indicate that they are not related. | Jiahu, in central China's Henan Province | ![]() [1] First attempt at writing on a tortoise shell. COPYRIGHTED but PD on wiki source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/scien ce/nature/2956925.stm ![]() [2] The character for ''eye'', similar to inscriptions in the latest find COPYRIGHTED source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/scien ce/nature/2956925.stm |
8,410 YBN [6410 BCE] | 580) "Kennewick Man", a skull and other bones found in Washington State, dates to now. | ![]() [1] t: might be newsweek image COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.unl.edu/rhames/course s/current/current2005.htm ![]() [2] Kennewick reconstruction The face of Kennewick Man, as reconstructed by Jim Chatters and Thomas McClelland. COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/fir st/kennewick.html | |
8,200 YBN [6200 BCE] | 1295) The oldest known map is painted on a wall of the Catal Huyuk settlement in south-central Anatolia (now Turkey). | Catal Huyuk | ![]() [1] City plan of Çatal Höyük. The map is painted on a wall and measures more than de 2,5 m long. Image courtesy of Ali Turan in Turkey in maps www.turkeyinmaps.com COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.infovis.net/printMag. php?num=110&lang=2 ![]() [2] City plan of Çatal Höyük. Recreation of the original plan, where you can appreciates the structure of the city. An erupting volcano also appars. It's probably the Hasan Dag, still visible from Çatal Höyük in the present time. COPYRIGHTED source: same |
8,000 YBN [6000 BCE] | 602) Oldest evidence of weaving. | ||
8,000 YBN [6000 BCE] | 603) Oldest evidence of pottery. | ||
8,000 YBN [6000 BCE] | 604) Oldest evidence of oil lamp. | ||
8,000 YBN [6000 BCE] | 605) Oldest dug-out boat in Holland. | ||
8,000 YBN [6000 BCE] | 606) Oldest city, Jericho. jericho is located in the West bank, near the Jordan river (east of Mediterranean). | ||
8,000 YBN [6000 BCE] | 607) Oldest flint sickle. | ||
8,000 YBN [6000 BCE] | 608) Oldest saddle quern (a stone used to grind grain into flour). | ||
8,000 YBN [6000 BCE] | 609) Einkorn grown. Oldest evidence of einkorn grown. | ||
8,000 YBN [6000 BCE] | 610) Flax grown. Oldest evidence of flax grown. | ||
8,000 YBN [6000 BCE] | 611) Wheat grown. Oldest evidence of wheat grown. | ||
8,000 YBN [6000 BCE] | 612) Barley grown. Oldest evidence of barley grown. | ||
8,000 YBN [6000 BCE] | 613) Millet grown. Oldest evidence of millet grown. | ||
8,000 YBN [6000 BCE] | 614) Bow and arrows invented. Oldest evidence of bow and arrow. | ||
8,000 YBN [6000 BCE] | 615) Spear invented. Oldest evidence of spear. | ||
8,000 YBN [6000 BCE] | 616) City "Catal Hüyük". | ![]() [1] Excavations at the South Area of Çatal Höyük Çatal Höyük, Turkey GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:CatalHoyukSouthArea.JPG ![]() [2] On-site restoration of a typical Çatal Höyük interior Inside a model of a neolithic house at Catal Hüyük GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Catal_H%C3%BCy%C3%BCk_Restauration_B. JPG | |
8,000 YBN [6000 BCE] | 617) Goats kept, fed, milked for milk and killed for food. Goats (check: or dogs?) are oldest domesticated animal. | ||
7,300 YBN [5300 BCE] | 626) Eridu (Ubaid) a settlement in southern Iraq is founded. | south Iraq, shore of Persian Gulf | ![]() [1] This map has been uploaded by Electionworld from en.wikipedia.org to enable the Wikimedia Atlas of the World . Original uploader to en.wikipedia.org was John D. Croft, known as John D. Croft at en.wikipedia.org. Electionworld is not the creator of this map. Licensing information is below. Self made map and text GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Sumer1.jpg |
7,000 YBN [5000 BCE] | 618) City of Sumer. | ||
7,000 YBN [5000 BCE] | 619) City of Ur. | ||
7,000 YBN [5000 BCE] | 620) City of Akkad. | ||
7,000 YBN [5000 BCE] | 627) Oldest evidence of copper melted, and casted (where?). | ||
6,500 YBN [01/01/4500 BCE] | 1263) Symbols on clay pottery, known as the Old European script, or Vinča script, may represent a written language. | Vinča, a suburb of Belgrade (Serbia) | ![]() [1] Drawing of a clay vessel unearthed near Vinca. GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Vinca_vessel.png ![]() [2] Amulets from the Vinca culture in Tartania Balkan ca 4500 BCE COPYRIGHTED source: http://freepages.history.rootswe b.com/~catshaman/121Indus/0iconogrph.htm |
6,500 YBN [4500 BCE] | 1293) The earliest known astronomical monument, an assembly of huge stones in Nabta, Egypt. | Nabta, Egypt | ![]() [1] A stone circle at Nabta Playa in Egypt's Western Desert is thought to act as a calendar and was constructed around 7000 BC [t error is 6,500 years old so 4,500 BCE] COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.touregypt.net/feature stories/prehistory.htm ![]() [2] None COPYRIGHTED EDU source: http://hej3.as.utexas.edu/~www/w heel/africa/blueprint.htm |
6,000 YBN [4000 BCE] | 830) Oldest iron artifacts, made of iron from meteorites, in Egypt. Some might argue this is the beginning of the Iron Age, but other would start the Iron Age only at smelting and casting of Iron. | ||
6,000 YBN [4000 BCE] | 1061) Humans ride horses. | Ukraine | |
5,500 YBN [3500 BCE] | 621) Oldest plow. | ||
5,500 YBN [3500 BCE] | 622) Oldest evidence of irrigation on earth, in "middle east" (east of Mediterranean). | ||
5,500 YBN [3500 BCE] | 623) Oldest pottery baked in fire-heated oven. | ||
5,500 YBN [3500 BCE] | 624) Oldest baked brick (east of Mediterranean). | ||
5,500 YBN [3500 BCE] | 625) Donkey kept, fed and used to transport (and for food?). | ||
5,500 YBN [3500 BCE] | 628) Oldest evidence of bronze (copper mixed with tin) melted, and casted (where?). This begins the "Bronze Age". The earliest tin-alloy bronzes date to the late 4th millennium BC in Susa (Iran) and some ancient sites in Luristan (Iran) and Mesopotamia. The earliest evidence of bronze metalworking dates to the mid 4th millennium BC Maykop culture in the Caucasus. The oldest use of Bronze is from Anatolia, not Egypt from 6500 B.C. ("Bronze Age", Encyclopedia Britannica II, 1982, p. 297.) | ||
5,500 YBN [3500 BCE] | 630) 3 cylinders used as a stamp for signature. | ||
5,500 YBN [3500 BCE] | 634) Egyptian calendar. | ||
5,500 YBN [3500 BCE] | 635) Oldest smelted iron, tiny pieces of smelted iron, in Egypt. This is the start of the Iron Age, as iron becomes more popular because iron is more abundant. in Mesopotamia, Anatolia, and Egypt | ||
5,500 YBN [3500 BCE] | 646) The earliest known wheel, a pottery wheel, comes from Mesopotamia. The earliest known wheel, a pottery wheel, comes from Mesopotamia. | Mesopotamia | |
5,500 YBN [3500 BCE] | 1260) The earliest certain writing on baked clay tablets is invented in Sumer and replaces a clay token counting system. These "numerical tablets" represent the first recorded place value number system (the position of the number is multiplied by a base number), a sexagesimal (base 60) numbering system. This base 60 numbering system will be used continuously to count time, for astronomy, and geography, and is still in use today. The first writing begins as numbers on clay tablets, some also with stamped seals. This system of writing on clay tablets will evolve into modern written language. Writing was first used to solve simple accounting problems; for example to count large numbers of sheep or bales of hay. Writing may have arisen out of the need for arithmetic and storage of information, but will grow to record and perpetuate stories, myths, epics, songs, and most of what we know about human history. Counting tablets replace the token counting system in Sumer, and represent the first recorded written numbers with place value (the position of the number is multiplied by another number called the base or radix) and the beginning of the sexagesimal (has a base of 60) numbering system. This sexagesimal system is a mixed radix system with an alternating base 6 and base 10. There are dots for number 1 through 9, is first place value numbering system has no symbol for zero. A base-60 numbering system is still used to measure time (60 seconds, 60 minutes, etc), angles, and geographic coordinates. Initially, the commodity counted is not indicated, but will be gradually added to the number system, for example with a seal or drawing (pictograph) of the commodity. In 300 years this will be replaced by tablets with a number to represent quantity and a picture to represent the commodity. This number and picture script will evolve into written language. In this writing, each symbol represent a single object (numeral, noun, pronoun, verb, adjective, or adverb). Symbols sounds are not yet added together to form a single word (phonetic). Clay tokens are gradually replaced by number signs impressed with a round stylus at different angles in clay tablets (originally containers for tokens) which are then baked. There are only about 260 numerical tablets known. Most of them are found in Iran. | Sumer (Syria, Sumer, Highland Iran) | ![]() [1] MS 3007 NUMBERS 10 AND 5 +4 + 4 + 4 + 5 + 3 ms3007MS on clay, Syria/Sumer/Highland Iran, ca. 3500-3200 BC, 1 elliptical tablet, 6,7x4,4x1,9 cm, 2+1 compartments, 2 of which with 3 columns of single numbers as small circular depressions. Commentary:Numerical or counting tablets with their more complex combination of decimal and sexagesimal numbers are a further step from the tallies with the simplest form of counting in one-to-one correspondence. They were used parallel with the bulla-envelopes with tokens. The commodity counted was not indicated in the beginning, but was gradually imbedded in the numbers system or with a seal or a pictograph of the commodity added, i. e. development into ideonumerographical tablets, the forerunners to pictographic tablets. There are only about 260 numerical tablets known. Most of them are found in Iran. COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im ages/ms3007.jpg ![]() [2] MS 4647 NUMBERS 3+4, POSSIBLY REPRESENTING 3 MEASURES OF BARLEY AND 4 MEASURES OF SOME OTHER COMMODITY, IN SEXAGESIMAL NOTATION ms4647MS on clay, Syria/Sumer/Highland Iran, ca. 3500-3200 BC, 1 tablet, 4,4x5,0x2,3 cm, 2 lines with 3 small circular depressions and 4 short wedges. Numerical or counting tablets with their more complex combination of decimal and sexagesimal numbers are a further step from the tallies with the simplest form of counting in one-to-one correspondence. They were used parallel with the bulla-envelopes with tokens. The commodity counted was not indicated in the beginning, but was gradually imbedded in the numbers system or with a seal or a pictograph of the commodity added, i. e. development into ideonumerographical tablets, the forerunners to pictographic tablets. There are only about 260 numerical tablets known. Most of them are found in Iran. Exhibited: The Norwegian Intitute of Palaeography and Historical Philology (PHI), Oslo, 13.10.2003- COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im ages/ms4647.jpg |
5,500 YBN [3500 BCE] | 1285) Possibly the earliest known writing, symbols on pottery from Harrapa an Indus Valley civilization. The origin of writing is not clear but centers on Mesopotamia, Egypt and Harrapa who all trade with each other. | Harrapa | ![]() [1] The fragments of pottery are about 5,500 years old COPYRIGHTED source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/scien ce/nature/334517.stm |
5,500 YBN [3500 BCE] | 1296) Uruk is founded. Uruk is refered to as "Erech" in the Hebrew Bible. Uruk may be where the name Iraq originates. Uruk represents one of the world's first cities, with a dense population. Uruk will also see the rise of the state in Mesopotamia with a full-time bureaucracy, military, and stratified society. Uruk is one of the oldest and most important cities of Sumer. According to the Sumerian king list, Uruk was founded by Enmerkar, who brought the official kingship with him. In the epic Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta, he is also said to have constructed the famous temple called E-anna, dedicated to the worship of Inanna (the later Ishtar). Uruk is also the capital city of Gilgamesh, hero of the famous Epic of Gilgamesh. According to the Bible (Genesis 10:10), Erech (Uruk) was the second city founded by Nimrod in Shinar. Historical kings of Uruk include Lugalzagesi of Umma (who conquered Uruk) and Utu-hegal. | Uruk | ![]() [1] Excavated walls at the site of Uruk. COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd /uruk/hd_uruk.htm ![]() [2] Kish (Sumer) localisation GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Meso2mil.JPG |
5,400 YBN [3400 BCE] | 913) Archives of clay tablets in Uruk. | ||
5,300 YBN [01/01/3300 BCE] | 1261) In Sumer, counting tablets evolve into the beginning of pictographic writing. Now along with numbers on the clay tablets are symbols that represent the commodity (such as cows, sheep, and cereals). These symbols represent the earliest record of what will become the modern alphabet. These tablets are all economic records, used to keep a record of objects owned or traded, and contain no stories. Writing begins as a method for increasing the human memory to keep track of the many transactions of a city, and not for the purpose of recording or remembering stories. With the beginning of writing, begins the first systematic training and industry of scribes and this will ultimately evolve into the modern school system. These symbols are drawn with curved lines which will later be replaced by the easier and faster to draw straight lines and later the wedges of cuneiform. The symbol for ox ("gud" in Sumerian, later "aleph" in Egyptian) will become the letter "A" (alpha), the symbol for house, (/e/ in Sumerian and /bitum/ in Akkadian ) will become "B" (beta), (list others: see photo), although this writing is not yet phonetic, each symbol still representing only one word. This writing, taken together with the sounds of this spoken language, provide the earliest evidence of what sounds of the 50 or more basic sounds still in use, were invented before writing. We find that nearly all sounds were invented by this time. In Sumerian are the vowels |i| |e| |o| |v| (possibly |u| |E| |U| and |O|) and the consonents: |D||T|, |B||P|, |G||K|, |Z||S||s|, |L||R| (and |l||m||n||r|), and finally |h|(check), which leaves: the vowels: |a| (cat), |A| (ate), |I| (eye), |v| (umlow), |x| (awe) and the consonents |H|, |C|, |F|, |J|, |t| (three), |z| (the), curled r |q|, |V|, |W|, and |Y| to be invented after this time.(needs more checking) Around 1200 symbols have been identified in these ancient texts, around 60 are numerals. One text from this time (Uruk IV) is a "titles and professions" list, which is the most popular list, copies of these lists spanning over a thousand years. This list describes titles and professions probably arranged according to rank, starting the symbol for king, and is evidence that the social order is already well defined in a strict hierarchy by the time writing is invented. With the beginning of writing, begins the first systematic training and industry of scribes. Many excavated tablets are "scribal excersize" tablets, where impressions are drawn repeatedly in rows. Administrative texts without personal designations or summations are thought to be school exercizes. Writing will be continuously taught eventually in all major civilizations (even through the Dark Ages) until now. At the scribal school trains people for the administrative demands of the land for the temple and palace, but eventually the school will be the center of learning in Sumer. Although trades such as hunting, planting and harvesting are taught, the teaching of scribes, which happens in a building called "the tablet house" is the first formal school on earth. From tablets dating to 2000 BCE, scibes who identify themselves and parents all appear to be males indicating that few if any females are formally taught to be scribes. In addition the parents of the scribes are all high ranking wealthy people with professions such as governor, ambassador, temple administrator, military officer, sea captain, high tax official, priests, managers, supervisors, foremen, scribes, achivists and accountants. This early writing shows that there is a standardized system of measures in place. Tablets describe quantities of bread, jars of beer, silver, barley, fish, cows, lambs, laborer-days, and specific measures of land. Among tablets found in the third millenium BCE (2000-2999 BCE) are long lists of names of trees, plants, animals (including insects and birds), countries, cities and villages, and of stones and minerals. These lists represent a familiarity with botany, zoology, geography and mineralology. Sumerian scholars also prepared mathematical tables and detailed mathematical problems with their solutions. | Sumer | ![]() [1] MS 4551 Account of grain products, bread, beer, butter oil. Sumer 32nd century COPYRIGHTED? source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im ages/ms4551.jpg ![]() [2] MS2963 Account of male and female slaves Sumer c3300-3200BCE COPYRIGHTED? source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im ages/ms2963.jpg |
5,250 YBN [3250 BCE] | 637) Scribe humans in Sumer start writing in rows, left to right (seeing that writing was smudged when writing in columns) Pictures are turned 90 degrees. | ||
5,200 YBN [3200 BCE] | 650) Oldest artifact with cuneiform writing, at Uruk which is a large city at this time. These are clay and stone tablets that have names of humans (thought to be wage lists), lists of objects, plus receipts and memos. Pictures not drawn with pointed reed, but drawn with (diagonally) cut reed-stem pressed in to the wet clay to make wedges. What were pictures (of oxen, etc.) are changed to be made of all single presses, not pictures drawn freehand. This writing contains about 600 unique symbols. Each symbol represents a single word, as a noun (an object or name), verb, adjective?, or adverb? Symbols are most likely not yet combined to form a single word. | ||
5,200 YBN [3200 BCE] | 1060) People living in the Indus Valley Civilization are the first to have an oven within each mud-brick house. | Indus Valley | |
5,200 YBN [3200 BCE] | 1266) The oldest writing in Egypt yet found dates to now. Günter Dreyer, director of the German Institute of Archaeology in Cairo, found writing on a group of small bone or ivory labels dating from 3,300 to 3,200 BC. The labels were attached to bags of linen and oil in the tomb of King Scorpion I in Egypt. They apparently indicated the origin of the commodities. Some artifacts have unique symbols that do not appear in later writing, and so cannot be deciphered. Some labels have symbols also seen in later hieroglyphics, and are deciphered. Because of this find there is some debate over whether writing started in Sumer or Egypt, but most people have the opinion that writing started in Sumer since there is a continuity of tokens to numerical clay tablets to writing, where in Egypt there are few artifacts that hint at the development of written language. Writing development in Sumer is much more documented. Only time and more excavating will help answer this question. | Abydos (modern Umm el-Qa'ab) | ![]() [1] These insciptions show early writing making the transition from pictorial to phonetic meaning. Courtesy Gunter Dreyer, German Institute of Archaeology, Cairo. Dreyer says the symbols for a stork and a chair found on one label ''make no sense as symbols'' literally interpreted. In subsequent hieroglyphics, however, they would have the phonetic significance of ''Ba-fet,'' a city on the Nile Delta. Thus Dreyer concludes the symbols are actually writing that inform us that the commodity attached to the tag came from Ba-fet. COPYRIGHTED source: http://whyfiles.org/079writing/2 .html ![]() [2] source: same |
5,100 YBN [3100 BCE] | 638) An Armenoid or Giza race of humans enter egypt. Skeletal remains show larger than average bones and skulls than the native humans. These humans bring writing to Egpyt. | ||
5,100 YBN [3100 BCE] | 639) Oldest hieroglyphic inscriptions ever found in Egpyt. This begins writing in Egpyt. This writing is descended from the first writing in Sumeria. | ||
5,100 YBN [3100 BCE] | 640) There is a Mesopotamia influence in pictures drawn in egypt, which include winged griffins, serpent necked felines, and pairs of entwined species. A knife found at Gebel el Arak has a handle with one side Mesopotamian style ships, and the other side a human standing over two lions dressed in Mesopotamian clothes. | ||
5,100 YBN [3100 BCE] | 641) Second oldest Egyptian Writing (Narmer Palette). Narmer palette (tablet) carved with pictures showing unification of egypt under king Narmer, who starts the first Egyptian Dynasty of history (Dynasty 1). The top of the palette has two faces of the cow-headed goddess Hathor. Between the Hathor heads is name of Narmer, a "n'r" fish and a "mr" chisel (this is the oldest egyptian writing). Is this the earliest clear record of a god and of the theory of gods ruling the universe? | ||
5,000 YBN [01/01/3000 BCE] | 1265) The proto-cuneiform Sumarian script becomes phonetic (the sounds of symbols are combined to form words). This is the beginning of phonetic written language. Evidence of this is the sign /ti/, for "arrow" that is now also defined as the Sumarian word for "life" /til/ which starts with the same sound. After this phonetic abstraction, the introduction of syllabograms (symbols that form syllables of multi-symble words), names and words for which no symbols had existed can be created. For example, the symbol originally defined as the Summerian verb "bal" (to dig) can also be spelled with the syllabic signs "ba" + "al", while the Akkadian word for dig ("heru") sounds differently.(show image if possible) The vast majority of Sumerian language is made of one-syllable words. Perhaps all earlier spoken languages contained single-syllable words. This process of phonetic abstraction will be accelerated when the Semitic language Akkadian adopts the Sumerian script around 4800 YBN (2800 BCE), 200 years from now. Sumerian contains syllabic symbols, where a symbol represents a consonent and a vowel together such as /Bo/ (ball), or /Bv/ (put), although some vowel sounds have one symbol and are true letters. This writing will later be fully alphabetic when the consonents are represented by one symbol and the vowel at the end dropped. | Jemdet Nasr | ![]() [1] Pre-literate counting and accounting MS 5067/1-8 NEOLITHIC PLAIN COUNTING TOKENS POSSIBLY REPRESENTING 1 MEASURE OF GRAIN, 1 ANIMAL AND 1 MAN OR 1 DAY'S LABOUR, RESPECTIVELY ms5067/1-8Counting tokens in clay, Syria/Sumer/Highland Iran, ca. 8000-3500 BC, 3 spheres: diam. 1,6, 1,7 and 1,9 cm , (D.S.-B 2:1); 3 discs: diam. 1,0x0,4 cm, 1,1x0,4 cm and 1,0x0,5 cm (D.S.-B 3:1); 2 tetrahedrons: sides 1,4 cm and 1,7 cm (D.S.-B 5:1). Exhibited: The Norwegian Intitute of Palaeography and Historical Philology (PHI), Oslo, 13.10.2003- COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im ages/ms5067.jpg ![]() [2] MS 4631 BULLA-ENVELOPE WITH 11 PLAIN AND COMPLEX TOKENS INSIDE, REPRESENTING AN ACCOUNT OR AGREEMENT, TENTATIVELY OF WAGES FOR 4 DAYS' WORK, 4 MEASURES OF METAL, 1 LARGE MEASURE OF BARLEY AND 2 SMALL MEASURES OF SOME OTHER COMMODITY ms4631Bulla in clay, Syria/Sumer/Highland Iran, ca. 3700-3200 BC, 1 spherical bulla-envelope (complete), diam. ca. 6,5 cm, cylinder seal impressions of a row of men walking left; and of a predator attacking a deer, inside a complete set of plain and complex tokens: 4 tetrahedrons 0,9x1,0 cm (D.S.-B.5:1), 4 triangles with 2 incised lines 2,0x0,9 (D.S.-B.(:14), 1 sphere diam. 1,7 cm (D.S.-B.2:2), 1 cylinder with 1 grove 2,0x0,3 cm (D.S.-B.4:13), 1 bent paraboloid 1,3xdiam. 0,5 cm (D.S.-B.8:14). Context: MSS 4631-4646 and 5114-5127are from the same archive. Total number of bulla-envelopes worldwide is ca. 165 intact and 70 fragmentary. COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im ages/ms4631.jpg |
5,000 YBN [3000 BCE] | 645) Oldest evidence of irrigation in Egypt. | ||
5,000 YBN [3000 BCE] | 647) Boats made of reed used on the Nile. | ||
5,000 YBN [3000 BCE] | 648) Oldest evidence of sail boat. | ||
5,000 YBN [3000 BCE] | 649) Oldest ships made of wood. These ships were used in the Medeterranean. | ||
5,000 YBN [3000 BCE] | 651) Akkadian, Babylonian, and Assyrian languages all use cuneiform writing. | ||
5,000 YBN [3000 BCE] | 653) Oldest stone buildings yet found, in Egypt. | ||
5,000 YBN [3000 BCE] | 663) Oldest evidence for use of levers and ramps used to move heavy objects. | ||
5,000 YBN [3000 BCE] | 664) Oldest evidence of soldering and welding. | ||
5,000 YBN [3000 BCE] | 665) Oldest evidence of wine making in Egpyt. | ||
5,000 YBN [3000 BCE] | 666) Oldest evidence of hemp grown in China. | ||
5,000 YBN [3000 BCE] | 667) Oldest evidence of glass making in Egypt. | ||
5,000 YBN [3000 BCE] | 668) Oldest evidence of silk making in China. | ||
5,000 YBN [3000 BCE] | 669) Evidence of wheel in China. | ||
5,000 YBN [3000 BCE] | 670) Cheops funeral ship dates to now. | ||
5,000 YBN [3000 BCE] | 671) Oldest evidence of arch in Egypt. | ||
5,000 YBN [3000 BCE] | 672) Masonry (plaster?) dam over Wadi Gerrawi. | ||
5,000 YBN [3000 BCE] | 673) Oldest evidence for use of adze and bow drill in Egypt. | Egypt | |
5,000 YBN [3000 BCE] | 674) Oldest evidence of chariot in Sumer . | ||
5,000 YBN [3000 BCE] | 675) Oldest silver objects, in Ur. | ||
5,000 YBN [3000 BCE] | 676) Oldest evidence of melting wax in clay casting (cire-perdu). | ||
4,925 YBN [2925 BCE] | 643) Hieratic script, a cursive script of traditional Egyptian hieroglyphs replaces traditional hieroglyphs. Hieratic script was almost always written in ink with a reed pen on papyrus. The word 'hieratikos' means 'priestly' because by the Greco-Roman period this writing was used only by priest humans. | ||
4,800 YBN [2800 BCE] | 629) The Akkadian language, which is the earliest recorded semitic language is first seen in proper names recorded on clay tablets in Sumer. This language will eventually replace the non-semitic Sumerian language but Sumerian will last for another 1000 years before going extinct in 1800 BCE. Bilingual lexical lists with both Akkadian and Sumerian are created around this time and are the first dictionaries ever created on earth. These will help later people to understand Sumerian. The Akkadian language has no written form and so Akkadian speaking people adopt the Sumerian script for their own language and this accelerates the process of phonetic abstraction. This phonetic abstraction of Sumerian will allow the development of cuneiform which uses phonetic symbols, which are direct ancestors of the modern letters of the alphabet. Akkadian words sound different from Sumerian words and so Akkadian speaking people may apply the Sumerian phonetic symbols to represent Akkadian words (or Akkadian speaking people may have been the first to make Sumerian symbols as phonetic letters). Akkadian has two different forms for verbs depending on tense and mode, and so verbs cannot be expressed with a single symbol as they can in Sumerian. | ||
4,800 YBN [2800 BCE] | 1276) The first recorded political assembly occurs in Sumer. Gilgamesh, the king of Erech (Uruk), Gilgamesh, goes before an assembly of elders to ask for permission to fight against the city of Kish instead of being ruled by Agga, the king of Kish. Gilgamesh supports the idea of fighting against Kish, and he goes before an assembly of elders, who vote not to fight but instead to submit to Kish in the interest of peace, however a second assembly, which consists of men with weapons votes to fight against Kish. Agga attacks Erech, and the text is not yet fully understood, but somehow Gilgamesh gains the friendship of Agga and has the siege stopped without a fight. | Sumer, Uruk, Kish, | |
4,630 YBN [2630 BCE] | 654) Imhotep, the first architect and doctor of recorded history designs the first pyramid in Egypt. Imhotep was one of the officials of the Pharaoh Djosèr (3rd Dynasty), designed the Pyramid of Djzosèr (Step Pyramid) at Saqqara in Egypt around 2630-2611 BC. He may also have been responsible for the first known use of columns in architecture. His name means the one who comes in peace. Imhotep is the first name of history, if correctly pronounced that uses the "i" and "e" sounds. At least clear proof that these sounds were in use by this time. | ||
4,600 YBN [01/01/2600 BCE] | 1258) In Sumer, several centuries after their invention of cuneiform, the practice of writing expands beyond debt/payment certificates and inventory lists and is applied for the first time to written messages, mail delivery, history, legend, mathematics, astronomical records and other pursuits. Following this, the first formal schools are established, usually under the guidance of a city-state's primary temple. | Sumer | |
4,600 YBN [2600 BCE] | 1269) Earliest known inscription to a king, Enmebaragesi, ruler of Kish. Enmebarage si is the earliest ruler on the Sumerian king list whose name is attested directly from archaeological remains, two alabaster vase fragments with inscriptions about him found at Nippur - where he is said to have built the first temple according to the Sumerian Tummal chronicle. | Kish, a city in Sumer, 80km south of modern Bagdad | |
4,600 YBN [2600 BCE] | 1271) The oldest known written story, the Sumerian flood story. The oldest known written story (or literature), the Sumerian flood story, the "Ziusudra epic" is known from a single fragmentary tablet, writing in Sumerian from Nippur. The first part tells the story of the creation of man, animals and the first cities. In this story the gods send a flood to destroy mankind. The god Enki warns Ziusudra of Shuruppak to build a large boat. A terrible storm rages for seven days and then (the god) Utu (the sun) appears and Ziusudra sacrifices an ox and a sheep. After the flood An, the sky god, and Enlil, the chief of the gods give Ziusudra "breath eternal" and take him to live in Dilmun. The rest of the poem is lost. There are many similarities between the stories of Ziusudra, Atrahasis, Utnapishtim and Noah. The oldest known written story (or literature), the Sumerian flood story, the "Ziusudra epic" is known from a single fragmentary tablet, writing in Sumerian. The name Ziusudra means "found long life" or "life of long days". The first part tells the story of the creation of man, animals and the first cities, Eridu, Badtibira, Larak, Sippar, and Shuruppak. After a missing section in the tablet, the story describes how the gods send a flood to destroy mankind. The god Enki (lord of the underworld ocean of fresh water and Sumerian equivalent of Ea) warns Ziusudra of Shuruppak to build a large boat (the passage describing the directions for the boat is also lost). When the tablet resumes, it tells about a terrible storm that rages for seven days. Then (the god) Utu (|vTv| or |oTo| or |uTu|) (the sun) appears and Ziusudra opens a window, prostrates himself, and sacrifices an ox and a sheep. After another break the text resumes, the flood is apparently over, and Ziusudra is prostrating himself before An (|oN|) (the sky-god) and Enlil (the chief of the gods), who give him "breath eternal" and take him to live in Dilmun. The rest of the poem is lost. More than 80% of all known Sumerian literary compositions have been found at Nippur. The name Ziusudra also appears in the WB-62 version of the Sumerian king list as a king/chief of Shuruppak who reigned for 10 (shar) years. Ziusudra was preceded in this king list by his father SU.KUR.LAM who was also king of Shuruppak and ruled 8 (shar) years. On the next line of the King List are the sentences "The flood swept thereover. After the flood swept thereover, ... the kingship was in Kish." The city of Kish flourished in the Early Dynastic II period soon after an archaeologically attested river flood in Shuruppak that has been radio-carbon dated about 2900 BC. Polychrome pottery from below the flood deposit have be dated to the Jemdet Nasr period that immediately preceded the Early Dynastic I period. The importance of Ziusudra in the King List is that it links the flood mentioned in the Epics of Ziusudra, Atrahasis, Utnapishtim, etc to river flood sediments in Shuruppak, Uruk, and Kish that have been radio carbon dated as 2900 BCE. So scholars conclude that the flood hero was king of Shuruppak at the end of the Jemdet Nasr period (3100-2900) which ended with the river flood of 2900 BCE. Ziusudra being king of Shuruppak is supported in the Gilgamesh XI tablet by the reference to Utnapishtim as "man of Shuruppak" at line 23. A Sumerian document known as "The Instructions of Shuruppak" dated to around 2500 BCE, refers in a later version to Ziusudra indicating that Ziusudra may have become a venerable figure in the literary tradition by 2500 BCE. Scholars have found many similarities between the stories of Ziusudra, Atrahasis, Utnapishtim and Noah. At this time, the scribes learning in the tablet houses must be transfering their oral stories onto clay, in addition to studying, copying and imitating earlier texts. Works created in these years are almost all poetic in form, some extending to thousands of lines. These texts are mainly myths and epic tales in the form of narrative poems celebrating the adventures of Sumerian gods and heros, hymns to gods and kings, lamentations of Sumerian cities, wisdom compositions that include proverbs, fables, and essays. The Sumerians belief in a variety of gods and goddesses, so already, by the time of the invention of writing we see the theory of gods and goddesses. This inaccurate belief in a god theory will continue into present times. The Sumerians have around 50 gods and 50 goddesses so far counted. The view expressed is the traditional view that many of the gods have human form, many are related, and they control various objects such as the sky (the god Anu, also god of heaven which indicates belief in a heaven (but this may be Christian misinterpretation, do dead people go to sky/heaven in Sumerian myths?)), the earth (the goddess Ki, consort to Anu), the wind (the god Ishkur), the sun (the god Utu), the earth (the god Enki), grain (the goddess Ashnan), venus (the goddess Inanna), and many more. Many of the gods will be renamed as time continues, for example, the Sumerian goddess "Inanna", the first god known to be associated with the planet Venus, is named "Ishtar" by the Akkadians and Babylonians, "Isis" by the Egyptians, "Aphrodite" by the Greeks, "Turan" by the Etruscans, and "Venus" by the Romans. The Sumerians call Inanna the "Holy Virgin" and this may indicate an early example of the erroneous belief that a female that has not had sex is somehow more pure. | Sumer | |
4,550 YBN [2550 BCE] | 1069) Earliest evidence of skin being wriiten on (parchment) in Egypt. | Egypt | |
4,500 YBN [2500 BCE] | 677) Oldest bronze sickle. | ||
4,500 YBN [2500 BCE] | 688) Oldest seed drills in Babylonia. | ||
4,500 YBN [2500 BCE] | 689) First animal and vegtable dyes. | ||
4,500 YBN [2500 BCE] | 690) Oldest evidence of writing on papyrus. | ||
4,500 YBN [2500 BCE] | 691) Oldest evidence of skis used in Skandinavia . | ||
4,500 YBN [2500 BCE] | 692) Oldest evidence of silver sheet metal objects. | ||
4,500 YBN [2500 BCE] | 1052) First arch is built in the Indus valley. | ||
4,407 YBN [2407 BCE] | 800) Oldest papyrus, the Prisse Papyrus, in Egypt. | ||
4,400 YBN [2400 BCE] | 915) Thousands of clay tablets with text in Syria, at Elba, near Aleppo, from palace libraries and archives. | ||
4,400 YBN [2400 BCE] | 1277) The oldest recorded history is written on a clay tablet in Lagash. This document is created by an archivist of Entemena, the fifth in a dynasty of rulers of Lagash. The purpose of the document is to record the boundary between Lagash and Umma, but to set the context, describes the history of the border and the struggle for power between Lagash and Umma as far back as the archivist's records reach, which is to the time of Mesilim, the suzerain of Sumer around 2600 BCE. This text is somewhat abstract because of the many references to gods. | Sumer, Lagash, Umma | |
4,200 YBN [2200 BCE] | 1294) The earliest astronomical observatory in the Americas is near Lima, Peru. Structures at the site, discovered near Lima, Peru, align with the directions of sunrise and sunset at critical points in the agricultural calendar, including December 21, the start of the Southern Hemisphere's growing season, and June 21, the end of harvest. | Lima, Peru | ![]() [1] A giant carving of a frowning face is among the sculptures found at what experts say is the oldest known astronomical observatory in the Western Hemisphere. Structures at the site, discovered near Lima, Peru, align with the directions of sunrise and sunset at critical points in the agricultural calendar, including December 21, the start of the Southern Hemisphere's growing season, and June 21, the end of harvest. COPYRIGHTED source: http://news.nationalgeographic.c om/news/bigphotos/66237588.html |
4,100 YBN [2100 BCE] | 1279) The earliest medical (health science) text, found in Nippur. The earliest medical (health science) text, found in Nippur. There are more than 10 remedies listed on this clay tablet, thought by some to be recorded by a physician for fellow physicians or students. Materials used are mostly from plants, such as cassia, myrtle, asafoetida, thyme, and from trees such as the willow, pear, fir, fig and date trees, but also include sodium chloride (salt), potassium nitrate (saltpeter), milk, snake skin, and turtle shell. These materials are prepared from seed, root, branch, bark or gum, and are probably stored in either solid or powdered form. Some ingredients are boiled in water and probably filtered. The suffering body part is then rubbed by the filtrate, oil is rubbed on it, and more materials may be added. For mixtures taken internally, beer, milk and or oil are used to make the "medicine" more palatable. This is the only medical text recovered in the 3rd millenium BCE, but there is debate about medical knowledge in Egypt for which the earliest evidence is the Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus which dates to the 17th century BCE but is thought to be based on material going back to 3000BCE. To obtain potassium nitrate (saltpeter), judging from later Assyrian methods, the Sumerians may remove for purification any crystalline material from drains where nitrogenous waste products such as urine flow. The Sumerians may have used fractional crystallization to separate the components such as salts of sodium and potassium. The text requires for materials to be "purified" before their use, and this may involve a number of chemical operations. One part of the text calls for a pulvarized alkali which is thought to be the alkali ash produced by the pit-burning of plants of the Amaranthaceae (was Chenopodiaceae) family which are rich in soda. Two presciptions use alkali together with substances that contain a large amount of fat which would produce a form of soap. In this, the oldest medical text, there are no references to any god, demon, magic spell or incantation. | Nippur | |
4,050 YBN [2050 BCE] | 1278) The earliest recorded laws, the Ur-Nammu tablet. The earliest recorded laws, the Ur-Nammu tablet. Ur-Nammyu founded the Third Dynasty of Ur. The laws are written in Sumerian cuneiform and are damaged so only a few have been deciphered. One law involves a trial by water, another describes the return of a slave to their master. Other laws describe monetary penalties for violent crimes such as for cutting off a foot or nose. To me this opens the debate about an eye-for-an-eye punishment versus pentalies such as jail and monetary fines. This tablet was found in Nippur. | Ur | |
4,000 YBN [2000 BCE] | 702) Earliest cotton grown, in Indus Valley. | ||
4,000 YBN [2000 BCE] | 703) Earliest kaolin clays used in China. | ||
4,000 YBN [2000 BCE] | 704) Earliest evidence horse pulled vehicles. | ||
4,000 YBN [2000 BCE] | 705) Stonehenge built. | ||
4,000 YBN [2000 BCE] | 706) Domesticated horses used by people in Asian steppes. | ||
4,000 YBN [2000 BCE] | 707) Copper sulphide ores smelted (melted and purified?). | ||
4,000 YBN [2000 BCE] | 708) Vellum in Egypt. | ||
4,000 YBN [2000 BCE] | 710) Shaduf (Shadoof), an irrigation tool originated in Sumer. | ||
4,000 YBN [2000 BCE] | 711) Spoked wheel. | ||
4,000 YBN [2000 BCE] | 733) Oldest lock, found near Nineveh. O ldest lock, found in ruins of the palace of Khorsabad near Nineveh. The lock is made of wood and uses a tumbler design, similar to modern locks. This kind of lock will be used widely in Egypt. | ![]() [1] Ancient wooden lock and key from Khorsabad (Much reduced) COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.usgennet.org/usa/topi c/preservation/science/inventions/chpt8. htm | |
4,000 YBN [2000 BCE] | 1283) The earliest library catalog is a clay tablet from the library in the tablet house in Nippur. This tablet lists the titles of numerous tablets with stories recognized by modern people from other tablets. | Nippur | ![]() [1] PLATE II OLDEST LITERARY CATALOGUE This plate illustrates a literary catalogue compiled in approximately 2000 B. C. (clay tablet 29.15.155 in the Nippur collection of the University Museum). The upper part represents the tablet itself; the lower part, the author's hand copy of the tablet. The titles of those compositions whose actual contents we can now reconstruct in large part are as follows: 1. Hymn of King Shulgi (approximately 2100 B. C.). 2. Hymn of King Lipit-Ishtar (approximately 1950 B. C.). 3. Myth, ''The Creation of the Pickax'' (see p. 51). 4. Hymn to Inanna, queen of heaven. 5. Hymn to Enlil, the air-god. 6. Hymn to the temple of the mother-goddess Ninhursag in the city of Kesh. 7. Epic tale, ''Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Nether World'' (see p. 30). 8. Epic tale, ''Inanna and Ebih'' (see p. 82). 9. Epic tale, ''Gilgamesh and Huwawa.'' 10. Epic tale, ''Gilgamesh and Agga.'' 11. Myth, ''Cattle and Grain'' (see p. 53). 12. Lamentation over the fall of Agade in the time of Naram-Sin (approximately 2400 B. C.). 13. Lamentation over the destruction of Ur. This composition, consisting of 436 lines, has been almost completely reconstructed and published by the author as Assyriological Study No. 12 of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. 14. Lamentation over the destruction of Nippur. 15. Lamentation over the destruction of Sumer. 16. Epic tale, ''Lugalbanda and Enmerkar.'' 17. Myth, ''Inanna's Descent to the Nether World'' (see p. 83). 18. Perhaps a hymn to Inanna. 19. Collection of short hymns to all the important temples of Sumer. 20. Wisdom compositions describing the activities of a boy training to be a scribe. 21. Wisdom composition, ''Instructions of a Peasant to His Son.'' 16 PD source: http://www.sacred-texts.com/ane/ sum/img/pl02.jpg |
4,000 YBN [2000 BCE] | 1286) The earliest known versions of the Gilgamesh (or Gish-gi(n)-mash) story are written in Sumerian on clay tablets. Gilgamesh, according to the Sumerian king list, was the fifth king of Uruk, the son of Lugalbanda, ruling around 2650 BCE. Many Sumerian texts have stories about a hero killing a beast (or dragon-slaying tales). Sometimes the hero is a god, for example Enki or Ninurta. Gilgamesh is described as a man, and in other stories as part man and part god. This story is pieced together from 14 tablets and fragments and goes like this: The "lord" Gilgamesh, realizing that, like all mortals, he must die sooner or later, is determined to "raise up a name" for himself before dying. So Gilgamesh decides to journey to the far away "Land of the Living" to cut down the cedar trees there and bring them to Erech (Uruk). Gilgamesh tells this to his servant (slave), Enkidu. Enkidu advises Gilgamesh to describe his plan to Utu who is in charge of the cedar land. (one interpretation explains that this belief is because the sun was thought to touch the mountains with the trees at sunset). Acting on this advice Gilgamesh brings offerings to Utu and pleads for support on his journey. At first Utu is skeptical, but Gilgamesh repeats his plea and Utu takes pity on him, and decides to help Gilgamesh probably by stopping the seven demons that personify destructive weather phenomena that might menace Gilgamesh on his journey across the mountains between Erech and the "Land of the Living". Overjoyed, Gilgamesh gathers fifty volunteers from Erech, men who have neither "house" nor "mother" who are ready to follow him. After having weapons of bronze and wood prepared for him and his companians, they cross the seven mountains with the help of Utu. Much of the text is poorly preserved at this part, but when the text become clear, we see that Gilgamesh has fallen into a heavy sleep and is only awakened after considerable time and effort. Angered by this delay Gilgamesh swears he will enter the "Land of the Living" with no interference from man or god. Enkidu pleads with Gilgamesh to turn back, because the guardian of the cedars is the fearful monster Huwawa, whose destructive attack none may withstand. But convinced that with Enkidu's help, no harm can happen to either of them, Gilgamesh tells his servent to put away his fear and go forward with him. The monster Huwawa, spying on them from his cedar house makes frantic but vain efforts to drive the band of men off. After a break of some lines, Gilgamesh, after chopping down some trees has probably reached Huwawa's inner chamber. Curiously, Gilgamesh merely slaps Huwawa, and Huwawa is overcome by fright. Huwawa says a prayer to the sun-god Utu, and begs Gilgamesh not to kill him. Gilgamesh suggests to Enkidu that Huwawa be set free, but Enkidu is fearful of the consequences and advises against letting Huwawa free. Huwawa criticizes Enkidu for this merciless view. Gilgamesh and Enkidu cut off the head of Huwawa. They then bring the corpse of Huwawa to the gods Enlil and Ninlil. After several fragmentary lines, the tablet ends. | Nippur | ![]() [1] The Yale Tablet of the Gilgamesh Epic License: The Project Gutenberg eBook, An Old Babylonian Version of the Gilgamesh Epic, by Anonymous, Edited by Morris Jastrow, Translated by Albert T. Clay This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org source: http://www.gutenberg.org/files/1 1000/11000-h/11000-h.htm |
3,842 YBN [1842 BCE] | 712) First all phonetic language and alphabet. Proto-semitic alphabet made in turquoise mines probably by Semitic humans. This alphabet is thought to have replaced cuneiform, and may be root of all other alphabets. This first strictly phonetic alphabet is in use until 1797 BC. | ||
3,800 YBN [1800 BCE] | 713) Earliest version of Canaanite alphabet thought to be developed at this time. | ||
3,700 YBN [1700 BCE] | 715) Wooden spoked wheel reaches egypt from asia in the form of the two wheeled chariot (as seen in image of tutankhamun). | ||
3,700 YBN [1700 BCE] | 1280) The earliest agricultural science text, found in Nippur. This is a 3 by 4.5 inch Sumerian clay tablet. This text include instructions describing how far apart to plow, how far apart to space barley seeds, to change the direction of furrows each year, when to water the plants, and to harvest the barley "in the day of its strength" before the barley bends under its own weight. This text shows that 3 people work together as a team to harvest barley, a reaper (cutter), a binder and a third whose job is not clear. Threshing of the barley is done by a sledge (sled) moved back and forth over the heaped up grain stalks for 5 days. The barley is then "opened" with an "opener" which is drawn by oxen. The grain is then winnowed with pitch forks to free it from dust and laid on sticks. | Nippur | |
3,700 YBN [1700 BCE] | 1281) The earliest text describing horse back riding, is on a clay tablet that tells a Sumerian fable. | Nippur and Ur, Sumer | |
3,650 YBN [1650 BCE] | 716) Ahmose, a scribe in egypt, name is in the "Rhind Mathematical Papyrus" in a work entitled "directions for knowing all dark things" now in located in the British Museum. Ahmose (also called "Ahmes") states that he copied the papyrus from a now-lost Middle Kingdom original, dating around 2000 BC. | ||
3,552 YBN [1552 BCE] | 799) Oldest health science document, Ebers papyrus, in Egypt. | ||
3,550 YBN [1550 BCE] | 1282) The earliest animal fable is written on a clay tablet in Sumerian. Some of these fables will be ancestors of Aesop's fables 1000 years later around 550BCE. The Sumerian fables include stories about talking animals such as dogs, cattle, donkeys, foxes, pigs, sheep, lions, wild oxen (the now extinct Bos primigenius), goats and wolves. | Sumer | |
3,500 YBN [1500 BCE] | 719) Earliest evidence of paddy field rice grown in china. | ||
3,500 YBN [1500 BCE] | 720) Corn (maize) grown in America (where?). Earliest evidence of Corn (maize) grown in America (where?). | ||
3,500 YBN [1500 BCE] | 721) Li cooking pot in China. | ||
3,500 YBN [1500 BCE] | 722) Beehive tomb at Mynae. | ||
3,500 YBN [1500 BCE] | 723) Oldest simple pulleys used in Assyria. | ||
3,500 YBN [1500 BCE] | 724) Composite bows. | ||
3,500 YBN [1500 BCE] | 725) iron worked by Chalybes. | ||
3,500 YBN [1500 BCE] | 726) Oldest sundial clock in Egypt. | ||
3,500 YBN [1500 BCE] | 727) Reed boats in Peru. | ||
3,500 YBN [1500 BCE] | 1516) The "Vedas" (Sanskrit: वेद) (English: "knowledge"), four ancient Indian collections of hymns and ritual formulas are started around this time. The 4 "Vedas" form the oldest scriptural texts of the religion of Hinduism. The four Vedas are: the "Rig-Veda", the "Yajur-Veda", the "Sama-Veda", and the "Atharva-Veda". | India | |
3,358 YBN [1358 BCE] | 2727) Amenhotep IV (also Akhenaton) (BCE c1385-c1350), Pharaoh of Egypt, introduces the concept of monotheism. Some people claim that Zoroastrianism, Judaism and therefore all monotheistic religions descend from Amenhotep's Sun God Aton. Akhenaton may be the first person of recorded history to question or doubt the ancient "gods rule the universe" theory, although Akhenaton clearly believes in the existence of a god. | Amarna, Egypt | ![]() [1] Antiquit� �gyptienne, Akh�naton, Mus�e �gyptien du Caire, (�gypte). Statue of Akhenaten depicted in a style typical of the Amarna period, on display at the Museum of Egyptian Antiquities, Cairo Reign 1353 BC � 1336 BC[2] or 1352 BC � 1336 BC[3] or 1351�1334 BC[4] CC source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:GD-EG-Caire-Mus%C3%A9e061.JPG ![]() [2] English: Amun and Mut Nederlands: Amon en Mut Source http://runeberg.org/nfba/04 95.html PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Amon_och_Mut%2C_Nordisk_familjebok.pn g |
3,300 YBN [1300 BCE] | 914) Thousands of clay tablets in Syria, at Ugarit (Ras-Shamra) near Latakia, from palace libraries and archives. | ||
3,200 YBN [1200 BCE] | 732) Oldest iron tipped plough. | ||
3,200 YBN [1200 BCE] | 734) Greek penteconter, a type of Greek galley with fifty oars. | ||
3,200 YBN [1200 BCE] | 735) Assyrian-Median wall. | ||
3,200 YBN [1200 BCE] | 736) Oldest evidence of two piece mould casting. | ||
2,850 YBN [850 BCE] | 751) Greek humans copy phonetic alphabet language from phoenician humans. Phoenician humans are using a variation of letters used at this time by Semite humans in Syria-Palestine, Canaanite writing. "Alef" (ox), "beth" (house), "gimel" (camel), "daleth" (door), etc. are changed to "alpha", "beta", "gamma", "delta", etc. The semitic alphabets Hebrew and Arabic are descended from the Canaanite language. | ||
2,800 YBN [800 BCE] | 718) "u" sound ("cup", "run") is used for first time in Greece. ? is the first name in history, if pronounced accurately, to contain the "u" (cup) sound. | ||
2,800 YBN [800 BCE] | 818) "t" sound ("theta", "theater") is used for first time in Greece. Theta (uppercase Θ, lowercase θ) is the eighth letter of the Greek alphabet, derived from the Phoenician letter Teth. Ṭēth (also Teth, Tet) is the ninth letter of many Semitic abjads, including Phoenician, Aramaic, Hebrew ט, Syriac ܛ and Arabic ṭāʼ ﻁ (in abjadi order, 16th in modern order). In Ancient Greek theta represened an aspirated dental stop (/th/), but in Koiné and later dialects it fricativized to a voiceless dental fricative /θ/. Koiné Greek (Κοινή Ἑλληνι 54;ή), a Greek dialect that developed from the Attic dialect (of Athens) and became the spoken language of Greece at the time of the Empire of Alexander the Great. It became the lingua franca (a common language used by people with different native languages) of the Roman Empire. The Koine was the original language of the New Testament, of the writings of the early Christian Church Fathers and of all of Greek literature for about ten centuries. According to Porphyry of Tyros, the Egyptians used an X within a circle as a symbol of the soul ? is the first name in history, if pronounced accurately, to contain the "t" (theta) sound. By the time of Thessaly and Thales. This occurs only in the Greek language and is found in no earlier languages (to my knowledge). | ||
2,800 YBN [800 BCE] | 1036) The Latin language is brought to the Italian peninsula by people who migrate from the north, and settled in the Latium region, around the River Tiber, where the Roman civilization will first develop. | ||
2,785 YBN [785 BCE] | 771) Babylonian astronomers can predict eclipses. | ![]() [1] by Ted Huntington PD source: my own based on info from http://www.britannica.com/eb/art-3466?ar ticleTypeId=1 and http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/fac tsheet/sunfact.html | |
2,700 YBN [700 BCE] | 1075) Latin or Etruscan {check} speaking people start using the letter "C" (Gamma), not only to represent it's traditional sound "G", but also for the sound "K", usually reserved for the letter "K". This will add confusion to how to pronounce a word, and violates a more simple, logical system where one letter equals only one sound. At this time Latin speaking people start replacing words with K with the letter "C". | Italy | |
2,688 YBN [688 BCE] | 916) From 688-681 BCE, Senncherib (Asurbanipal's predecessor) has a library in the southwest palace, or 'palace without rival', at Nineveh. | ||
2,669 YBN [669 BCE] | 1284) Ashurbanipal, systematically collects clay tablets and builds a library. Ashurbanipal, the last great king of ancient Assyria, systematically collects clay tablets and builds a library, and is one of the few kings of ancient history that can read and write. This is probably the largest library of this time and 20,000 to 30,000 cuneiform tablets containing approximately 1,200 distinct texts have been uncovered. Assyrian sculpture reached a high point under his rule (for example the Northern palace and south-western palace at Nineveh, battle of Ulai). Greeks people refer to Ashurbanipal as Sardanapalos; Latin and other medieval texts refer to Ashurbanipal as Sardanapalus. In the Bible he is called As(e)nappar or Osnapper (Ezra 4:10). During Ashurbanipal's rule, Assyria excelled in art and had a strong military. Ashurbanipal creates "the first systematically collected library" at Nineveh, where he tries to gather all cuneiform literature available. Therefore, this library is different from an archive where tablets simply accumulate over time. | Nippur | ![]() [1] Ashurbanipal on a Babylonian stela PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Assurbanipal_als_hogepriester.jpg ![]() [2] Ashurbanipal hunting, a palace relief from Nineveh PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Assurbanipal_op_jacht.jpg |
2,669 YBN [669 BCE] | 1287) The "standard" version of the story of Gilgamesh is from the library of Ashurbanipal in Nineveh. It was written in standard Babylonian, a dialect of Akkadian that was only used for literary purposes. This version was standardized by Sin-liqe-unninni sometime between 1300 BCE and 1000 BCE out of the older versions to one official version. There are 12 tablets and the story is this: Tablet 1. The story starts with an introduction of Gilgamesh of Uruk, the greatest king on earth, two-thirds god and one-third human, as the strongest King-God who ever existed. The introduction describes his glory and praises the brick city walls of Uruk. The people in the time of Gilgamesh, however, are not happy. They complain that he is too harsh and abuses his power by requiring that he have sex with each woman after their marriage before their husband does, so the goddess of creation Aruru creates the wild-man Enkidu from clay, who naked, long-haired, and innocent of all human relations, lives with the wild beasts of the plains. Enkidu starts bothering the shepherds. When one of them complains to Gilgamesh, the king sends the woman Shamshat, a prostitute (courtesan, priestess or prostitute, nadītu or hierodule in Greek) to "humanize" Enkidu by having sex with him. Shamshat has sex with Enkidu and satifies his sex instincts. As a result Enkidu loses his brute strength but gains in wisdom. With this new found wisdom the wild beasts no longer recognize Enkidu as their own. The courtesan Shamshat guides Enkidu in the civilized arts of eating, drinking and dressing. This humanized Enkidu is then ready to meet Gilgamesh, whose arrogant and tyrannical spirit he is destines to subdue. Gilgamesh has some unusual dreams and his mother Ninsun explains them by telling that a mighty friend will come to him. Tablet 2. Enkidu and Shamshat leave the wilderness for Uruk to marry each other. When Gilgamesh comes to the party to have sex with Shamshat he finds his way blocked by Enkidu. (Another version has Gilgamesh meeting Enkidu and eager to display his unrivaled position in Erech, Gilgamesh arranges a night-time orgy and invites Enkidu to attend. Enkidu, however, is repelled by Gilgamesh's sexual cravings, and blocks his way to prevent Gilgamesh from entering the house appointed for the orgy.) Enkidu and Gilgamesh fight each other. Gilgamesh the sophisticated towsman and Enkidu the simple plainsman. Enkidu seems to be getting the better of Gilgamesh, when Gilgamesh breaks off from the fight, the two kiss and embrace (this portion is missing from the Standard Babylonian version but is supplied from other versions). Out of this bitter struggle is born a friendship of two heros. After this fight Gilgamesh introduces Enkidu to his mother and makes him family because the poor man has none of his own. (Enkidu is not happy in Erech because it's sexual life makes him weaker.) So Gilgamesh proposes to travel to the Cedar Forest to cut some great trees and kill the forest's fearful guardian, the mighty Humbaba (Huwawa in the earlier Sumerian version). Enkidu objects, knowing the cedar forest from his early savage days, but Gilgamesh only mocks his fears. Tablet 3. Gilgamesh and Enkidu prepare to adventure to the Cedar Forest. Gilgamesh confers with the elders of Erech, obtains the approval of the sun-god Shamash (utu in the earlier Sumerian text), the patron of all travelers, and has the craftsmen of Uruk cast gigantic weapons for himself and Enkidu. (Another version has Gilgamesh telling his mother about his planned journey who complains about it but then asks the sun-god Shamash for support and gives Enkidu some advice.) Tablet 4. Gilgamesh and Enkidu journey to the Cedar Forest (in the Sumerian version they take 50 young males with them). On the way Gilgamesh has five bad dreams but due to the bad construction of the tablet they are hard to reconstruct. Enkidu each time explains the dreams as a good omen. When they reach the forest Enkidu becomes afraid again and Gilgamesh has to encourage him. Tablet 5. When the heroes finally meet Humbaba, the beast-like guardian of the trees starts to threaten them. This time Gilgamesh is the one that becomes afraid. After some brave words from Enkidu the battle begins. Their rage separates the Sirara mountains from the Libanon. Finally Shamash sends his 13 winds to help the two heroes and Humbaba is defeated. The monster begs Gilgamesh for his life and Gilgamesh pities Humbaba. Enkidu however gets angry with Gilgamesh and asks him to kill the beast. Humbaba then turns to Enkidu and begs him to persuade his friend to spare his life. When Enkidu repeats his request to Gilgamesh Humbaba curses them both before Gilgamesh puts an end to it. (other versions?) When the two heroes cut a huge tree Enkidu makes a huge door of it for the gods and lets it float down the river. Tablet 6. On their return to Uruk, Gilgamesh rejects the sexual advances of Anu's daughter, the goddess of love and lust Ishtar, because of what happened to her previous lovers like Dumuzi (Another version has Gilgamesh rejecting Ishtar because of her promiscuity and faithlessness, which seems unlikely). Angered and offended, Ishtar asks her father Anu to send the "Bull of Heaven" against Uruk to destroy Gilgamesh and his city to avenge the rejected sexual advances. When Anu rejects her complaints, Ishtar threatens to raise the dead from the nether world. Anu becomes scared and gives in. The Bull of Heaven descends and begins to lay waste to the city of Uruk, killing its warriors by the hundreds. (possibly the Bull eats up all the plants?) Gilgamesh and Enkidu, together take up the struggle against the Bull and this time without divine help, kill the Bull. (They offer the Bull's heart to Shamash.) (When they hear Ishtar cry out in agony, Enkidu tears off the bull's hindquarter and throws it in her face and threatens her.) The city Uruk celebrates, but Enkidu has a bad dream detailed in the next tablet. Tablet 7. In the dream of Enkidu, the gods decide that somebody has to be punished for killing the Bull of Heaven and Humbaba, and they decide to punish Enkidu. Enkidu is sentenced to an early death by the gods. (All of this is against the will of Shamash). Enkidu tells Gilgamesh all about it and then curses the door he made for the gods. Gilgamesh is shocked and goes to temple to pray to Shamash for the health of his friend. Enkidu then starts to curse Shamat because now he regrets the day that he became human. Shamash speaks from the heaven and points out how unfair Enkidu is and also tells him that Gilgamesh will become a shadow of his former self because of his death. Enkidu regrets his curses and blesses Shamat. He becomes more and more ill and describes the Netherworld as he is dying. Tablet 8. Gilgamesh delivers a lamentation for Enkidu, offering gifts to the many gods in order that they might walk beside Enkidu in the netherworld. Tablet 9. Gilgamesh sets out to avoid Enkidu's fate and makes a perilous journey to visit Utnapishtim and his wife (Ziusudra in the early Sumerian flood stories), the only humans to have survived the Great Flood who were granted immortality by the gods, in the hope that he too can attain immortality. Along the way, Gilgamesh passes the two mountains where the sun rises from, guarded by two scorpion-men. They allow him to proceed and he travels through the dark where the sun travels every night. Just before the sun is about to catch up with him, he reaches the end. The land on the end of the tunnel is a wonderland full of trees with leaves of jewels. Tablet 10. Gilgamesh meets the alewyfe (barmaid) Siduri and tells her the purpose of his journey. Siduri attempts to dissuade him from his quest but sends him to Urshanabi the ferryman to help him cross the sea to Utnapishtim. Urshanabi is in the company of some sort of stone-giants. Gilgamesh considers them as hostile and kills them. When he tells Urshanabi his story and asks for help he is told that he just killed the only creatures able to cross the Waters of Death. The waters of death are not to be touched so Utshanabi commands him to cut 120 oars so that they can cross the waters by picking a new oar each time. Finally they reach the island of Utnapishtim. Utnapishtim sees that there is something wrong with the boat, and asks Gilgamesh about it. Gilgamesh tells him his story and asks for help but Utnapishtim reprimands him because fighting the fate of humans is futile and ruins the joy in life. Tablet 11. Gilgamesh argues that Utnapishtim is not different from him and asks him his story, why he has a different fate. Utnapishtim tells him about the great flood, his story is a summary of the story of Atrahasis (see also Gilgamesh flood myth) but skips the previous plagues sent by the gods(explain more). He reluctantly offers Gilgamesh a chance for immortality, but questions why the gods would give the same honor as himself, the flood hero, to Gilgamesh and challenges Gilgamesh to stay awake for six days and seven nights first. However just when Utnapishtim finishes his words Gilgamesh falls asleep. Utnapishtim ridicules the sleeping Gilgamesh in the presence of his wife and tells her to bake a loaf of bread for every day he is asleep so that Gilgamesh cannot deny his failure. When Gilgamesh, after six days and seven nights discovers his failure Utnapishtim is furious with him and sends him back to Uruk with Urshanabi in exile. The moment that they leave, Utnapishtim's wife asks her husband to have mercy on Gilgamesh for his long journey. Utnapishtim tells Gilgamesh of a plant at the bottom of the ocean that will make him young again. Gilgamesh obtains the plant by binding stones to his feet so he can walk the bottom of the sea. He doesn"t trust the plant and plans to test it on an old-timer back in Uruk. Unfortunately he places the plant on the shore of a lake while he bathes, and it is stolen by a snake who loses his old skin and thus is reborn. Gilgamesh weeps in the presence of Urshanabi. Having failed at both opportunities, he returns to Uruk, where the sight of its massive walls prompts him to praise this enduring work to Urshanabi. Tablet 12. Note that the content of the last tablet is not connected with previous ones. Gilgamesh complains to Enkidu that his ball-game-toys fell in the underworld. Enkidu offers to bring them back. Delighted Gilgamesh tells Enkidu what he must and mustn"t do in the underworld in order to come back. Enkidu forgets the advice and does everything he was told not to. The underworld keeps him. Gilgamesh prays to the gods to give him his friend back. Enlil and Sin don"t bother to reply but Enki and Shamash decide to help. Shamash cracks a hole in the earth and Enkidu jumps out of it. The tablet ends with Gilgamesh questioning Enkidu about what he has seen in the underworld. The story doesn"t make clear if Enkidu reappears only as a ghost of really comes alive again. Some important points to notice in this story are: 1) That prostitution is probably legal and sex is openly talked about without a feeling of embarrassment. In modern times paying for most kind of sex is illegal and books that talk about sex are kept private and are restricted from young people. Notice the story of how sex with the female Shamshat calms and civilizes the wild-man Enkidu, perhaps relating an accurate common-knowledge view of the calming effect that happens to an aggressive male after orgasm. So in terms of sexuality humans are more backwards now than humans were 2700 years ago, mainly as a result of the rise of the antisexual religions centered on Jesus and Mohammed. 2) Notice the Bull sent from the gods. In the earlier Sumerian myths the bull of the sun is called amar-utu which is translated into Marduct in Akkadian. Perhaps this story provides a reason why an older god (Marduct) should be replaced, symbolically represented as the bull being killed. In addition, the idea of a bull sent from gods may have influenced the later Greek myth of Zeus taking the form of a bull and having sex with women in that form. 3) Notice the belief in a Netherworld, similar to Hades in Greek, a place believed to be where dead people live after their death. So this inaccurate belief of humans living in some other place after their death is clearly in effect by this time. (Earliest Sumerian writings describe Afterlife) 4) Notice the curious nature of the fractional 2/3 god and 1/3 human aspect of Gilgamesh. This may reflect an interest in mathematics. Perhaps this influenced the 3 part nature of the god of the Jesus-based Christian religion (Jesus being the 1/3 human, god the 1/3 god, and the holy spirit occupying the last 1/3) (explain story of the spirit replacing the role of a female as Helen Ellerbe states in Dark Side of Christianity?). 5) Interesting also the reckless view of chopping down trees without any thought about replacing them, or that they the trees take years to grow, etc. In some way, Humbaba might be viewed as a fallen hero, being protector of the trees. Notice how Enkidu plays the role of antisexuality and setting limits on the power of a tyrant and king. Another interesting point is how Ishtar is a female requesting sex from a male which may imply that female humans might have the authority to make such a request of male humans. That a snake is used to eat the plant that makes old living objects young instead of some other species to explain why the snake sheds a layer of skin might be the reason a snake is in the garden of eden in the Hebrew Bible which will evolve into the Christian Old Testament. | Nippur | |
2,668 YBN [668 BCE] | 917) 668-627 BCE Assyrian King Asurbanipal assembles library. This library at Nineveh contains thousands of tablets, many brought from other sites. | ||
2,660 YBN [660 BCE] | 644) In Egypt, the Demotic script replaces hieratic in most secular writing, but hieratic continued to be used by priests for several more centuries. The Demotic symbol set, is a short hand, very rapid, abbreviated form of hieratic, and looks like series of "agitated commas". The word "demotic" is from Greek meaning "of the people" or "popular". | ||
2,650 YBN [650 BCE] | 1066) Evidence of the earliest aquaduct, a channel used to move water from one place to another, is in Assyria. This aquaduct is built of and carries water across a valley to the capital city, Nineveh. | Nineveh | |
2,621 YBN [621 BCE] | 1519) Draco (Greek Δράκων) (flourishes 600s BCE), creates an early law code in Athens. This law code is very harsh, punishing both trivial and serious crimes with death. | Athens, Greece | |
2,605 YBN [605 BCE] | 918) 605-562 BCE, Babylonia has a great library under Nebuchadnezzar. | ||
2,600 YBN [600 BCE] | 762) Thales (in Greek: Θαλης) is the first human of record to explain the universe with out using any gods in the explanation, claiming the universe originated as water. Thales measured a pyramid by comparing the pyramid shadow with the shadow from a stick. Diogenes Laertius, and Aristotle both wrote texts on Thales. One story describes Thales as owning olive fields, and buying all the olive presses in his town in order to corner the market in olive oil one year. Thales is viewed as the first of "7 wise men". | ![]() [1] Thales, one of the Seven Sages of Greece From French Wikipedia: fr:Image:Thales.jpg Original source: http://www.phil-fak.uni-duesseldorf.de/p hilo/galerie/antike/thales.html PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Thales.jpg | |
2,600 YBN [600 BCE] | 822) Oldest evidence of Archimedes Screw from clay tablets in Nineveh. | ||
2,590 YBN [590 BCE] | 1518) Solon (Greek: Σολων) (BCE c630-c560), Athenian Statesman, introduces democratic reform to the government of Athens by changing rule by people determined by birth to people determined by wealth and implements a more humane law code. | Athens, Greece | ![]() [1] This bust, titled 'Solon' (National Museum, Naples) is technically more sophisticated than anything produced in Solon's own time. Ancient literary sources, from which history largely derives its knowledge of Solon, were similarly constructed long after the event. PD source: http://www.usu.edu/markdamen/Cla sDram/images/03/solon.jpg ![]() [2] The Areopagus, as viewed from the Acropolis, is a monolith where Athenian aristocrats decided important matters of state during Solon's time. CC source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Areopagus_from_the_Acropolis.jpg |
2,585 YBN [05/08/585 BCE] | 770) Thales predicts eclipse of sun by moon on this day (according to Herodotus). | ||
2,580 YBN [580 BCE] | 764) Anaximander (Greek: Αναξίμ^ 5;νδρος) (Anaximandros) oNoKSEMoNDrOS or ANAKSEmANDrOS? (610 BC Miletus - 546 BC Miletus) friend and student of Thales. Anaximander thought life originated in water and that humans evolved from fish. This is the first record in history of the theory of evolution. Anaximander is among the first Greek philosophers to use a geocentric system with the earth as a flat cylinder fixed and unmoving in the center, with the sun, moon and stars and actual physical objects attached to rotating crystalline spheres centered around the earth. Presumably Greece and all surrounding places were located on the flat part of the cylinder. {check} Ana ximander had a more abstract idea of the universe than Thales. Anaximander introduced the science of the ancient east to Greece, made use of the sundial (known for centuries in Egypt and Babylonia), was the first to draw a map of the entire known earth. Anaximander recognized that the stars appeared to orbit the pole star, and so viewed the sky as a complete sphere (not just a semisphere over the earth). This is the first evidence for the idea of spheres in astronomy. This would grow to contribute to the complicated and erroneus system of Ptolomy which will dominate science until Copernicus and Kepler. Anaximander thinks that the earth is curved to explain the change in position of the stars, thinking the earth to be a cylinder. The first papyrus by Anaximander is lost. | ||
2,550 YBN [550 BCE] | 1035) Oldest latin texts the "Duenos" and "Forum" inscriptions. | ![]() [1] The w:en:Duenos inscription is an Old Latin inscription from a vase found near the Quirinal Hill in Rome. Source: John Edwin Sandys, ''Epigraphy'', in A Companion to Latin Studies (ed. John Edwin Sandys), Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1913; p. 733, plate 108. This, in turn, credits Heinrich Dressel (1845-1920), Annali, pl. 1, 1880. Probably this means the Annali dell' Instituto di Corrispondenza Archeologica. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Duenos_inscription.jpg ![]() [2] This is a turn-of-the-century rubbing of the Forum inscription, which dates to the 5th century BCE and is one of the oldest known Latin inscriptions. Source: John Edwin Sandys, ''Epigraphy'', in A Companion to Latin Studies (ed. John Edwin Sandys), Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1913; p. 732, plate 107. This, in turn, credits Domenico Comparetti (1835-1927), Iscrizione archaica del Foro Romano, Firenze, 1900. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Forum_inscription.jpg | |
2,545 YBN [545 BCE] | 919) Peisistratus (Πεισίσ 64;ρατος), the tyrant of Athens founds a library in Athens. This is the first library in Greece. Xerxes will take this library to Persia, and Seleucus Nicanor will return it to Greece. | ||
2,545 YBN [545 BCE] | 920) Herodotus of Halicarnassus (Greek: Ἡρόδοτ 59;ς, Herodotos) (484 BCE- c425 BCE), a Greek historian writes "The Histories", a collection of stories on different places and peoples he learns about through his travels. It includes the conflict between Greece and Persia. Herodot us' invention will earn him the title "The Father of History" and the word he uses for his achievement, "historie", which previously had meant simply "inquiry", will pass into Latin and take its modern connotation of "history" or "story". This nickname will be given to him by Cicero (De legibus I,5) Herodotos writes that doctors are very specialized in Egypt. There are doctors for eyes, head, teeth, stomach, and for "invisible diseases", which may be disturbances of the "nervous system". or perhaps simply any disease without a clear cause (incl bacteria, virus). | ||
2,540 YBN [540 BCE] | 783) Anaximenes (~570 BC Miletus - ~500BC), possible pupil of Anaximander. Isaac Asimov claimed that Anaximenes was the first to distinguish clearly between planets and stars {check}. Perhaps Anaximenes made the name "planet" which translates to "wanderer" in Greek. Anaximenes thought that a rainbow is natural phenomenon, and not a goddess, as was the prevailing belief. Anaximenes thought air to be a fundamental element of the universe, theorizing that by compression air turns to water and then earth. | ||
2,540 YBN [540 BCE] | 784) Xenophanes (~570 BC - ~480 BC), a Greek philosopher, poet, social and religious critic , learns from Pythagarus, but leaves Ionia for Southern Italy, (to a town named "Elea"). Xenophanes was less mystical and wrote of the Pythagarus school. Xenophanes did not believe in transmigrartion of souls, or in primitive greek gods, but in a mono theism rare to greek. Xenophanes found seashells on mountain tops and reasoned that earth changed over time, so that mountains must have been under sea and then rose, therefore Xenophanes is the first human in history to make a contribution to the science of Geology. Not until Hutton were any other contributions to Geology made. Our knowledge of his views comes from his surviving poetry, all of which are fragments passed down as quotations by later Greek writers. His poetry criticized and satirized a wide range of ideas, including the belief in the pantheon of human-like gods and the Greek people's continued support of athleticism. Xenophanes rejected the idea that the gods resembled humans in form. One famous passage ridiculed the idea by claiming that, if oxen were able to imagine gods, then those gods would be in the image of oxen. Because of his development of the concept of a "one god greatest among gods and men" that is abstract, universal, unchanging, immobile and always present, Xenophanes is often seen as one of the first monotheists. This shows that there was a large amount of tolerence of religious criticism, without any serious punishment. | ||
2,530 YBN [530 BCE] | 797) Eupalinus, Eupalinus of Megara (20 mi west of athens), a Greek architect, constructed for the tyrant Polycrates of Samos a tunnel to bring water to the city, passing the tunnel through a hill for half a mile, starting at both ends, meeting at the center and unaligned by only a few inches. | ||
2,530 YBN [530 BCE] | 798) Theodorus of Samos is a Greek sculptor and architect who, along with his father Rhoecus, also a sculptor in Samos, is often credited with the invention of ore smelting and, according to Pausanias, the craft of casting. He is also credited with inventing a water level, a carpenter's square, and, according to Pliny, a lock and key and the turning lathe. Reports of lock and key earlier (check, perhaps different kind?). | ||
2,529 YBN [529 BCE] | 772) Pythagoras (~560 BCE Samos-480 BCE Metapontum {Southern Italy}), is first to describe earth as a sphere, and inspires study of math, astronomy, music and gender equality, but also supports secrecy and mysticism which some claim have had a bad and long lasting effect on science. Pythagoras adapts the earth-centered crystalline sphere system of Anaxamander, but with the earth as a sphere instead of a cylinder. Pythagoras formed a school open to female and male students, who lived at the school and were required to own no personal possessions and to have a vegetarian diet. Pythagoras' followers were commonly called "Pythagoreans". Pythagoras experiments with a monochord, an instrument that has a single string is stretched over a sound box. The string is fixed at bothes ends and a moveable bridge alters the pitch. Pythagoras found that strings of musical instruments made higher pitch sounds when made more short, finding pitch related to length. Pythagoras found, for example, twice the length equaled 1 octave lower, a 3 to 2 ratio equaled a fifth, a 4 to 3 ratio equaled a fourth. Pythagoras found that also increasing tension raised pitch. A Pythagorean named Hippasus is credited with the proof that the square root of 2 can not be expressed as a ratio of two numbers (is irrational). Pythagorian humans decide to keep secret "irrational numbers". There is a story of one human killed for not keeping a secret. By mathematical deduction Pythagoras shows that the square of the hypotenuse equals the sum of the squares of the length of both sides of a right triangle. Although this law was known earlier in India and perhaps Egypt , the theorem is still called the "Pythagorean Theorem". Pythagoras is credited with being the first person to recognize that the morning star (Phosphorus) and evening star (Hesperus) are the same star, after this time, the star is called "Aphrodite" (this "star" is later recognized to be planet Venus). Pythagoras is the first to write that the orbit of the earth moon is not in the plane of the Earth equator but at an angle to that plane. Pythagoras is the first to teach that earth is a sphere, and first to teach that the Sun, Moon, and planets did not follow the motion of the stars, but had paths of their own. This changed the star system theory from the theory of Anaximander of a single heavenly crystaline sphere, to adding separate spheres for the planets. This theory of the star system would last until Kepler. Pythagoras mistakenly thought that vibrations from the crystaline spheres rubbing together created a harmonious "Music of the Spheres", which will last for a long time. | ||
2,520 YBN [520 BCE] | 785) Hecataeus (Greek: Εκαταί_ 9;ς) (~550 BC Miletus-476 BC) of Miletus is a Greek historian, native of Miletus from a wealthy family. Hecataeus continued the tradition of Thales, traveled through the Persian empire, and made a book on Egypt and Asia that has never been found. In Egypt, Egyptian humans showed Hecataeus records going back hundreds of generations. Hecataeus continued the work of anaximander in trying to map the entire earth. Hecataeus rationalised history and geography, writing the first account of history that did not accept gods and myths at face value. Hecataeus had a skeptical and scornful view of myths. Hecataeus and his books will undoubtably become the inspiration for the later historian Herodotus. This skepticism of religion appears to be widespread and higly tolerated in this time of history in Ionia. Hecataeus was one of the first classical writers to mention the Celtic people. Some have credited Hecataeus with a work entitled Ges Periodos ("Travels round the Earth" or "World Survey'), in two books each organized in the manner of a periplus, a point-to-point coastal survey. One on Europe, is essentially a periplus of the Mediterranean, describing each region in turn, reaching as far north as Scythia. The other book, on Asia, is arranged similarly to the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea of which a version of the 1st century CE survives. Hecataeus described the countries and inhabitants of the known world, the account of Egypt being particularly comprehensive; the descriptive matter was accompanied by a map, based upon Anaximander"s map of the earth, which he corrected and enlarged. The work only survives in some 374 fragments, by far the majority being quoted in the geographical lexicon Ethnika compiled by Stephanus of Byzantium. The other known work of Hecataeus was the Genealogiai, a rationally systematized account of the traditions and mythology of the Greeks, a break with the epic myth-making tradition, which survives in a few fragments, just enough to show what we are missing. Hecataeus' work, especially the Genealogiai, shows a marked scepticism, opening with "Hecataeus of Miletus thus speaks: I write what I deem true; for the stories of the Greeks are manifold and seem to me ridiculous."1 Unlike his contemporary Xenophanes, he did not criticize the myths on their own terms; his disbelief rather stems from his broad exposure to the many contradictory mythologies he encountered in his travels. An anecdote from Herodotus (II, 143), of a visit to an Egyptian temple at Thebes, is illustrative. It recounts how the priests showed Herodotus a series of statues in the temple's inner sanctum, each one supposedly set up by the high priest of each generation. Hecataeus, says Herodotus, had seen the same spectacle, after mentioning that he traced his descent, through sixteen generations, from a god. The Egyptians compared his genealogy to their own, as recorded by the statues; since the generations of their high priests had numbered three hundred and forty-five, all entirely mortal, they refused to believe Hecataeus's claim of descent from a mythological figure. This encounter with the immemorial antiquity of Egypt has been identified as a crucial influence on Hecataeus's scepticism: the mythologized past of the Hellenes shrank into insignificant fancy next to the history of a civilization that was already ancient before Mycenae was built. He was probably the first of the logographers to attempt a serious prose history and to employ critical method to distinguish myth from historical fact, though he accepts Homer and other poets as trustworthy authorities. Herodotus, though he once at least controverts his statements, is indebted to Hecataeus for the concept of a prose history. | ||
2,515 YBN [515 BCE] | 1264) The Behistun Inscription (also Bisitun or Bisutun, بیستو 6; in modern Persian; in Old Persian is Bagastana the meaning is "the god's place or land") includes three versions of the same text, written in three different cuneiform script languages: Old Persian, Elamite, and Babylonian. Like the Rosetta Stone is to translating Egyptian hieroglyphs, so this inscription is the most important inscription to translating cuneiform writing. | Persia (Kermanshah Province of Iran) | ![]() [1] Behistun Inscription, with some modern annotations Sketch: Fr. Spiegel, Die altpers. Keilinschriften, Leipzig 1881. Source: http://titus.fkidg1.uni-frankfurt.de/did act/idg/iran/apers/behistun.htm Copyrig ht expired due to age of document PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:BehistunInscriptionSketch.jpg ![]() [2] Darius I the Great's inscription GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Darius_I_the_Great%27s_inscription.jp g |
2,510 YBN [510 BCE] | 786) Heraclitus (~540 BC Ephesus 30 mi north of Miletus, ~540 bc - ~475 bc) disagrees with Thales, Anaximander, and Pythagorus about the nature of the ultimate substance, thinking fire to be a fundamental element of the universe. Heraclitus claims that the nature of everything is change itself. A typically pessimistic view led to Herkleitos being called the "weeping philosopher". Only fragments of text by Heraclitus have been found. Heraclitus thought the only unchanging fact is that change is certain, for example, Heraclitus thought that a different sun could appear each day. Heraclitus wrote a book; Diogenes Laertius tells us this in his "Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers". Diogenes also writes that Herclitus deposited his book as a dedication in the great temple of Artemis, the Artemesium, one of the largest temples of the 6th Century. Many later philosophers in this period refer to the work. "Down to the time of Plutarch and Clement, if not later, the little book of Heraclitus was available in its original form to any reader who chose to seek it out." Heraclitus became very popular in the period following his writing. Within a generation or two "the book acquired such fame that it produced partisans of his philosophy who were called Heracliteans." Karl Popper argues that Heraclitus relativizes moral values in saying "the good and the bad are identical". | ||
2,510 YBN [510 BCE] | 787) Parmenides (~540 BC Elea (now Velia), Italy - ??) a student of Ameinias, and pre-Socratic philosopher, follows in the tradition of the Ionian exiled Pythagorus and Xenophanes. Parmenides opposed the view of Heraclitus, claiming that one object can not turn in to other object fundamentally different. Parmenides argued that creation (something from nothing) and destruction (nothing from something) is impossible. Parmenides chose reason over senses, feeling senses to be untrustworthy. Parmenides founds school in Elea, the "Eliatic School" based on this philosophy of reason over senses. Zeno was the most recognized person educated in the school. Zeno, will use distrust of senses to describe a set of paradoxes. Parmenides is the first famous philospher native to Italy. Plato entitled one dialog "parmenides", and this text describes the meeting of an older parmenides and a young Socrates. this date must have been ~450 bc. this may have been a Plato fiction. His only known work, conventionally titled 'On Nature' is a poem, which has only survived in fragmentary form. Approximately 150 lines of the poem remain today. | ||
2,508 YBN [508 BCE] | 1517) Kleisthenes (Greek: ΚλεισθÎνης) (BCE c570-c508) creates democratic reform of the Athenian government, basing political responsibility on citizenship of a particular place instead of on membership in a family clan. The word "democracy" (Greek: δημοκÏατία - "rule by the people") is invented by Athenians in order to define their system of government around this time. The word Democracy comes from demos ("people") and kratos ("rule"). | Athens, Greece | |
2,500 YBN [500 BCE] | 825) Crossbow invested in China. | ||
2,500 YBN [500 BCE] | 831) Darius the Great, king of Persia, orders a 1,306 line inscription carved on a mountain in Behistan, Iran. This text is in 3 languages, Old Persian, Elamite, and Akkadian. This inscription will later be used in the 1800s to translate cuneiform. | ||
2,499 YBN [499 BCE] | 832) Hecataeus opposes the revolt of Greek cities of Asia Minor against Darius 1 of Persia. This advice is not followed, the Greek revolt is supressed, and the 150 year scientific leadership of the Greek cities of Asia Minor ends. | ||
2,490 YBN [490 BCE] | 789) Hanno (~530 BC Carthage near now called Tunis - ???), Cathaginian (A branch of the Phoenicians) Navigator, sails 60 ships with 3000 people, down the coast of Africa in order to start new settlements. Much of what is learned about Hanno is from an 18 sentence travel-record, or "Periplus" of this journey, from Herodotus, and Pliny the Elder. Herodotus will express doubts about the accuracy of Hanno's story, because of a report that in the far south the sun at noon was in the nothern half of the sky, which Herodotus will think is impossible, but is in fact true for the southern hemisphere of earth. This is strong evidence, taken together with the Periplus of Hanno's journey that Hanno is the first human to sail over the equator into the Southern Hemisphere. H erodotus declares that Hanno claimed to have circumnavigated Africa. | ||
2,470 YBN [470 BCE] | 840) Alcmaeon (oLKmEoN) (᾿Αλκμα 8055;ων) (~500 BC Croton, Italy - ???) is first to theorize that the brain is the center of wisdom, and emotions. Alcmaeon is the first human known to dissect the bodies of humans and other species. (check in ) Alcmaeon records the existence of the optic nerve and the tube connecting the ear and mouth, and distinguishes arteries from veins. Both Democritus and Hippocrates (and Plato and Philolaus ) will accept the idea that the brain is the center of wisdom and emotions, two generations later. This view of the brain as the center of emotions will not be accepted by Aristotle, who thinks the heart is the center of wisdom and emotions. This more accurate view of the brain as the center of wisdom and emotions was not popular for thousands of years, and many people even now still believe that the heart is the center of emotions, evidence of this is in the common expression "to feel something in your heart". These two tubes are now called the "Eustachian tubes", named after Eustachio, who will describe these tubes again 2000 years later. Alcmaeon lived in Croton during the height of Pythagarus' influence. There is evidence that Alcmaeon was not Pythagorean (for example, Aristotle writes a book on the Pythagoreans and a separate book on Alcmaeon), but the possibility exists that Alcmaeon was Pythagorean. Alcmaeon thought the human body was a microcosm, reflecting the macrocosm (universe). Alcmaeon distinguished arteries from veins, but did not recognize these as blood vessels, because veins and arteries are empty in dead people. (check, I find this hard to believe, where would the blood go?) Alcmaeon wrote at least one book, or which only fragments remain. Alcmaeon is the first to develop an argument for the immortality of the soul. | ||
2,470 YBN [470 BCE] | 907) Oenopides of Chios, measures the angle between the plane of the celestial equator, and the zodiac (the yearly path of the sun in the sky) to be 24°. This measures the tilt of the earth relative to the plane the earth moves in. | ||
2,468 YBN [468 BCE] | 837) A stony meteroite falls on the north shore of the Aegean. This may lead Anaxagarus to think planets, stars, and earth are made of the same materials, and that the sun was a flaming stone. | ||
2,464 YBN [464 BCE] | 836) Anaxagoras (~500 BC Clazomenae/Klazomenai 75 mi north of Miletus - ~428 BC Lampsacus now Lapseki Turkey) introduces Ionian science of Thales to Athens, saying that the universe was not made by a diety, but through the action of infinite "seeds", which will later develop into atomic theory under Leucippos. Anaxagoras accurately explains the phases of the earth moon, and both eclipses of moon and sun in terms of their movements. Anaxagoras says that the sun is a red hot stone and the moon a real place like the earth, not gods as is the prevailing belief. moves to Athens from Asia Minor (Turkey). Anaxagoras brought philosophy and the love of scientific inquiry from Ionia (and Thales) to Athens (as Pythagorus had to Italy). Anaxagoras was a rationalist (not a mystic like Pythagoras). Anaxagarus explained accurately the phases of the earth moon, and both eclipses of moon and sun in terms of their movements. Anaxagoras supports the opinion that the universe originated not by a diety but through the action of abstract mind on an infinite number of "seeds", seeds that were a form of atoms simultaneusly thought of by Leucippos. According to Anaxagoras "heavenly" bodies - planets, stars were brought in to existence by the same processes that formed the earth and that these bodies are made of the same materials. Anaxagoras says that the sun is a red hot stone and the moon a real place like the earth. Pericles learned to love and admire him, and the poet Euripides derived from him an enthusiasm for science and humanity. Some authorities assert that even Socrates was among his disciples. Anaxagoras thinks the sun to be an incandescent rock the size of the Peloponnesus (about the size of Massachussetts), and thinks the moon is like earth and might be inhabited. Anaxagoras teaches in Athens for 30 years, and the school formed by Anaxagoras starts the scholoarly tradition that lasts for 1000 years. An axagoras is said to have learned under Anaximenes, but more likely anaximenes sure to have been dead by the time Anaxagoras was born. | ||
2,460 YBN [460 BCE] | 835) Zeno (490? BCE, Elea now Velia south Italy - 430? BCE), is chief of "Eliatic School" (means "from Elea") in Athens and may have taught Pericles. The Eliatic humans teach the terribly false theory that senses are not useful for finding truth. Zeno made 4 paradoxes that were supposed to disprove the possiblity of motion as sensed. The most popular of these paradoxes is "Achilles and the tortoise", which is explained for example, by saying, if Achilles moves 10 times the speed of a tortoise, and the tortoise is 10 meters in front, Achilles will never catch the tortoise because when Achilles goes 10 meters, the tortoise has already moved 1 meter, by the time Achilles moves that 1 meter, the tortoise has moved 1/10 meter. This was supposed to be a paradox because humans usually view a fast object passing a slow object, so the human senses must be false. Although based on errors, the paradoxes will stimulate humans like Aristotle, who, for example, will give arguments against the paradoxes. Zeno bases these paradoxes on the idea that space and time are infinitely divisible, and this encourages laters humans like Democritus, into searching for indivisible objects and reaching the conclusion of atoms. This view did not win popularity until 2200 years later with Dalton. The argument Zeon made is obiously wrong, mainly because, this does not disprove motion, both objects are still moving. But also because people simply need to understand that even at 10 times the speed of an object, if the object is far enough ahead initially, the object will never be passed. | ||
2,460 YBN [460 BCE] | 841) Leukippos (Greek Λευκιπ` 0;ος ) (lEUKEPOS?) (Leucippus) (~490 BC Miletus -???) is the first person of record to support the theory that everything is composed entirely of various indestructable, indivisible elements called atoms. Leuk ippos represents the final part of science and logic in Asia Minor before the destruction of the coastal cities by humans from Persia. Leukippos teaches Democritos. Leukippos is the first person to say that every event has a natural cause. Leukippos is a contemporary of Zeno, Empedocles and Anaxagoras of the Ionian school of philosophy. The popularity of Leukippos will become so completely overshadowed by that of Democritus, who systematized his views on atoms, that years later Epicurus will doubt the very existence of Leukippos, according to Diogenes Laertius x. 7. However Aristotle and Theophrastus explicitly credit Leukippos with the invention of Atomism. The most famous among Leucippus' lost works were titled Megas Diakosmos (The Great Order of the Universe or The great world-system) and Peri Nou (On mind). Diogenes Laertius reports that he was a student of Parmenides' follower Zeno. Ar istotle certainly ascribes the foundation of the atomist system to Leucippus. Leucippus is sometimes said to have been the author of a work called the Great World-System; one surviving quotation is said to have come from a work On Mind. A single fragment of Leucippus survives. : "Nothi ng happens at random (maten), but everything from reason (ek logou) and by necessity." Leucippus is named by most sources as the originator of the theory that the universe consists of two different elements, which he called "the full" or "solid", and "the empty" or "void". Both the void and the solid atoms within it are thought to be infinite, and between them to constitute the elements of everything. Leucippus is reported to hold that the atoms are always in motion (DK 67A18). Aristotle criticizes him for not offering an account that says not only why a particular atom is moving (because it collided with another) but why there is motion at all. Because the atoms are indestructible and unchangeable, their properties presumably stay the same through all time. The argument for indivisible atoms is said to have been a response to Zeno's argument about the absurdities that follow if magnitudes are divisible to infinity. | ||
2,460 YBN [460 BCE] | 842) Empedocles (~490 Akragas (now Agrigento), Sicily - Mount Etna (?) ~430 bc) understands that the heart is the center of the blood vessel system. Empedocles thinks some organisms not adapted to life have died in the past. Empedocles unites the 4 elements (water, air, fire, earth) described by earlier people into a theory of the universe. Empedocles thought that objects formed and broke apart by forces similar to the human "love" and "strife", this idea will be taken by Aristotle, improved upon and remain the basis for chemistry for more than 2000 years. Empedicles gains an understanding of air by trying to fill a clepsydra (also called "water thief", a hollow brass sphere with a long tube) by holding a thumb on the hole which then prevents water from entering the spherical container. Empedocles is actively pro-democracy where he lives in the Greek city of Akragas in Sicily, and helps to overthrow a tyranny in Akragas. When offered the job of tyrant, Empedocles refuses because he wants more time for philosophy. Empedocles is known also as a physician, as well as a philosopher and poet. Empedocles is influenced by Pythagoras, shows some amount of mysticism, does not object to being called a prophet and miracle-worker, and is thought to bring dead humans back to life. Empedocles says on one day he would be taken up to heaven and made a god, and on that day he is supposed to have jumped into the crator of Mount Etna, although some people say he died in Greece. Empedocles combined the views of the schools of Asia Minor. Thales had water, Anaximenes had air, Heraclitus had fire, and Xeonphanes had earth as the main element of the universe and Empedocles combined these elements in his theory of the universe. His philosophical and scientific theories are mentioned and discussed in several dialogues of Plato, and they figure prominently in Aristotle's writings on physics and biology and, as a result, also in the later Greek commentaries on Aristotle's works. Diogenes Laertius devotes one of his Lives of Eminent Philosophers to him (VIII, 51-77). His writings have come down to us mostly in the form of fragments preserved as quotations in the works of these and other ancient authors. Extensive fragments, some of them not previously known, were recently found preserved on a papyrus roll from Egypt in the Strasbourg University library (see Martin and Primavesi 1999). Traditionally, Empedocles' writings were held to consist of two poems, in hexameter verse, entitled "On Nature" and "Purifications". Empedocles wrongly thought that the heart was the center of wisdom and emotion. Empedicles gains an understanding of air, (perhaps Empedocles is where the word "impedes" originates from) by trying to fill a clepsydra (also called "water thief", a hollow brass sphere with a long tube) by holding a thumb on the hole which then prevents water from entering the spherical container. Like Pythagoras, he believed in the transmigration of souls between humans and animals and followed a vegetarian lifestyle. Traditionally, Empedocles' writings were held to consist of two poems, in hexameter verse, entitled "On Nature" and "Purifications". The recently edited fragments of the Strasbourg papyrus, however, have led some to claim that the two were originally a single work. In any event, the papyrus does show the two to be thematically more closely related than previously thought. Nevertheless, the themes of the two parts (if they did belong to a single poem) are sufficiently distinct that separate treatment is appropriate here. Even if there is not a strict separation of the two themes, the first primarily concerns the formation, structure, and history of the physical world as a whole, and the formation of the animals and plants within it; the second concerns moral topics. | ||
2,460 YBN [460 BCE] | 1037) Diogenes of Apollonia, a Greek natural philosopher, expresses atheistic opinions. | ||
2,454 YBN [454 BCE] | 844) People in Metpontum burn the Pythagorean meeting place. Plutarch will relate that as a young man Philolaus was one of two people to escape this event. | ||
2,451 YBN [451 BCE] | 906) Protagoras (Greek: Πρωταγa 2;ρας) (c. 481-c. 420 BC) writes in "On the Gods", the agnostic view: "Concerning the gods, I have no means of knowing whether they exist or not or of what sort they may be, because of the obscurity of the subject, and the brevity of human life." The Athenians condemned him to death for this, but he escaped, and then perished, lost at sea. | ||
2,450 YBN [450 BCE] | 843) Philolaus (~480 BCE Tarentum or croton - ~385 BCE), the most recognized of the Pythagorian school after Pythagoras, theorizes that the earth was not the center of the universe but moves through space. Philolaus thinks the earth, moon, the other planets and sun circle a great fire in separate spheres, and that the sun is only a reflection of this fire. This is the first recorded idea that the earth moves thru space. Philolaus is the first to print Pythagorian views and make them available to the public. Because of persecutions, Philolaus temporarily moves to Thebes (on the Greek mainland). Instead of 9 spheres Philolaus made 10 (10 was viewed as a special number, one example is that 1+2+3+4=10). This is the first recorded idea that the earth moves thru space. When Copernicus claimed that the earth and planets move circling the sun, some people labeled this "Pythagorean heresy". Philolaus thought that the spheres of the planets made celestial music as they turned, and this theory persisted even to the time of Kepler. Philolaus is a contemporary of Socrates. Philolaus writes at least one book, "On Nature", which is probably the first book to be written by a Pythagorean. Of the 20+ fragments preserved in Philolaus' name, it is generally accepted that eleven of the fragments come from his genuine book. The other fragments come from books forged in Philolaus' name at a later date. Philolaus is a precursor of Aristarchos in moving the Earth from the center of the universe to a planet. Some view this theory as an attempt to explain physical phenomena, and others view this theory as a guess, or based on mystical reasons. Philolaus' genuine book was one of the major sources for Aristotle's account of Pythagorean philosophy. There is controversy as to whether or not Aristotle's description of the Pythagoreans as equating things with numbers is an accurate account of Philolaus' view. Plato mentions Philolaus in the Phaedo and adapts Philolaus' metaphysical scheme for his own purposes in the Philebus. Only one brief and not very reliable ancient life of Philolaus survives, that of Diogenes Laertius (VIII 84-5). Diogenes includes Philolaus among the Pythagoreans. Philolaus is one of the three most important figures in the ancient Pythagorean tradition, along with Pythagoras himself and Archytas. Th e central evidence for Philolaus' date is Plato's reference to him in the Phaedo (61d-e). Socrates' interlocutors (speaking in Socrates' defense), Simmias and Cebes, indicate that they were pupils of Philolaus in Thebes at some time before the dramatic date of the dialogue (399 BC). Philolaus of Tarentum (c. 480-400 B.C.) conceived of the Earth as a spherical body in motion around a central cosmic fire. He also postulated that the stars, the Sun, the Moon, and the five known planets -- Venus, Mercury, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn -- were spherical bodies. His Sun was not at the center; as the Earth revolved around the central fire once a day and the Moon once a month, the Sun moved around the same cosmic fire once a year. The other planets took even longer periods to orbit around the fire, while the sphere of the fixed stars was stationary. | ||
2,450 YBN [450 BCE] | 1033) The "twelve tables", the basis of law in Rome, are completed. These laws describe rules for property, crimes, marriage, divorce and funeral among other topics. | ||
2,450 YBN [450 BCE] | 1053) Earliest Chain-mail armor (rings of metal connected together) from a Celtic chieftain's burial in Ciumesti, Romania. | ||
2,450 YBN [450 BCE] | 1112) The Grand Canal (Simplified Chinese: 大运河; Traditional Chinese: 大運河; pinyin: Dà Yùnhé) of China, also known as the Beijing-Hangzhou Grand Canal (Simplified Chinese: 京杭大运河 ; Traditional Chinese: 京杭大運河 ; pinyin: Jīng Háng Dà Yùnhé), the largest ancient canal or artificial river on earth, is constructed at this time. | Yangzhou, Jiangsu, China | ![]() [1] Grand Canal of China. GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Kaiserkanal01.jpg |
2,438 YBN [438 BCE] | 823) The Parthenon is completed. | ||
2,434 YBN [434 BCE] | 839) Viewing Athens as not safe, Anaxagoras moves to Lampsacus. Meton continues astronomical research in Athens, but popular people in Athens turn from natural philosophy to moral philosophy. Anaxagoras dies 6 years later in 428 BCE. | ||
2,431 YBN [431 BCE] | 1372) Brahmanic hospitals are established in Sri Lanka. According to the Mahavamsa (a historical poem written in the Pāli language, of the kings of Sri Lanka), the ancient chronicle of Sinhalese royalty written in the 500s CE, King Pandukabhaya (300s BCE) had lying-in-homes and hospitals (Sivikasotthi-Sala) built in various parts of the country. This is the earliest documentary evidence there is of institutions specifically dedicated to the care of the sick anywhere in the world. Mihintale Hospital is perhaps the earliest hospital on earth. In ancient cultures, religion and medicine were linked. As early as 4000 BCE religions identified specific deities with healing. The earliest known institutions aiming to provide cure were Egyptian temples. Greek temples dedicated to the healer-god Asclepius might admit the sick, who would wait for guidance from the god in a dream. The Romans adopted this diety but using the name Æsculapius. Æsculapius was provided with a temple (291 BC) on an island in the Tiber in Rome, where similar rites were performed. | Sri Lanka | ![]() [1] Mihintale, Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka Mihintale and Missaka Pabatha is situated near to Anuradhapura in Sri Lanka GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Mihintale_missaka.jpg |
2,430 YBN [430 BCE] | 838) Anaxagarus is accused of impiety and atheism and brought to trial. Pericles faces people in court in defense of Anaxagoras, and Anaxagoras is freed (unlike Socrates a generation later). Anaxagoras is the first human of history to have a legal conflict with a state religion. The people in Athens cannot accept the rationalism of Anaxagoras (similar to the people of Croton to Pythagoras but with with mysticism). Anaxagoras was a friend of the most respected people in Athens, including Euripides (wrote plays), and Pericles. Some people claim that enemies of Pericles attempted to hurt Pericles through his friend Anaxagarus. | ||
2,430 YBN [430 BCE] | 845) Demokritos (Democritus) (Greek: Δημόκρ_ 3;τος) (~460 BC Abdera, thrace -~ 370 BC) in Abdera, elaborates on atomic theory of his teacher Leukippos. Demokritos thinks that the Milky Way was a vast group of tiny stars. Demokritos explains the motions of atoms as based on natural laws, not on the wants of gods or demons. Demokri tos thinks that the Milky Way was a vast group of tiny stars. Aristotle, argues against this. Democritus was among the first to propose that the universe contains many worlds, some of them inhabited: (both "world" and "universe" translate as "kosmos", but perhaps "kosmos" is also used to refer to planets?) "In some worlds there is no Sun and Moon, in others they are larger than in our world, and in others more numerous. In some parts there are more worlds, in others fewer (...); in some parts they are arising, in others failing. There are some worlds devoid of living creatures or plants or any moisture." Democritus traveled in egypt, and settled in Greece. He learned the rationist view from his teacher Leukippos of Miletus (Thales also from Miletus). Like all the early rationalist people some ideas have a modern sound. He lived in the shadow of Socrates, who rejected the universe as defined by Democritus. None of the 72 books written by Democritos has ever been found, humans only have records of Democritus from other people (often unfriendly). Widely called the "laughing philosopher", perhaps because he was cheerful, or because he laughed more than most people. Demokritos thinks that even the human mind and the gods (if any) were made of combinations of atoms. Each atom was different and explained the various properties of substances. Atoms of water were smooth and round so water flowed and had no shape, atoms of fire were thorny which made burns painful, atoms of earth rough and jagged so they held together to form a hard substance. Demokritos explains changes in nature and matter as the separating and joinging of atoms. These views are similar to Anaximander. One of the first mechanist people, saw universe as a mindless and determinate as a machine. the creation of the universe was the result of swirling motions set up in great numbers of atoms, forming worlds (planets?). Later people will chose to follow Socrates rather than Democritus, with the exception of Epicurus 100 years later, who will teach atomism. The atomists hold that there are smallest indivisible bodies, Demokritos called "atoma", which means "cannot be divided", from which everything else is composed, and that these move about in an infinite empty space. Democritus is said to have known Anaxagoras, and to have been forty years younger. Much of the best evidence is that reported by Aristotle, who regarded him as an important rival in natural philosophy. Aristotle wrote a monograph on Democritus, of which only a few passages quoted in other sources have survived. Democritus seems to have taken over and systematized the views of Leucippus, of whom little is known. Although it is possible to distinguish some contributions as those of Leucippus, the overwhelming majority of reports refer either to both figures, or to Democritus alone; the developed atomist system is often regarded as essentially Democritus'. Diogenes Laertius lists 70 works by Democritus on many fields, including ethics, physics, mathematics, music and cosmology. Two works, the "Great World System" ("Megas Diakosmos") and the "Little World System" ("Micros Diakosmos"), are sometimes ascribed to Democritus, although Theophrastus reports that the former is by Leucippus. Ancient sources describe atomism as one of a number of attempts by early Greek natural philosophers to respond to the challenge offered by Parmenides. Parmenides had argued that it is impossible for there to be change without something coming from nothing. Since the idea that something could come from nothing was generally agreed to be impossible, Parmenides argued that change is merely illusory. In response, Leucippus and Demokritus, along with other Presocratic pluralists such as Empedocles and Anaxagoras, developed systems that made change possible by showing that it does not require that something should come to be from nothing. These responses to Parmenides suppose that there are multiple unchanging material principles, which persist and merely rearrange themselves to form the changing world of appearances. In the atomist version, these unchanging material principles are indivisible particles, the atoms: the atomists are said to have taken the idea that there is a lower limit to divisibility to answer Zeno's paradoxes about the impossibility of traversing infinitely divisible magnitudes. The atomists held that there are two fundamentally different kinds of realities composing the natural world, atoms and void. Atoms, from the Greek adjective atomos or atomon, ‘indivisible," are infinite in number and various in size and shape, and perfectly solid, with no internal gaps. They move about in an infinite void, repelling one another when they collide or combining into clusters by means of tiny hooks and barbs on their surfaces, which become entangled. Other than changing place, they are unchangeable, ungenerated and indestructible. All changes in the visible objects of the world of appearance are brought about by relocations of these atoms: in Aristotelian terms, the atomists reduce all change to change of place. Macroscopic objects in the world that we experience are really clusters of these atoms; changes in the objects we see-qualitative changes or growth, say-are caused by rearrangements or additions to the atoms composing them. While the atoms are eternal, the objects compounded out of them are not. Clusters of atoms moving in the infinite void come to form kosmoi or worlds as a result of a circular motion that gathers atoms up into a whirl, creating clusters within it (DK 68B167); these kosmoi are impermanent. Our world and the species within it have arisen from the collision of atoms moving about in such a whirl, and will likewise disintegrate in time. The reports concerning Demokritus' ethical views indicate that Demokritus was committed to a kind of enlightened hedonism, in which the good was held to be an internal state of mind rather than something external to it. The good is given many names, amongst them euthymia or cheerfulness, as well as privative terms, e.g. for the absence of fear. Some fragments suggest that moderation and mindfulness in one's pursuit of pleasures is beneficial; others focus on the need to free oneself from dependence on fortune by moderating desire. Several passages focus on the human ability to act on nature by means of teaching and art, and on a notion of balance and moderation that suggests that ethics is conceived as an art of caring for the soul analogous to medicine's care for the body (Vlastos 1975, pp. 386-94). Others discuss political community, suggesting that there is a natural tendency to form communities. Although the evidence is not certain, Demokritus may be the originator of an ancient theory about the historical development of human communities. In contrast to the Hesiodic view that the human past included a golden age from which the present day is a decline, an alternative tradition that may derive from Demokritus suggests that human life was originally like that of animals; it describes the gradual development of human communities for purposes of mutual aid, the origin of language, crafts and agriculture. Although the text in question does not mention Demokritus by name, he is the most plausible source (Cole 1967; Cartledge 1997). Demokritus thought that many worlds were born and died, Demokritus argued by cutting an apple, that some material could not be cut/divided. | ||
2,430 YBN [430 BCE] | 847) Hippocrates (460 BCE Cos - ~370 BCE Larissa (now Larisa), Thessaly) founds a school of medicine on Cos that is the most science based of the time. Hippocrates will be recognized as the father of medicine, although other people (like Alcmaeon had practiced healing and were students of the human body). 50 books, called the Hippocratic collection, are credited to him, but are more likely collected works of several generations of his school, brought together in Alexandria in 200-300 BCE. The books contain a high order of logic, careful observation, and good conduct. Disease was viewed as a physical phenomenon, not credited to arrows of Apollo, or possession by demons. For example, epilepsy, was thought to be a sacred disease, because a human appeared to be in the grip of a god or demon, but in this school epilepsy was described as being caused by natural causes and thought to be curable by physical remedies, not by exorcism. There is much uncertainty, but Hippocrates was born of a family in a hereditary guild of magicians on the Isle of Cos, described to be descended from Asklepios, the Greek god of medicine. Visited Egypt early in life, there studied medical works credited to Imhotep. Some people claim that he was a student of Democritus. Hippocrates taught in Athens (and other places), before opening his own school of health in Cos. "desperate diseases require desperate remedies", "one man's meat is another man's poison" are two quotes from this text. The people in the school taught moderation of diet, cleanliness and rest for sick or wounded (and also clenliness for physicians), that the physician should interfere as little as possible in the healing process of nature (excellent advice for the amount of info learned at that time). For the most part, disease was thought to be the result of an imbalance of the vital fluids ("humors") of the body, an idea first advanced by Empedocles. These were listed as four: blood, phlegm, black bile and yellow bile. A statue found on Cos in 1933 is thought to be of Hippocrates. Humans that graduate with a "medical" degree must still repeat the oath credited to Hippocrates (although repeating oaths is stupid, and few if any actually people actually follow this advice of do no harm, in particular in psychiatric hospitals). | ||
2,430 YBN [430 BCE] | 910) Diagoras "the Atheist" of Melos, a Greek poet and sophist, becomes an atheist after an incident that happens against him that goes unpunished by the gods. He speaks out against the orthodox religions, and criticizes the Eleusinian Mysteries. Diagoras throws a wooden image of a god into a fire, saying that the deity should perform another miracle and save itself. The Athenians put a price on his capture, dead or alive, and he flees, living the rest of his life in southern Greece. | ||
2,410 YBN [410 BCE] | 849) Meton (~440BC Athens - ???) finds that 235 lunar months (moon rotations of earth) are close to 19 earth years, so if there are 12 years of 12 lunar months, and 7 years of 13 lunar months, every 19 years the lunar calendar would match the seasons. This will come to be called the "Metonic cycle" (although probably recognized by astonomers in Babylonia before this time). The Greek calendar will be based on the Metonic cycle until 46 BCE when the Julian calendar will be made by Julius Caesar with the help of Sosigenes. This cycle can be used to predict eclipses, forms the basis of the Greek and Jewish calendars, and is used to determine the date for Easter each year. A year of 12 synodic or lunar months is 354 days on average, 11 days short of the 365.25 day solar year. The Athenians appear not to have had a regular way of adding a 13th month; instead, the question of when to add a month was decided by an official. | ||
2,408 YBN [408 BCE] | 1138) Aristophanes (Greek: Ἀριστο 66;άνης) (c.448 BCE - c.385 BCE) a Greek comedy playwriter, questions the idea of Gods in {cannot find play} by writing "Shrines! Shrines! Surely you don't believe in the gods. What's your argument? Where's your proof?" and in the comedy play "Knights": "Demosthenes: Of which statue? Any statue? Do you then believe there are gods? Nicias: Certainly. Demosthenes: What proof have you?" Although in the comedy "Clouds", Aristophanes paints Ionian science in a bad light through a portrayal of Socrates encouraging young people to beat their parents. But perhaps even then, people paid for such a message to be read during a play (now newspapers, magazines, television and movies accept money for such messages), and money for propaganda, a very old (albeit secretive) system, may have influence Aristophanes even then. | Athens, Greece | ![]() [1] Aristophanes - Project Gutenberg eText 12788 The Project Gutenberg EBook of Library Of The World's Best Literature, Ancient And Modern, Vol. 2, by Charles Dudley Warner http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1 2788 PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Aristophanes_-_Project_Gutenberg_eTex t_12788.png |
2,399 YBN [399 BCE] | 846) Sokrates (Greek: Σωκράτ_ 1;ς) SO-Kro-TES? (~470 BC Athens - 399 BC Athens) is sentenced to death and forced to end his own life, charged with impiety, (failure to show due piety toward the gods of Athens, "asebia" greek: ασέβει^ 5;) and of corrupting Athenian youth through his teachings. One major issue with Sokrates is his opinion on democracy. Plato clearly is anti-democracy, but Sokrates appears to defend Athenian democracy with his military service, is friends with a Democratic general, and accepts the democratic decision of the jury instead of chosing to escape. Another issue is Sokrates support for science. Clearly "The Clouds", written by Aristophanes in 423 BCE, paints Sokrates in the tradition of science and learning, and warns of the dangers of free thought. But there are clearly no recorded scientific contributions from Sokrates, and his life appears to revolve around conversation mainly centered on ethics, although Sokrates can be possibly credited with atheism. Clearly there is friction between the traditional belief in gods and the newer belief in science which is associated with logic and atheism. Anaxagoras was persecuted for atheism, in Athens, 31 years earlier, in 430 BCE. Another central issue is the conflict between the educated and the uneducated, in the case of Plato, blame is placed on Democracy for the brutality and stupidity of the majority, instead of on stupidity and lack of education itself. Isaac Asimov claims that this will have a profound effect on science, and that it is surprising that the Greek people failed in science after such an excellent start with Thales, Demokritos, Eratosthenes, Aristarchos and Archimedes. Asimov claims that there are other factors, but one cause was the popularity of the views of Socrates (Carl Sagan relates the origin of these views to Pythagorus), typing that the largest part of Greek wisdom was focused into the field of moral philosophy, while natural philosophy (now called science) became less popular. The execution of Socrates by the democrat humans is upsetting to Plato. Plato leaves Athens saying until "kings are philosphers or philosophers are kings" nothing would be good on earth. (Plato traces his descent from earlier kings of Athens and perhaps has himself in mind). For several years, he visits the greek cities in Africa and Italy. Eunapius (346-414 CE) writes "So it was just as in the time of the renowned Socrates, when no one of all the Athenians, even though they were a democracy, would have ventured on that accusation and indictment of one whom all the Athenians regarded as a walking image of wisdom, had it not been that in the drukenness, insanity, and license of the Dionysia and the night festival, when light laughter and careless and dangerous emotions are discovered among men, Aristophanes first introduced ridicule into their corrupted minds, and by setting dances upon the stage won over the audience to his views; for he made mock of that profound wisdom by describing the jumps of fleas {an allusion to "Clouds"}, and depicting the shapes and forms of clouds, and all those other absurd devices to which comedy resorts in order to raise a laugh. When they saw that the audience in the theatre was inclined to such indulgence, certain men set up an accusation and ventured on that impious indictment against him; and so the death of one man brought misfortune on the whole state. For if one reckons from the date of Socrates' violent death, we may conclude that after it nothing brilliant was ever again achieved by the Athenians, but the city gradually decayed and because of her decay the whole of Greece was ruined along with her." | ![]() [1] From http://hypernews.ngdc.noaa.gov This image is in the public domain because its copyright has expired in the United States and those countries with a copyright term of life of the author plus 100 years or less. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Socrates.png ![]() [2] The Death of Socrates, by Jacques-Louis David (1787) The two-dimensional work of art depicted in this image is in the public domain in the United States and in those countries with a copyright term of life of the author plus 100 years. This photograph of the work is also in the public domain in the United States (see Bridgeman Art Library v. Corel Corp.). PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Socratesdeath.jpg | |
2,398 YBN [398 BCE] | 850) Archytas (greek: Αρχύτα` 2;) (428 BC - 347 BC), third most recognized Pythagorean, solves problem of "doubling a cube". Archytas is taught for a while by Philolaus and is a teacher of mathematics to Eudoxus of Cnidus, and Menaechmus. Archytas was a scientist of the Pythagorean school and famous for being a good friend of Plato. Sometimes he is believed to be the founder of mathematical mechanics. He is also reputed to have designed and built the first artificial, self-propelled flying device, a bird-shaped model propelled by a jet of what was probably steam, said to have actually flown some 200 yards. This machine, which its inventor called The Pigeon, may have been suspended on a wire or pivot for its flight. If true this is the first use of steam to move an object, and this will not be duplicated until Hero 400 years later. | ![]() [1] Bust of Archita, Greek philosopher, politician and scientist. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Architabr.jpg ![]() [2] Archytas PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Archytas.jpeg | |
2,390 YBN [390 BCE] | 909) Aristippus, a follower of Socrates, founds the Cyrenaic school of philosophy. Aristippus supports the pursuit of pleasure and avoidance of pain, usually refered to negativly as "hedonism". Cyrene was a Greek city in Northern Africa in modern day Libya. Aristippus breaks social conventions and engages in behavior considered undignified or shocking for the sake of pleasure. The Cyrenaic school will developed these ideas and influence Epicurus and later Greek skeptics. Aristippus accepts money for instruction as the Sophists do. They also incorrectly reject the idea of postponing immediate gratification for future or long term pleasure. In this respect they will differ from the Epicureans. The main source of information about Aristippus is from is the "Lives of the Philosophers" by Diogenes Laertius, who wrote over 500 years after Aristippus died. | ||
2,387 YBN [387 BCE] | 851) Plato (Greek: Πλάτων, Plátōn, "wide, broad-shouldered") (~427BC Athens - 347 BC Athens) founds a school in western Athens on a piece of land once owned by a legendary Greek human named "Academus", and so this school comes to be called "The Academy", and this word will eventually generally apply to any school. The Academy will be a center for science and education for 900 years until 529 CE. Plato is an Athethian aristocrat (of the ruling class or nobility) whose original name is "Aristocles", but he gets the nick name "Platon" (meaning "broad") because of his broad shoulders. (Cicero also was a nick name). Plato is in the "war service" (tph military?) and is interested in politics, but rejects Athenian democracy. In this year, Plato returned to Athens. (on the way to Athens, Plato is supposed to have been captured by pirates and held for ransom). The Academy has shrine to the muses (mouseion) and is viewed as a religious organisation by the government. Plato stayed at the Academy for the rest of his life, except for 2 years in the 360s, when he visited Syracuse, the main city of Greek Sicily, to tutor the new king Dionysius II. Dionysius II appeared brutal, and Plato returned safely to Athens. Plato is supposed to have died in his sleep at the age of 80 after attending a wedding feast of a student. Writing credited to Plato are consistently popular and are of a series of dialogues between Socrates and others. Most of what is known about Socrates is from these texts. Like Socrates, Plato was mainly interested in moral philosophy and hated natural philosophy (science). To Plato, knowledge had no practical purpose. Plato liked mathematics, perhaps because the perfection of math, the loftiest form of pure thought, was different from the reality of the universe (viewed as "gross" and imperfect). Above the main doorway to the academy were the words in Greek: "Let no one ignorent of mathematics enter here." Plato did think that math could be applied to the universe. The planets, he thought, exhibited perfect geometric form. This is in Timaeus. He describes the 5 and only 5 perfect solids, those objects with equal faces, lines and angles. (4 sided tetrahedron, six sided hexahedron (or cube), 8 sided octahedron, 12 sided dodecahedron, and 20 sided icosahedron. 4 of the 5 represented the 4 elements, while the dodecahdron represented the whole universe. These solids were first discovered by the Pythagoreans. Plato thought the planets were spheres and moved in circles along the crystalline spheres that held them in place. The idea that the universe must reflect the perfection of abstract mathematics was most popular until Kepler, even though compromises with reality had to be made constantly, beginning after the death of Plato with Eudoxus and Callippus. In Timaeus, Plato invented a moralistic story of a completely fictional land called "Atlantis". This legend has had unending popularity and has persisted to now. One Aegean island exploded vocanically in 1400 BC and this may have given rise to this story. The views of Plato had a strong influence on Christian people until the 1200s when Aristotle gained more popularity. Carl Sagan states that: "Plato and his followers separated the earth from the "heavens" (the rest of the universe), Plato taught contempt for the real world and disdain for the practical application of science. Plato served tyrants, and taught the separation of the body from the mind, a natural enough idea in a slave society." and that "{Plato} preferred the perfection of these mathematical abstractions to the imperfections of everyday life. He believed that ideas were far more real than the natural world. He advised the astronomers not to waste their time observing the stars and planets. It was better, he believed, to just think about them. Plato expressed hostility to observation and experiment. He taught contempt for the real world and disdain for the practical application of scientific knowledge. Plato's followers succeeded in extinguishing the light of science and experiment that had been kindled by Democritus and the other Ionians. Plato's unease with the world as revealed by the senses was to dominate and stifle Western philosophy. Even as late as 1600, Johannes Kepler was still struggling to interpret the structure of the Cosmos in terms of Pythagorean solids and Platonic perfections." I am not sure that we should fully blame Pythagoras and Plato for the collapse of science, as much as we should the tradition of religion that came long before them. But clearly the support of these incorrect views by a majority of later intellectuals shows large scale bad judgement. The popularity of Plato is a mystery since Plato did not make one contribution to science. Sagan says that this popularity is because the views of Plato justify a corrupt social order, where I think that this popularity was simply a mistaken belief. In addition the Academy served as a center for science and education until 529 CE. In "The Republic", one of the earliest and most influential books on political theory, Plato presents a plan for the ideal society and government. Plato disliked Athenian democracy. It was the leaders of the Athenian democracy that had sentenced his teacher to die for seeking truth and wisdom. Plato preferred Sparta's model of government. In Sparta, the needs of the state (country) were put above the individual. Serving the government was more important than achieving personal goals. Plato believed that too much personal freedom led to disorder and chaos. Athens was a primary example of this disorder. " Plato wanted only the most intelligent and best-educated citizens to participate in government. He divided people into three classes: workers to produce life's necessities, soldiers to defend the people, and specially trained leaders to govern the state (country). The specially trained leaders would be an elite class that included both men and women. The wisest of all would be a philosopher-king with ultimate authority. The philosopher-king would be well educated to make decisions for the good of all the people." "Rather than being remembered for a specific model of the Universe it was his views on its nature, put forward in his dialogue Timaeus, that were to so strongly influence subsequent generations. To Plato the Universe was perfect and unchanging. Stars were eternal and divine, embedded in an outer sphere. All heavenly motions were circular or spherical as the sphere was the perfect shape. Such was his influence that the concept of circular paths was not challenged until Kepler, after many years of painstaking calculations, discovered the elliptical orbits of planets nearly 2,000 years later." | ||
2,378 YBN [378 BCE] | 854) Eudoxus (Greek Εύδοξο` 2;) (~408 BC Cnidus (now Turkish coast) - ~355 bc Cnidus) is the first Greek human to realize that the year is not exactly 365 days, but 6 hours more. Egyptians were already aware of this and Eudoxus may have gotten this idea from Egypt. Eudoxus draws a map of earth better than the map of Hecataeus. Eudoxus is first greek human to try to map stars. Eudoxus divides the sky in to degrees of latitude and longitude, a system that is eventually applied to the earth. Eudoxus is at the Acadamy, and then later creates his own school in Cyzicus on Northwest coast of Turkey. Eudoxus visited Plato. Eudoxus is the first to try to save the appearances of the Plato (Pythagorean?) theory of planets moving on spheres. | ![]() [1] A pupil of Plato, Eudoxus elaborated a geocentric model composed of crystalline spheres, incorporating the Platonic ideal of uniform circular motion. System of 27 Spheres: * 1 for the fixed stars * 3 each for the Sun and Moon * 4 each for the 5 planets Spheres within spheres in perfect circular motion combine to give retrograde motions. Spheres within Spheres (Click on the image to view at full scale [Size: 20Kb]) 4 Spheres for each planet: * One was aligned with the celestial poles, turning once a day to give rising & setting. * Second was tilted 23.5º, rotated slowly in the opposite direction to give the usual west-to-east drift of the planets relative to the fixed stars. * Third & Fourth were introduced to produce the periodic retrograde motions of the planets. All were in uniform circular motion about their axes. COPYRIGHTED EDU source: http://www-astronomy.mps.ohio-st ate.edu/~pogge/Ast161/Unit3/greek.html | |
2,370 YBN [370 BCE] | 883) Hiketis (c. 400 BCE - c. 335 BCE) (῾Ικέτη& #962;), and fellow Pythagorean Ekfantos (Έκφαντ 59;ς) (400 BCE) are the first to theorize that the earth turns on its own axis. Herakleitos will adopt this theory. | ||
2,366 YBN [366 BCE] | 858) Aristotle (Ancient Greek: Αριστο` 4;έλης Aristotélēs (BCE 384 - March 7, 322) is a pupil of Plato at the Academy until the age of 37 (347 BCE). Plato calls Aristotle the "intelligence" of the school. Aristotle studies biology and natural history. | ![]() [1] Description 16th century painting of Alexander the Great, lowered in a glass diving bell Source NOAA Photo Library, Image ID: nur09514, National Undersearch Research Program (NURP) Collection Date 2006-13-01 (upload) Author Credit: OAR/National Undersea Research Program (NURP); ''Seas, Maps and Men'' PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Alexander_the_Great_diving_NOAA.jpg ![]() [2] Description: Diving bell, Marinmuseum (Naval museum), Karlskrona, Sweden Source: Image taken by Henrik Reinholdson CC source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:L-Taucherglocke.png | |
2,366 YBN [366 BCE] | 859) Aristotle (Ancient Greek: Αριστο` 4;έλης, Aristotélēs) (ArESTOTeLAS?) opens his own school in Athens, called the Lyceum (Λύκειο 57;, Lykeion) (lIKEoN?). Aristotle classifies 500 species, and dissectes nearly 50, correctly classifying dolphins with species of the field, not with fish. Aristotle puts forward the first theory of gravity, claiming that heavy objects go down and incoreectly that light objects go up. Aristotle founds school called Lyceum, because aristotle lectured in a hall near temple to Apollo Lykaios (Apollo, wolf god), also called the "Peripatetic School" because Aristotle some times lectured while walking through the gardens of the school. Aristotle makes an early university library of manuscripts (papyri?). Aristotle founds the science of logic. Aristotle classifies 500 species, and dissectes nearly 50. Interested in sea life, Aristotle finds that dolphins are born alive and nourished by a placenta. No fish has a placenta but mammals do, and Aristotle correctly classifies dolphins with species of the field, not with fish. Aristotle also studied viviparous sharks, born with no placenta. Aristotle notes that torpedo fish stun other fish (with electricity). Aristotle is wrong in denying gender to plants. He studies the embryo of chicken, and the stomach of a cow. He thinks incorrectly that the heart is center of life and thinks the brain is only a cooling organ for the blood. Aristotle accepts the spheres of Eudoxus and Callipus and added more spheres to make 54 spheres in total. Aristotle thinks these spheres are real where Eudoxus probably thought they were imaginary. Aristotle accepts the 4 elements of Empedocles but only on earth, and adds a 5th element of "aether" for the heavens. This theory of aether will continue until the Michaelson-Morley experiment proves that no aether exists 2000 years later. Aristotle agrees with Pythagoreans that that laws of the heavens and earth were separate. Aristotle thinks that heavier object fall faster than lighter objects (technically, wrong for small everyday objects near earth, but true in principle for 3 similar mass objects. A heavier object will reach a second object faster than a lighter object will when all 3 objects are similar masses, because the heavier object will pull the other mass closer faster than the lighter object. For us earth bound people, common mass objects like rocks will not be massive enough to move the earth closer to them, and so therefore reach the earth at the same time.). Aristotle rejects the atoms of Leukippos and Democritos, dooming that idea for thousands of years, although Aristotle agrees with Pythagoras that the earth is a sphere. Aristotle found the science of zoology (the study of all living objects, biology). Aristotle thinks that sound travelled as impacts in air and could not exist without air. Following Plato's example, Aristotle gives regular instruction in philosophy in a gymnasium dedicated to Apollo Lyceios, from which his school will come to be known as the Lyceum. The school is also called the Peripatetic School because Aristotle preferred to discuss problems of philosophy with his pupils while walking up and down (peripateo), the shaded walks (peripatoi) around the gymnasium. Aristotelian philosophy then depended upon the assumption that man's mind could elucidate all the laws of the universe, based on simple observation (without experimentation) through reason alone. During the thirteen years (335 BC-322 BC) which Aristotle spends as teacher of the Lyceum, he composes most of his writings. Imitating Plato, Aristotle writes "Dialogues" in which his doctrines were expounded in somewhat popular language. He also composes the several treatises on sciences, logic, metaphysics, and ethics, in which the language is more technical than in the Dialogues. These writings succeeded in bringing together the works of his predecessors in Greek philosophy, and how he pursued, either personally or through others, his investigations in the realm of natural phenomena. Pliny will claim that Alexander placed under Aristotle's orders all the hunters, fishermen, and fowlers of the royal kingdom and all the overseers of the royal forests, lakes, ponds and cattle-ranges, and Aristotle's works on zoology make this statement believable. Aristotle was fully informed about the doctrines of his predecessors, and Strabo will assert that he was the first to accumulate a great library. During the last years of Aristotle's life the relations between him and Alexander became very strained, owing to the disgrace and punishment of Callisthenes, whom Aristotle had recommended to Alexander. Nevertheless, Aristotle continued to be regarded at Athens as a friend of Alexander and a representative of Macedonia. Consequently, when Alexander's death became known in Athens, and the outbreak occurred which led to the Lamian war, Aristotle shared in the general unpopularity of the Macedonians. The charge of impiety, which had been brought against Anaxagoras and Socrates, was now brought against Aristotle. He left the city, saying, "I will not allow the Athenians to sin twice against philosophy" (Vita Marciana 41). He took up residence at his country house at Chalcis, in Euboea, and there he died the following year, 322 BC. His death was due to a disease, reportedly 'of the stomach', from which he had long suffered. Aristotle's legacy also had a profound influence on Islamic thought and philosophy during the middle ages. Muslim thinkers such as Avicenna, Farabi, and Yaqub ibn Ishaq al-Kindi were a few of the major proponents of the Aristotelian school of thought during the Golden Age of Islam. Though we know that Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises (Cicero described his literary style as "a river of gold"), the originals have been lost in time. All that we have now are the literary notes of his pupils, which are often difficult to read (the Nicomachean Ethics is a good example). It is now believed that we have about one fifth of his original works. Aristotle underestimated the importance of his written work for humanity. He thus never published his books, only his dialogues. The story of the original manuscripts of his treatises is described by Strabo in his Geography and Plutarch in his "Parallel Lives, Sulla": The manuscripts were left from Aristotle to Theophrastus, from Theophrastus to Neleus of Scepsis, from Neleus to his heirs. Their descendants sold them to Apellicon of Teos. When Sulla occupied Athens in 86 BC, he carried off the library of Appellicon to Rome, where they were first published in 60 BC from the grammarian Tyrranion of Amisus and then by philosopher Andronicus of Rhodes. Aristotle did not like the idea of atoms that Democritos had thought about. If matter was made up of tiny particles there must be spaces between them, spaces that would have nothing in them - a vacuum. Aristotle's refusal to accept the possibility that a vacuum could exist came from his ideas about forces. He said that non-living objects could have "natural" or "forced" motion. The natural motion of earth and water was downwards because they had "gravity" while air and fire always rose because they had "levity". An object was given forced motion when it was thrown into the air and Aristotle concluded that the speed of an object depended on the force acting on it - no force, no speed. Arostotle writes "History of Animals". Though we know that Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises (Cicero described his literary style as "a river of gold"), the originals have been lost in time. All that we have now are the literary notes of his pupils, which are often difficult to read (the Nicomachean Ethics is a good example). It is now believed that we have about one fifth of his original works. Aristotle underestimates the importance of his written work for humanity. He thus never publishes his books, only his dialogues. The story of the original manuscripts of his treatises is described by Strabo in his "Geography" and Plutarch in his "Parallel Lives, Sulla": The manuscripts were left from Aristotle to Theophrastos, from Theophrastos to Neleus of Scepsis, from Neleus to his heirs. One of Neleus' descendents (it is unknown who), digs up the buried scrolls and sells them for a large sum in gold to a bibliophile, Apellicon of Teos. Apellicon of Teos makes a 'botched up' edition titled the 'Lost Texts of Aristotle'. When Sulla occupies Athens in 86 BCE, he will carry off the library of Appellicon to Rome. The grammarian Tyrannion of Amisus in Rome, friend of Atticus and Cicero, obtains the scrolls on loan, gives up on making his own compiled edition and entrusts the project to Andronicus of Rhodes, who subdivides the treatises into books. The originals are returned to Sulla's library. This edition of the texts of Aristotle will be published in 60 BCE. Faustus is the son of the Emperor Sulla, and Pompey's son-in-law. The cultural elite go to Faustus' house to consult these precious texts of Aristotle. Cicero writes a letter to Atticus about the delight of Faustus' library. To pay off debts, Faustus sells the scrolls of Aristotle, and they have never been located since. Much of this story comes from Strabo who was presumably a pupil of Tyrannion of Amisus. | ||
2,357 YBN [357 BCE] | 856) Herakleitos (Heracleides) (Ηράκλε 53;τος) (387 BCE- 312 BCE) adopts the view of two Pythagoreans, Hiketos and Ekfantos, in theorizing that the earth rotates on its own axis. Herakleitos thinks that the planets Mercury and Venus orbit the sun (although putting the earth at the center of the universe). Herakleitos speculates that the universe was infinite, each star being a world in itself, composed of an earth and other planets. Herakleitos learns in Plato's Academy. Herakleitos wrote on astronomy and geometry and thought the earth possibly rotated. Aristarchus took this idea, but the support Hipparchus gives for the earth centered theory was more popular. Heraclides' father was Euthyphron, a wealthy nobleman who sent him to study at the Academy in Athens under its founder Plato and under his successor Speusippus, though he also studied with Aristotle. According to the Suda, Plato, on his departure for Sicily in 360 BCE, left his pupils in the charge of Heraclides. Speusippus, before his death in 339 BCE, had chosen Xenocrates as his successor but Xenocrates narrowly triumphed in an ensuing election against Heraclides and Menedemus. A punning on his name, dubbing him Heraclides "Pompicus," suggests he may have been a rather vain and pompous man and the target of much ridicule. However, Heraclides seems to have been a versatile and prolific writer on philosophy, mathematics, music, grammar, physics, history and rhetoric, notwithstanding doubts about attribution of many of the works. It appears that he composed various works in dialogue form. The main source of this biographical welter is the collection by Diogenes Laërtius. Like the Pythagoreans Hicetas and Ecphantus, Heraklitos proposed that the apparent daily motion of the stars was created by the rotation of the Earth on its axis once a day. According to a late tradition, he also believed that Venus and Mercury revolve around the Sun. This would mean that he anticipated the Tychonic system, an essentially geocentric model with heliocentric aspects. However, the tradition is almost certainly due to a misunderstanding, and it is unlikely that Heraklitos, or his Pythagorean predecessors, advocated a variation on the Tychonic system. Of particular significance to historians is his statement that fourth century Rome was a Greek city. The theory of homocentric spheres failed to account for two sets of observations: (1) brightness changes suggesting that planets are not always the same distance from the Earth, and (2) bounded elongations (i.e., Venus is never observed to be more than about 48° and Mercury never more than about 24° from the Sun). Heracleides of Pontus (4th century BC) attempted to solve these problems by having Venus and Mercury revolve about the Sun, rather than the Earth, and having the Sun and other planets revolve in turn about the Earth, which he placed at the centre. In addition, to account for the daily motions of the heavens, he held that the Earth rotates on its axis. Heracleides' theory had little impact in antiquity except perhaps on Aristarchus of Samos (3rd century BC), who apparently put forth a heliocentric hypothesis similar to the one Copernicus was to propound in the 16th century. | ![]() [1] Ηράκλε_ 3;τος (~544 - 483 π.Χ.) COPYRIGHTED GREECE source: http://sfr.ee.teiath.gr/historia /historia/important/html/images/Heraklit .jpg | |
2,347 YBN [347 BCE] | 853) Plato dies and leaves Heracleides in charge of the Academy. Aristotle leaves the Academy. Aristotle meets Theophrastus in Lesbos, and a lifelog friendship is started. Aristotle gives the nickname "Theophrastus" (divine speech) to Theophrastus whose real name is Tyrtamus. | ||
2,342 YBN [342 BCE] | 857) Aristotle is called to Macedon. the Son of Amyntas II, Phillip II is King of Macedon, and wants Aristotle back in court to teach his 14 year old son Alexander. | ||
2,340 YBN [340 BCE] | 801) Papyrus scroll, the Derveni papyrus, in Greece. | ||
2,336 YBN [336 BCE] | 868) Phillip II is killed. Aristotle moves back to Athens, and Alexander III (Alexander the Great) starts to take over the Persian empire. Aristotle sends his nephew Callisthenes as historian. | ||
2,332 YBN [332 BCE] | 921) One story has Alexander planning the city with his best advisors, and laying out the city in either seeds or flower. When a large flock of birds eat the seeds, Alexander thinks this is a bad omen, but his advisors tell him that this means the city will serve many people from all over {try to find source of exact story}. This story has Alexander commanding that there be a library dedicated to the Muses built in Alexandria. It is possible that the mouseion was built starting now, and much of the city was constructed by the time Ptolemy arrives to rule 9 years later in 323 BCE. | ||
2,325 YBN [325 BCE] | 865) Dikaearchos (Δικαια 61;χος) (DIKEoRKOS) (Dicaearchus) (~355 BCE - ~285 BCE) makes geometric constructions of a hyperbola and a parabola, is among the first to use geographical coordinates (latitude and longitude). | ||
2,325 YBN [325 BCE] | 887) Pytheas PitEoS (Πυθέας) (380 BCE Massalia {now Marseille France}- 310) sails to Great Britain and possibly Iceland. Pytheas is the first person to explain tides as happening because of the influence of the moon, is the first person to show that the North star was not exactly at the pole and makes a small circle in a day. Pythias describes the Midnight Sun (the Sun is visible for 24 hours), the aurora and Polar ice, and is the first person to mention the name "Britannia" and Germanic tribes. Pytheas lives in the western most Greek colonized city, and sails west (where everybody else in greek colonized cities moved east) through the Pillars of Hercules (the Strait of Gibraltar) and up the nothern coast of europe. None of his writings have been found, but he will be referenced by later humans. He explores the island of Great Britain, sails north to "Thule" (possibly Iceland, or islands north of Great Britain) is stopped by fog and turned back to explore Northern Europe, by sailing the Baltic sea as far as the Vistula (Wisla river). Pytheas follows the teachings of Dicaerchus and determines the latitude of Massalia by observing the sun. Pytheas observes the tides in the ocean (there are no tides in the land that surround the Mediterranean). Only 2000 years later would Newton explain the attaction of the moon. | ||
2,323 YBN [323 BCE] | 862) After Aristotle moves to Chalcis, Aristotle choses Theofrastos (Theophrastus) (Greek: Θεόφρα` 3;τος) (tEOFrASTOS?) (~372 BC Eresus, Lesbos - 287 Athens) to preside over the Peripatetic school, which he does for thirty-five years. The Lyceum maintains it's highest quality under Theophrastos. Theophrastos describes over 500 species of plants and is the founder of botony, the study of plants. Theophrastus is charged with asebeia (atheism) but acquitted by a jury in Athens. Aristotle in his will made him guardian of his children, bequeathed to him his library and the originals of his works, and designated him as his successor at the Lyceum on his own removal to Chalcis. Eudemus of Rhodes also had some claims to this position, and Aristoxenus is said to have resented Aristotle's choice. Theophrastus presided over the Peripatetic school for thirty-five years, and died in 287 BC. Under his guidance the school flourished greatly; there were at one period more than 2000 students, and at his death he bequeathed to it his garden with house and colonnades as a permanent seat of instruction. Menander was among his pupils. His popularity was shown in the regard paid to him by Philip, Cassander and Ptolemy, and by the complete failure of a charge of impiety brought against him. He was honoured with a public funeral, and "the whole population of Athens, honouring him greatly, followed him to the grave" (Diogenes Laërtius v41). From the lists of the ancients it appears that the activity of Theophrastus extended over the whole field of contemporary knowledge. His writing probably differed little from the Aristotelian treatment of the same themes, though supplementary in details. He served his age mainly as a great popularizer of science. The most important of his books are two large botanical treatises, "On the History of Plants", in nine books (originally ten), and On the Causes of Plants, in six books (originally eight), which constitute the most important contribution to botanical science during antiquity and the middle ages; on the strength of these works some call him the "father of Taxonomy". We also possess in fragments a History of Physics, a treatise On Stones, and a work On Sensation, and certain metaphysical Airoptai, which probably once formed part of a systematic treatise. He made the first known reference to the phenomenon of pyroelectricity, noting in 314 BC that the mineral tourmaline becomes charged when heated. Various smaller scientific fragments have been collected in the editions of JG Schneider (1818-21) and F. Wimmer (1842-62) and in Usener's Analecta Theophrastea. His book The Characters deserves a separate mention. The work consists of brief, vigorous and trenchant delineations of moral types, which contain a most valuable picture of the life of his time. They form the first recorded attempt at systematic character writing. The book has been regarded by some as an independent work; others incline to the view that the sketches were written from time to time by Theophrastus, and collected and edited after his death; others, again, regard the Characters as part of a larger systematic work, but the style of the book is against this. | ||
2,323 YBN [323 BCE] | 863) Aristotle is charged with "impiety" (lack of respect for gods, atheism) and leaves Athens. The charge of impiety, which had been brought against Anaxagoras and Socrates, was now brought against Aristotle. He leaves Athens saying, "I will not allow the Athenians to sin twice against philosophy" (Vita Marciana 41). He takes up residence at his country house at Chalcis, where his mother had lived, in Euboea, and there he dies the following year, 322 BC. His death was due to a disease, reportedly 'of the stomach', from which he had long suffered. After the death of Alexander, the anti-Macedonian party accuses Aristotle of impiety. With the example of Socrates behind him, Aristotle escapes to Chalcis in Euboea, where he dies in the same year. | ||
2,323 YBN [323 BCE] | 864) Callippus (Καλλιπ 60;ος) KAL lEP POS? (~370 BCE Cyzicus - ~ 300 BCE) makes a more accurate measurement of the solar year, finding the measurement of Meton 100 years earlier to be 1/76 of a day too long. Kallippos constructs a a 76 year cycle of 940 months to unite the solar and lunar years. This calendar is adopted in 330 BCE and will be used by all later astronomers. Ptolemy gave us an accurate date for the beginning of this cycle in 330 BC in the Almagest saying that year 50 of the first cycle coincided with the 44th year following the death of Alexander. Callipps studies under Eudoxus and adds 8 more spheres to the 26 earth-centered spheres of Eudoxus, in order to more accurately explain the motions of the planets. The system made by Eudoxus has the Sun, Moon, Mercury, Venus and Mars each with five spheres while Jupiter and Saturn have four and the stars have one. This addition of six spheres over the system proposed by Eudoxus increases the accuracy of the theory while preserving the belief that the heavenly bodies had to possess motion based on the circle since that was the 'perfect' path. He also made careful measurements of the lengths of the seasons, finding them to be 94 days, 92 days, 89 days, and 90 days. This variation in the seasons implies a variation in the speed of the Sun, called the solar anomaly. The different length of the seasons is due to the fact that the sun is at one focus of an ellipse, which means that the earth will be on one side of the sun for more time than the other side. | ||
2,323 YBN [323 BCE] | 877) Ptolemy I Soter (Greek: Πτολεμ^ 5;ίος Σωτήρ Ptolemaios Soter, 367 BC-283 BC), a Macedonian general, becomes ruler of Egypt (323 BC-283 BC) and founder of the Ptolemaic dynasty. Ptolemy was one of Alexander the Great's most trusted generals, and among the seven "body-guards" attached to his person. He was a few years older than Alexander, and his intimate friend since childhood. He may even have been in the group of noble teenagers tutored by Aristotle. | ||
2,320 YBN [320 BCE] | 866) Praxagoras (Πραξαγ 72;ρας) (~350 Cos - ???) possibly teaches Herophilus, and is a strong defender of the theories of Hippocrates. Praxagoras distinguishes between veins and arteries, recognizing 2 kinds of blood vessels (some credit this to Alcmaeon). He things arteries carry air (arteries are named for this opinion), thinks arteries lead to smaller vessels (which is true) that then turned in to nerves (which is false). Praxagoras noted the physical connection between the brain and spinal chord. | ||
2,317 YBN [317 BCE] | 899) Demetrios Falireus (Δημήτρ 53;ος Φαληρεa 3;ς ) (Demetrius Phalereus) (died c. 280 BCE) is an Athenian orator, a student of Aristotle (who also teaches Theophrastus and Alexander the Great), and one of the first Peripatetics. Demetrius writes extensively on the subjects of history, rhetoric, and literary criticism. Demetrius is helped into power in Athens by Alexander's successor Cassander. From 317 BCE to 307 BCE, Demetrius Phalereus is the despot of Athens, serving under Cassander. During this time he provides money for Theophrastus to build the Lyceum which is to be devoted to Aristotle's studies and modeled after Plato's Academy. institutes extensive legal reforms. Carystius of Pergamum mentions that he had a boyfriend by the name of Diognis, of whom all the Athenian boys were jealous. This shows clearly that bisexuality was much more accepted as natural in Greece. As time continues, humans will lose this wisdom by becoming more intolerent of bisexuality. | ||
2,316 YBN [316 BCE] | 908) Euhemerus writes that the Greek gods had been originally kings, for example that Zeus was a king of Crete, who had been a great conqueror. | ||
2,311 YBN [311 BCE] | 885) Epikouros (Επίκου 61;ος) (Epicurus) (02/341 BCE Samos - 270 BCE Athens) founds a popular school in Athens. He argues against the existence of any god. Epikouros basis his philosophy on the principle that pleasure is good and pain is bad. This is the first school to admit females and slaves. Epikouros agrees with the atom theory of Demokritos. Eipkouros defines justice as an agreement "neither to harm nor be harmed." In contrast to Aristotle, Epikouros argues that death should not be feared. Later humans will mistake the views of Epikouros to be supporting free, open and overindulgent sexuality, but he mistakenly warns against overindulgence because he believes that it often leads to pain. Epicurus thinks the highest pleasure is living moderately, behaving kindly, removing the fear of the gods, and death. Of 300 treatises (scrolls?), almost nothing has been found. Epikouros establishes the philosophy called Epicureanism. Epikouros forms "The Garden", named for the garden he owns about halfway between the Stoa and the Academy. This original school had only a few members and was based in Epicurus' home and garden. An inscription on the gate of the garden reads: "Stranger, here you will do well to delay; here our highest good is pleasure." The school's popularity grows and it will became, along with Stoicism and Skepticism, one of the three dominant schools of Hellenistic Philosophy, lasting strongly through the later Roman Empire. "Is God willing to prevent evil but not able? Then He is not omnipotent. Is He able but not willing? Then He is malevolent. Is He both able and willing? Then whence cometh evil? Is He neither able nor willing? Then why call Him God?" Admiting of females and slaves shocks and interests the scholarly people of the time. After the official approval of Christianity by Constantine, Epicureanism was repressed. Epicurus' theory that the gods were unconcerned with human affairs had always clashed strongly with the Judeo-Christian God, and the philosophies were essentially irreconcilable. For example, the word for a heretic in the Talmudic literature is "Apikouros". Lactantius criticizes Epicurus at several points throughout his Divine Institutes. The school endured a long period of obscurity and decline. However, there was a resurgance of atomism among scientists in the 18th and 19th Centuries, and in the late 20th Century, the school was revived. | ||
2,310 YBN [310 BCE] | 869) Kidinnu (340 BCE Babylonia - ???), head of the Astronomical school in Sippar (Babylonia), works out the precession of equinoxes (the axis of the Earth slowly changes direction over many years ). Hipparchus will make use of the precession of the equinoxes as documented by Kidinnu. Kidinnu makes a complicated method of expressing movement of the moon and planets, differing from the view that these objects must move at a constant velocity. Stabo and Pliny refer to Kidinnu. | ||
2,310 YBN [310 BCE] | 871) Strato STrATOS STroTOS? (Στρατό 62;) (340 BCE Lampsacus - 270 BCE Athens) studies at the Lyceum, traveles to Alexandria, possibly tutors the son of Ptolomy I (the Macedonian general made King of Egypt) there. Strato has an atheist view of the universe. Strato views the universe as a mechanical structure without any dieties. Strato is mainly interested in physics, and expands on Aristotle's physics by noticing that falling objects (for example rainwater off a roof) accelerate as they fall to the ground rather than falling at a steady rate as Aristotle predicted. Another one of his teachings was the doctrine of the void, postulating that all bodies contained a void of variable size, which also accounted for weight differences between bodies. One of Strato's students at the Lyceum is Aristarchus of Samos. | ||
2,310 YBN [310 BCE] | 911) Theodorus "the Atheist", a student of Aristippus the founder of the Cyrenaic of philosophy, writes "on Gods", which uses various arguments to try to destroy Greek theology. | ||
2,307 YBN [307 BCE] | 901) When Demetrius I of Macedon takes Athens, Demetrius Falereus is overthrown, and he flees to Egypt. Demetrius goes into exile a second time on the accession of Ptolemy Philadelphus, and he died soon afterward. | ||
2,305 YBN [305 BCE] | 884) Herofilos (Ηροφιλ 59;ς) (Herophilus) (335 BCE Chalcedon {now Kadikoy, Istanbul Turkey} - 280 BCE) is the first human to distinguish nerves from blood vessels, in addition to motor nerves from sensory nerves. Herofilos is the first to describe the liver and spleen, to describe and name the retina of the eye, to name the first section of the small intestine "the duodenum", to describe ovaries, the tubes leading to the ovaries from the uterus, and names the prostate gland. Herofilos is the first human to note that arteries carry blood, not air as previously believed, a recognizes that the heart pumps blood through the blood vessels. Herofilos is first to distinguish between cerebrum and cerebellum. Herofilos notes that arteries, not like veins, pulsate, and times the pulsations with a water clock, but does not make connection between artery pulse and heart pulse. Herofilos is the first human to think wrongly think that blood letting has value, and this focus on bleeding will have a bad effect on healing for 2000 years. Erasistratus will carry on Herofilos' work, but after Erasistratus the Alexandria school of anatomy declined. Like Alkmeon, Herophilus also identifies the brain as the center of widom and emotion, not the heart. Together with Erasistratus he founders of the great medical school of Alexandria. Herofilos makes many contributions to anatomy. Herophilus performs up to 600 dissections in public. Herophilos divides nerves into sensory (get sense information) and motor (those responsible for motion). Herophilus' chief work was in anatomy, on which he composed several treatises, including one On Dissections in several books, and where a number of the terms he coined passed, either directly or via their Latin translations, into anatomical vocabulary. None of Herofilos' works have been found yet, but will be much quoted by Galen in the 2nd century AD. Later medical authors, Celsus, Rufus, Soranus and Galen, will quote and comment on their predecessors, often at considerable length. Before Herofilos and Erasistratos, such dissections as had been carried out were all performed on animals. Herofilos or Erasistratos starts the school of health (traditionally called medicine) in Alexandria, and this school will last at least until Galen in the second century CE. Pre-Christian Greek humans did not object to human dissection, thinking a "soul" most important, and a dead body just a group of flesh. In Egypt, human dissection is a serious impiety. He is particularly interested in the brain. Several of our sources speak of Herophilus and Erasistratus undertaking not merely dissections, but also vivisections (dissections on living bodies), on human subjects. The Christian writer Tertullian (ca. 155-230) describes Herophilus as ‘that butcher who cut up innumerable corpses in order to investigate nature and who hated mankind for the sake of knowledge" ("On the Soul", chap. 10). However, Tertullian was totally opposed to the scientific investigations of pagan researchers and did everything he could to defame them and their work. Pliny and Rufus both refer in general terms to the practice of human dissection without specifying who first undertook this. Another first century CE source, the Roman medical writer Celsus, both identifies the men concerned and reports the arguments that were used to justify this practice and that of vivisection. In the introduction (23 ff.) of his work "On Medicine" Celsus writes as follows concerning the group of doctors known as the Dogmatists: "Mor eover since pains and various kinds of diseases arise in the internal parts, they hold that no one who is ignorant about those parts themselves can apply remedies to them. Therefore it is necessary to cut open the bodies of dead men and to examine their viscera and intestines. Herophilus and Erasistratus proceeded in by far the best way, they cut open living men-criminals they obtained out of prison from the kings-and they observed, while their subjects still breathed, parts that nature had previously hidden, their position, colour, shape, size, arrangement, hardness, softness, smoothness, points of contact, and finally the processes and recesses of each and whether any part is inserted into another or receives the part of another into itself." The Dogmatists wrote of the advantages of vivisection over dissection and defended this viewpoint against the charge of inhumanity by claiming that the good outweighed the evil: ‘nor is it cruel, as most people state, to seek remedies for multitudes of innocent men of all future ages by means of the sacrifice of only a small number of criminals." Unlike Tertullian, Celsus cannot be accused of malicious distortion. He himself disagrees with the Dogmatists. 'To cut open the bodies of living men,' he says later in his introduction (74 f), "is both cruel and superfluous: to cut open the bodies of the dead is necessary for medical students. For they ought to know the position and arrangement of parts-which the dead body exhibits better than a wounded living subject. As for the rest, which can only be learnt from the living, experience itself will demonstrate it rather more slowly, but much more mildly, in the course of treating the wounded." The tone of his whole account is restrained and we have no good grounds for rejecting it. No one can doubt that religious and moral considerations inhibited the opening of the human body, whether dead or alive, in antiquity. But that is not to say that such inhibitions could never, under any circumstances, be overcome. The situation at Alexandria in the third century BCE was clearly an exceptional one in the particular combination of ambitious scientists and patrons of science that existed there at that time. For all the ancients' respect for the dead, corpses were desecrated often enough by people other than scientists. Moreover, when we reflect that the ancients regularly tortured slaves in public in the law courts in order to extract evidence from them, and that Galen, for example, records cases where new poisons were tried out on convicts to test their effects, it is not too difficult to believe that the Ptolemies permitted vivisection to be practised on condemned criminals. Before Herofilos, doctors were called Asclepiadae, in the sense that they were spiritual descendants of the Greek God of healing, Asclepius. Much of this new health research is done in Alexandria and rival capital Antioch. Herofilos and his students are interested in direct knowledge and precise terminology. Galen (129-200 CE),will praise Herofilos in relation to the ovarian arteries and veins observed by Herofilos in the womb, writing "I have not seen this myself in other animals except occasionally in monkeys. But I do not disbelieve that Herofilos observed them in women; for he was efficient in other aspects of his art and his knowledge of facts acquired through anatomy was exceedingly precise, and most of his observations were made not, as is the case with most of us, on brute beasts but on human beings themselves." Some of Herofilos' pupils form their own schools. One such student is Callimachus. According to Polybius around 150 BCE, the medical profession is dominated by two schools, the Herophileans and the Callimacheans. Another pupil of Herofilos, Philinus of Cos, will form a rival school, refered to as the Empiricists, who differed from Herofilos in disregarding anatomy and physiology, focusing mainly on therapeutics, claiming that a disease must be treated experimentally. They based their school on experiment and past history of success. | ||
2,300 YBN [300 BCE] | 927) Ptolemy I encourages Hekataeos (Greek: Εκαταί_ 9;ς) of Abdura (Άβδηρα) (340-280 BCE) (not to be confused with other historian Hekataeos of Miletus 200 years earlier) to live in Egypt and write a new Aegyptiaca (history of egypt), which has not yet been found, but large parts of this work will be found in the writing of Diordorus. Hecataeus compares Egyptian Gods to Greek Gods, equating Dionysius to Osirius, Demeter to Isis, Apollo to Horus, Zeus to Ammon, Hermes to Thoth, Hephaestus to Ptah, Pan to Min, even the 9 muses to Osiris' nine maidens. He cataeus of Abdera (or of Teos), Greek historian and Sceptic philosopher, flourishes in the 4th century BCE. Hecataeus accompanies Ptolemy I Soter in an expedition to Syria, and sails up the Nile with Ptolemy as far as Thebes (Diogenes Laertius ix. 6I). The result of his travels is recorded by him in two works, "Aegyptiaca" and "On the Hyperboreans", which will be used by Diodorus Siculus. According to the Suda, Hecataeus also writes a treatise on the poetry of Hesiod and Homer. Regarding his authorship of a work on Jewish people (which wil be utilized by Josephus in "Contra Apionem"), it is conjectured that portions of the Aegyptiaca were revised by a Hellenistic Jewish person from his point of view and published as a special work. While in Egypt Hekataeos of Abdura writes that priests teach children two kinds of writing, sacred (hieratic) and the more common (demotic), in addition to geometry and arithmetic. Hecataeus writes "they (egyptians) have preserved to this day the record concerning each of the stars over an incredible number of years...they have also observed with great interest the motions, ... orbits and stoppings of the planets". | ||
2,297 YBN [297 BCE] | 900) Theophrastus turns down the invitation from King Ptolemy I Soter in 297 BCE to tutor Ptolemy's heir, and instead recommends Demetrios Falireus (other sources cite Straton as being recommended and tutoring ), who had recently been driven out from Athens as a result of political fallout from the conflicts of Alexander's successors. This information is based on the "Letter of Aristeas", which will be written around 150 BCE. Ptolemy I accepts Demetrios Falireus, and Demetrios moves to Egypt. Demtrios Falireus is a politician, and prolific writer. Diogenes Laertius will write highly of Demetrios and will provide a list of Demetrios' works on a wide range of subjects. Demetrios begins collecting texts for the King's library, following the tradition of Plato, with works on state-forming, kingship and ruling. | ||
2,297 YBN [297 BCE] | 902) Ptolemy I Soter (Πτολεμ 45;ίου Σωτήρα) starts construction of the Soma, in Alexandria, a mausoleum where Alexander and subsequent kings will be stored after death, the famous Lighthouse of Pharos, the research center known as the Mouseion (a temple to the Muses, a "Mousaeion" (Μουσεί 59;ν also Μουσεί_ 9;υ, Museum: in actuality a University and Library ) and the Royal Library (which may have been a separate building near the Mousaeion or may have been inside the Mousaeion), in the Royal Palaces area. The Mousaeion will house the smartest scientists of this time. This research center will also include a zoo. Some of these monuments will take more time to build than 2 decades and will be completed under the reign of Ptolemy II. Irenaeus will write in the second century CE that "Ptolemy the son of Lagos had the ambition to equip the library established by him in Alexandria with the writings of all men as far as they were worth serious attention". This is evidence that Ptolemy I founded the library in Alexandria. Living in the Mousaeion located in the royal quarter of the city, there is what Strabo would later call a "synodos" (community) of perhaps 30-50 educated men (there are no women), who are salaried members of a "civil list" for their services as tutors, paid for from taxes, while at the same time exempt from taxes, given free food and room, dining together in a (stone?) circular-domed dining hall. Outside this hall there are classrooms, where the residents from time to time are called upon to teach. For 700 years until the 4th century CE, as many as a hundred scholars at a time will come to the library to consult this collection, to read, talk, and write. Papryis scrolls are stored in linen or leather jackets and kept in racks in the hall or in the cloisters (corridors with pillars ). Separate niches are devoted to different classes of authors, and to different categories of learning. The Museion is a research center where no regular teaching (for example of children how to write) took place, most young men learned as research assistants. There were probably public lectures occassionaly attended by the king. According to the letter of Aristeas, Demetrius recommends that Ptolemy II Philadephus should gather a collection of books on kingship and ruling in the style of Plato's philosopher-kings, and furthermore to gather books of all the world's people so that Ptolemy might better understand subjects and trade partners. Demetrius must also help inspire the founding of a Museum in Ptolemy's capital, Alexandria, a temple dedicated to the Muses. This is not the first temple dedicated to the divine patrons of arts and sciences, but coming a half-century after the establishment of Plato's Academy, Aristotle's Lyceum, Zeno's Stoa and the school of Epicurus, and located in a rich center of international trade and cultural exchange, the place and time are ripe for such an institution to flower. Scholars are invited there to carry out the Peripatetic activities of observation and deduction in math, medicine, astronomy, and geometry; and most of the scientific findings of earth will be recorded and debated there for the next 500 years. Ptolemy I establishes the Mousaeion with a director who is a Pagan priest (different from the head librarian). The Mousaeion is dedicated to the Muses, and there is a Biblion (a place of books) for scholars. Some people think that the Mousaeion is built like the Rameseseum, a combination of palace, museum, and shrine. As a shrine dedicated to the Muses, the Mousaeion has the same legal status as Plato's school in Athens, where a school requires religious status to gain the protection of Athenian law. The Mousaeion is presided over by a priest of the Muses, called an "epistates", or director, appointed like the priests who manage the temples of Egypt. A Head Scholar-Librarian is appointed by the King, and also holdsthe post of royal tutor to the King's children. The Mousaeion initially does editing of homer texts. Ptolemy I invents the God Serapis (in Greek Σέραπη) with the help of 2 priests, an Egyptian preist named Manethon and an Athenian preist named Timotheus. It is possible that people constructed some of the buildings in Alexandria in the nine years after Alexander founded Alexandria. Some people think that the Royal library is located in the Mousaeion, while others think that the Royal Library occupies it's own building next to (perhaps connected to)the Mousaeion or near the Mediterranean coast. Around 25 BCE, Strabo will describe each building in the royal palace and will not mention any library, although Strabo will use the past tense to describe a library available to Eratosthenes. Around 80 CE Plutarch will write that Caesar burned down "the Great Library", but it is unusual for the library to be on fire but not the Mousaeion (unless the Library was farther away) which Strabo clearly indicates is intact after the time of Caesar. Unlike Athens, in Alexandria, initially, philosophy is not popular. Perhaps from the teaching of Aristotle, who supported an observational method, his student Demetrios Falireus focuses mainly on the physical sciences. Geometry probably originated from land measurement, as the word "Geometry" implies. Celestial observations help to determine terrestrial property boundaries, and so men at the museum turned to applications of mathematics and geometry. Timon (c. 320-230 BCE) (of Phlius, Greek sceptic philosopher and satirical poet, a pupil of Stilpo the Megarian and Pyrrho of Elis) and Herodas ('Ηρωδας) a Greek poet, the author of short humorous dramatic scenes in verse, written under the Alexandrian empire in the 3rd century BCE) refer to the Mouseion alone, with no mention of a separate library.(s49? s47? or s46?) Timon of Phlius ) (of Athens), expresses a bitter and envious reaction towards moden intellectual developments saying "many are feeding in populous Egypt, scribblers on papyrus, ceaselessly wrangling in the bird-cage of the Muses" . Most employees are translators, called "scribblers" (charakitai) wrote on papyrus (charta). Editorial activity at Alexandria helps to standardize many texts. The sites of the Museum and Library are uncertain, but both are definitely in the Bruchium. The Museum buildings are surrounded by courts and walks planted with trees. A portico, covering the front and two sides, leads to the Great Hall (or "Excedra"). Behind this Great Hall is a dining hall (Oecus), which is a cicular building with a dome roof and a terrace, supported by a circles of columns inside the hall. On this terrace there is an Observatory. In the surrounding park is a zoological garden. In 2004 a Polish-Egyptian team claimed to have discovered a part of the library while excavating in the Bruchion region. The archaeologists claimed to have found thirteen "lecture halls", each with a central podium. Zahi Hawass, the president of Egypt's Supreme Council of Antiquities, said that all together, the rooms uncovered so far could have seated 5000 students. The picture thus presented is of a fairly massive research institution. date of about 30 BC to the discovery. This date corresponds very well with the well known Mouseion, Alexandria's famous ancient University. However, the same reports refer to the classrooms as "Roman-era", which is inconsistent with a date of 30 BC. Other reports, also attributed to the Supreme Council of Antiquities, date the find between the 5th and 7th centuries (AD), which would be rather inconsistent with the famous university's later period, though certainly a part of the Roman-era. | ||
2,297 YBN [297 BCE] | 925) Philitas of Cos, Zenodotus of Ephasus (later to become the first head librarian of record), and Euclid (thought to be born in Alexandria) respond to Ptolemy I Soter's invitation to be employed in the Mousaeion. | ||
2,295 YBN [295 BCE] | 878) Euclid (Eukleidis) (Greek: Εὐκλεί 48;ης) YUKlEDES? (325 BCE - 265 BCE), in Alexandria, makes a scroll called "Elements" which is a compilation of all the mathematical knowledge known up to then, and will be one of the most successful mathmatical texts in the history of earth. Euclid proves that the number of primes is infinite, that the square root of 2 is irrational, and shows light rays as straight lines. Eukleidos either answers Ptolemy I's invitation, or is recruited by Demetrios Falereus, and is one of the first people to work in the Mousaeion in Alexandria. He starts a school of mathematics at the Mousaeion which will last at least until the time of Pappus in the fourth century CE. Euclid's "Elements" will go through more than 1000 editions after the invention of printing. "Elements" compiles all the accumulated wisdom since the time when Thales lived (250 years before). Euclid starts with axioms and postulates, then adds theorems. The only theorem credited to Euclid with most certainty is the proof for the Pythagorean theorem. This book has geometry, ratio, proportion, and number theory. In his "Eudemiarz Summary", Proclus (410-485 CE) writes about how King Ptolomy I, studying geometry, asks Euclid if there was no easier path to understanding geometry, and that Euclid replied that "there is no royal road to geometry". It is likely that this quote has been taken from a similar story told about Menaechmus (fl. c350 BCE) and Alexander the Great. Euclid states that the whole is equal to the sum of it's parts, and that a straight line is the shortest distance between 2 points. Euclid may have run a school of mathematics in Alexandria. Pappus of Alexandria (fl. c320 CE) will write that the Greek mathematician Apollonius learned geometry from the students of Euclid in Alexandria. Eukleidis is a Greek mathematician, who lived in Alexandria, Egypt during the reign of Ptolemy I (323 BC283 BC), and is often considered to be the "father of geometry". His most popular work, Elements, is the most successful textbook in the history of mathematics. Within it, the properties of geometrical objects are deduced from a small set of axioms, thereby founding the axiomatic method of mathematics. Although best-known for its geometric results, the Elements also includes various results in number theory, such as the connection between perfect numbers and Mersenne primes. Euclid also wrote works on perspective, conic sections, spherical geometry, and possibly quadric surfaces. Neither the year nor place of his birth have been established, nor the circumstances of his death. Although many of the results in Elements originated with earlier mathematicians, one of Euclid's accomplishments was to present them in a single, logically coherent framework. In addition to providing some missing proofs, Euclid's text also includes sections on number theory and three-dimensional geometry. In particular, Euclid's proof of the infinitude of prime numbers is in Book IX, Proposition 20. The geometrical system described in Elements was long known simply as the only "geometry". Today, however, it is often referred to as Euclidean geometry to distinguish it from other so-called non-Euclidean geometries which will be found in the 1800s CE. These new geometries will grow out of more than 2000 years of investigation into Euclid's fifth postulate, one of the most-studied axioms in all of mathematics, known as the "parallel postulate", the postulate that no two angles in a triangle can be equal or greater than 2 90 degree angles. This postulate will be shown to only be true for flat surfaces and not for the surface of a sphere or hyperboloid. One story about Euclid is from Stobaeus and relates that one of Euclid's students, when he had learned the first proposition, asked his teacher, "But what is the good of this and what shall I get by learning these things?", to which Euclid calls a slave and says, "Give this fellow a penny, since he must make gain from what he learns. " | ||
2,295 YBN [295 BCE] | 926) Ptolemy I writes a history of Alexander. | ||
2,290 YBN [290 BCE] | 903) Berossos (Berossus), a Chaldean priest, writes a history of Babylonia, which in complete form has not yet been found, although secondary sources provide some information. | ||
2,288 YBN [288 BCE] | 873) The Hebrew Bible is translated into Greek in Alexandria around this time or later. Commonly refered to as the "Septuagint" ("LXX"), because according to the Letter of Aristeas, at the advice of Demetrius Phalereus, Ptolomy II hires 72 preists to come to Alexandria to complete the translation. The Hebrew Bible is also called the Old Testament by Christians. This text includes the Pentateuch PeNToTUK and other books for a total of 24 or 39 books depending on how they are grouped. The Pentateuch (also called the "Torah") is a Greek word derived from the word "penta" (five) and "teukos" (implement), which means "implementation of five books", and refers to the Hebrew Bible's books of Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. Probably the Pentateuch is translated into Greek in the third century BCE, Isaiah and Jeremiah translated during the first half of the second century BCE, and the Psalms and the rest of the Prophets during the second half of the second century BCE. | ||
2,287 YBN [287 BCE] | 872) Strato becomes third director of the Lyceum after the death of Theophrastos. | ||
2,287 YBN [287 BCE] | 924) Theophrastos dies, and wills Aristotle's library to Neleus. According to Athenaeus, Ptolemy II buys this library for a large sum of money. However, in apparent conflict to this story, Strabo will later write that the willed books will stay in the family of Neleus until sold to Apellicon, the wealthy book collector of Teos. Apellicon's library in Athens will be captured by Sulla in 86 BCE and taken to Rome. One way to resolve these conflicting accounts is to presume that the book collection sold to Ptolemy II is probably the large collection of books from the school library but not Aristotles' and Theophrastos' own original works. Ptolemy II probably obtained Aristotle's writing, but not original works when Straton, Ptolemy II's former tutor is head of the Lyceum. Plutarch will write that the Peripatetics did not have the original texts of Aristotle and Theophrastos because the legacy of Neleus had "fallen into idle and base hands". | ||
2,285 YBN [285 BCE] | 1028) Ktesibios (Ctesibius) (TeSiBEOS) (Greek Κτησίβ_ 3;ος), (fl. 285 - 222 BCE) a member of the Alexandrian Mouseion, is the first person of record to use compressed air, building a water and compressed air powered organ and catapult. Ktisibios uses compressed air to improve the water-clock, called a "clepsydra" which will be the most accurate method of measuring time until the pendulum clock of Huygens in the 1600s. Ktesibios uses the weight of water and compressed air to make a water organ (hydraulus) where water forces air through the organ pipes much like a flute, and makes an air-powered catapult. Around 25 BCE Vitruvius describes Ktisibios as using an early form of rack and pinion gearing in a water clock. Ktesibios starts the engineering tradition in Alexandria. His lost work "On pneumatics" will earn him the title of "father of pneumatics". His "Memorabilia", a single compilation of his research, cited by Athenaeus, is also lost. "Memorandum on mechanics", "Belopoietica": Works on mechanics and engines of war, both lost. Ctesibius is thought to be the founder of the Alexandrian school of mathematics and engineering, and may have been one of the first directors of the Museum of Alexandria. Ktesibios is the son of a barber from Aspondia, a suburb of Alexandria, and adds a ball of lead in a pipe as a counterweight to a barber mirror to make the mirror more easy to raise and lower. In Ktesibios' "clepsydra" or water clock, water drips into a container at a constant rate raising a floating object with a pointer. No writings by Ktesibios have been found, Vitruvius, Athenaeus, Philo of Byzantium, Proclus and Hero of Alexandria, the last engineer of antiquity all refer to Ktesibios. Many historians compare Ktesibios second only to Archimedes in engineering, I would add Hero of Alexandria to this list. In his age Ctesibius was miserably poor, if Diogenes Laertius can be trusted, who recounts how the generous philosopher Arcesilaus, "when he had gone to visit Ctesibius who was ill, seeing him in great distress from want, he secretly slipped his purse under his pillow; and when Ctesibius found it, 'This,' said he, 'is the amusement of Arcesilaus."' | ![]() [1] Ktesibios water organ. COPYRIGHTED source: http://alexandrias.tripod.com/ct esibius.htm ![]() [2] Ktesibios water pump. COPYRIGHTED source: http://alexandrias.tripod.com/ct esibius.htm | |
2,283 YBN [283 BCE] | 882) Aristarchos correctly theorizes that the earth and other planets go around the sun. Aristarchus figures out that the Sun is one of the fixed stars, the closest star to the Earth. Aristarchos understands the earth rotates on it's own axis each day. Aristarchos understands that the sun is much larger than the earth. Aristarchos understands that the stars are very distant. Aristarchos calculates a close estimate for the size of the earth moon. A principle work of Aristarchos, titled "Heliocentric system", now lost, is considered by many of his contemporaries as "impious", and one contemporary writes that Aristarchos should be charged with impiety. Aged 32, Aristarchos moves from the Lyceum (Λύκειο 57;, Lykeion) in Athens (presumably) to Alexandria where he will make his epochal theories. He adds 1/1623rd of a day to the solar year, estimated at 365 1/4 days by Callippus, and calculated the length of the Lunisolar cycle at 2434 years. Aristarchos understands that the stars show no visible parallax because they are very distant. From the shadow of the earth on the moon during an eclipse, and using the size of earth given by Eratosthenes, Aristarchos calculates the size of the moon which is very close to the true size. From the shadow of the earth on the moon during a lunar eclipse, Aristarchos estimates that the diameter of the Earth is 3 times the diameter of the Earth Moon. Using Eratosthenes' calculation that the Earth was 42,000 km in circumference, he concludes that the Moon is 14,000 km in circumference. This is a very close estimate since the moon has a circumference of about 10,916 km. Aristarchus argued that the Sun, Moon, and Earth form a near right triangle at the moment of first or last quarter moon. He estimated that the angle was 87°. Using correct geometry, but inaccurate observational data, Aristarchus concluded that the Sun was 20 times farther away than the Moon. The true value of this angle is close to 89° 50', and the Sun is actually about 390 times farther away. He pointed out that the Moon and Sun have nearly equal apparent angular sizes and therefore their diameters must be in proportion to their distances from Earth. He thus concluded that the Sun was 20 times larger than the Moon; which, although wrong, follows logically from his incorrect data. From this he may have concluded that a small body like the earth orbiting a large body like the sun would be more logical than the sun orbiting the earth. Aristarchos is the main supporter of the heliocentric system, as opposed to the geocentric system of Anaximander, the Pythagoreans, Philolaus, Plato and Archelaus. The erroneous earth-centered theory which will last for 1,800 years until Copernicus. Archimedes writes: "You King Gelon are aware the 'universe' is the name given by most astronomers to the sphere the centre of which is the center of the Earth, while its radius is equal to the straight line between the center of the Sun and the center of the Earth. This is the common account as you have heard from astronomers. But Aristarchus has brought out a book consisting of certain hypotheses, wherein it appears, as a consequence of the assumptions made, that the universe is many times greater than the 'universe' just mentioned. His hypotheses are that the fixed stars and the Sun remain unmoved, that the Earth revolves about the Sun on the circumference of a circle, the Sun lying in the middle of the orbit, and that the sphere of fixed stars, situated about the same center as the Sun, is so great that the circle in which he supposes the Earth to revolve bears such a proportion to the distance of the fixed stars as the center of the sphere bears to its surface." So clearly Aristarchus believes the stars to be infinitely far away, and sees this as the reason why there is no visible parallax, an observed movement of the stars relative to each other as the Earth moves around the Sun. The parallax of stars can only be measured with a telescope. But the geocentric model is thought to be a simpler, better explanation for the lack of parallax. The rejection of the heliocentric view was apparently quite strong, as the following passage from Plutarch suggests (On the Apparent Face in the Orb of the Moon): "{Cleanthes, a contemporary of Aristarchus} thought it was the duty of the Greeks to indict Aristarchus of Samos on the charge of impiety for putting in motion the Hearth {earth} of the universe, ... supposing the heavens to remain at rest and the earth to revolve in an oblique circle, while it rotates, at the same time, about its own axis." Cleanthes wrote a treatise "Against Aristarchus.". Plutarch and Sextus Empiricus will both write about "the followers of Aristarchus". Principal works: "Heliocentric system": Lost. Considered by many of his contemporaries as "impious". "On the Magnitudes and Distances of the Sun and Moon": Extant. Describes how he calculated the sizes of the sun and moon and their distances from the earth "On Light and Colours" "Sun dials" Aristarchus also invented an improved sundial with a concave hemispherical surface and a gnomon in the centre. The work of Aristarchus will be defended and promoted by Seleucus of Babylonia a century later. Perhaps Aristarcos escapes a charge of impiety because the main opposition, Cleanthes is in Athens and Aristarchos is in Alexandria. But perhaps, charges of impiety were taken less seriously by then, or the public had become more tolerant or accustomed to the people in the universities. | ||
2,283 YBN [283 BCE] | 928) Ptolemy II has Demetrius Falireus arrested and or exiled to the delta where Demetrios dies, possibly murdered while sleeping by the venom of a snake bite ordered by Ptolemy II. | ||
2,283 YBN [283 BCE] | 929) Zenodotus is appointed head librarian by Ptolemy II. Zenodotus will be head librarian from 283-270 BCE. Zenodotus separates Homer into 24 books, which is the same as the number of letters in the Greek alphabet, marking alledgedly unauthentic versus with an obelus {A mark (or ÷) used in ancient manuscripts to indicate a doubtful or spurious passage}. | ||
2,281 YBN [281 BCE] | 935) Ptolemy II Philadelfus is interested zoology, and may be the person that makes the garden, zoo, and observatory. The zoo under Philadefus contains lions, leopards, lynxes, buffaloes, wild asses, a 45 foot python, a giraffe, rhinoceros, polar bear, parrots, peacocks, and pheasants. Callimachus, Theocritus, and a host of lesser poets, glorify the Ptolemaic family. Ptolemy himself is eager to increase the library and to patronize scientific research. He has unusual beasts of far off lands sent to Alexandria. Interested in Hellenic tradition, he shows little interest in the native religion. There are limits on what the people in the Alexandrian schools can write. One story relates how Sotades of Maronea satirized Ptolemy II and his sister Arsinoe on the occasion of their marriage, when identified, he was imprisoned and executed, although this story may have only been a myth to scare people. The material and literary splendour of the Alexandrian court was at its height under Ptolemy II. Callimachus, Theocritus, and a host of lesser poets, glorify the Ptolemaic family. Ptolemy himself is eager to increase the library and to patronize scientific research. He has unusual beasts of far off lands sent to Alexandria. Interested in Hellenic tradition, he shows little interest in the native religion. | ||
2,280 YBN [06/10/280 BCE] | 922) The Ptolemies in Egypt, Seleukids in Syria, and Attalids in Pergamon compete for scientific supremecy by establishing libraries and centers for learning in their capitals, Alexandria, Antioch, and Pergamum. | ||
2,280 YBN [280 BCE] | 1199) A book called "Mechanical Problems" from Aristotle's Lykeum describes parallel wheel in mesh, but does not specifically mention toothed wheels. These may describe friction wheels instead of gears. | Athens, Greece | ![]() [1] Input torque is applied to the ring gear, which turns the entire carrier (all blue), providing torque to both side gears (red and yellow), which in turn may drive the left and right wheels. If the resistance at both wheels is equal, the pinion gear (green) does not rotate, and both wheels turn at the same rate. GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Differential_free.png ![]() [2] If the left side gear (red) encounters resistance, the pinion gear (green) rotates about the left side gear, in turn applying extra rotation to the right side gear (yellow). GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Differential_locked.png |
2,275 YBN [275 BCE] | 888) Manetho (Manethon Μανέθω_ 7;), a native egyptian historian, writes a history of Egypt in Greek. Manetho composes works in Greek on Egyptian history and religion based on egyptian records. What has been found so far from Manetho are lists of the Egyptian dynasties, and the Hyksos invasion of Egypt and its connection to the life of Moses, although the original text will be corrupted in the three centuries between Manethon and Josephus. As a high priest at Heliopolis, Manethon is quoted as having recounted the myths of the egyptian gods. | ||
2,275 YBN [275 BCE] | 897) A Papyrus dating to this time contains a contract of apprenticeship to a doctor who has a house training clinic (oikia), which covers a period of 6 years for a fee. | ||
2,275 YBN [275 BCE] | 930) Callimachus of Cyrene (c305 - c240 BCE) is among Zenodotus' most famous assistants. Callimachus may never formally have held the position of Librarian, but begins for the Library the first subject catalog of history, "the Pinakes" (tablets). This is composed of 6 sections, and lists some 120,000 scrolls of classical poetry and prose. The full title was "Tables of those who were eminent in every branch of learning, and what they wrote, in 120 volumes". It may include works not yet obtained by the library. The Pinakes are separated by subject. These subjects include: comedy, tragedy, lyric poetry, epic, rhetoric, law, history, mathematics, medicine, philosophy (natural science) and miscellaneous. Within each subject, authors are listed alphabetically, with a short biography, a bibliography of the author {a complete list of their works}, also alphabetically ordered, the opening words of each work, and the length of the work. The Pinakes will serve as a model for future indexes, for example the Arabic 10th century "Al-Fihrist" by Ibn-Al-Nadim. Callimachu s reports that the library has 400,000 mixed scrolls with multiple works, and 90,000 scrolls of single works. | ||
2,274 YBN [274 BCE] | 886) Erasistratos Ερασίσ` 4;ρατος (EroSESTrATOS?) (~304 BCE Chios {now Khios, an aegean island} - 250 BCE Samos), in Alexandria describes the brain as being divided in to a larger cerebrum and smaller cerebellum. Erasistratos accepts atom theory. He compares folds (convolutions) in the brain of humans with those of other species and decides that the complexity of folds is related to intelligence. He thinks each organ is connected to and fed by nerves, arteries and veins. Erastitratos thinks digestion is from grinding of the stomach (which is only partially true). He proposed mechanical explanations for many bodily processes. He rejects the 4 humor theory popularized by Hippokrates, but Galen will support this idea. He believed in a tripartite system of humors consisting of nervous spirit (carried by nerves), animal spirit (carried by the arteries), and blood (carried by the veins). Erasistratos was possibly a grandson of Aristotle and learned under Theophrasus in the Lyceum. After the work of Erasistratus, the use of dissection and study of anatomy declined. The humans in Egypt stop dissection in Alexandria and not until 1500 years later (late 1200s CE) with Mondino de Luzzi is dissection practiced again. Trains in Athens, Erasistratos moves to Asia and is court physician for Seleucus I, who controls a major portion of what had been the Persian Empire. Erasistratos then moves west to continue the work of Herofilos in Alexandria. the nerves carried "nervous spirit", arteries "animal spirit", and the vein blood. Erasistratos takes a step backwards from Herofilos in mistakenly thinking that arteries do not carry blood. He thinks air is carried from lungs to heart and changed in to the "animal spirit" that is carried in the arteries. He is best known for curing Antiochos, Seleucus's son. Erasistratus said that Antiochos was in love with his stepmother, and that that was what was ailing him, so he let them marry. | ||
2,270 YBN [270 BCE] | 932) Apollonius of Rhodes (Απολλώ 57;ιος ο Ρόδιος) (not to be confused with Apollonius of Perga, a contemporary at the school) replaces Zenodotus as librarian from c270-245 BCE. Apollonius is best known for his "Argonautika", a literary epic retelling the ancient story of Jason and the Argonauts' quest for the Golden Fleece. What is known of Apollonius' life comes from two accounts taken from scholia. Alexandrian by birth, Apollonius was drawn to the center of Hellenistic scholarship, the Library of Alexandria, where he became a student of Callimachus. Callimachus almost exclusively wrote epigrams and other short works, while Apollonius became interested in epic poetry. Their difference of opinions over the appropriate length and style for poetry led to a long and bitter literary feud, which may have been exacerbated after Ptolemy II chose Apollonius over his teacher Callimachus for the prestigious post of chief librarian. The Argonautika differs in some respects from traditional or Homeric Greek epic, though Apollonius certainly used Homer as a model. The Argonautika is much shorter than Homer"s epics, with four books totaling less than 6,000 lines, while the Iliad runs to more than 15,000. Apollonius may have been influenced here by Callimachus" brevity, or by Aristotle"s demand for "poems on a smaller scale than the old epics, and answering in length to the group of tragedies presented at a single sitting" (Poetics), which is true of the Argonautika. Apollonius" epic also differs from the more traditional epic in its weaker, more human protagonist Jason and in its many discursions into local custom, aeitiology, and other popular subjects of Hellenistic poetry. Apollonius also chooses the less shocking versions of some myths, having Medea, for example, merely watch the murder of Apsyrtos instead of murdering him herself. The gods are relatively distant and inactive throughout much of the epic, following the Hellenistic trend to allegorize and rationalize religion. Heterosexual loves such as Jason"s are more emphasized than homosexual loves such as that of Herakles and Hylas are less discussed, another trend in Hellenistic literature. Many critics regard the love of Medea and Jason in the third book as the Argonautica"s best written and most memorable episode. | ||
2,265 YBN [265 BCE] | 931) Pliny the Elder will record in the 1st century CE that Hermippus, a student of Callimachus writes a commentary on the versus of Zoroaster now. This implies that these stories have been translated from Iranian to Greek. Pliny describes this work as a two million line book which must be an exaggeration. | ||
2,260 YBN [260 BCE] | 941) Hipparchos (not the astronomer) from Alexandria is the first Greek person to sail beyond the Red Sea, through the Straight of Bab-El-Mandeb (Gate of Tears) into the Indian Ocean. | ||
2,257 YBN [257 BCE] | 891) Archimedes (Greek: Αρχιμή^ 8;ης ) (287 Syracuse, Sicily - 212 Syracuse, Sicily) is the first to understand density (how mass and volume are related). Archimedes makes a system that is equivalent to the exponential system to describe the amount of sand needed to fill the universe. He makes the best estimate of pi, builds a mechanical model of the universe, and a "screw of Archimedes". Achimedes outlines methods for calculating areas and volumes, which later will form calculus. Archimedes uses levers to lift heavy objects, for example the "claw of Archimedes" supposedly used to lift or turn ships over in the water. He reportedly invented an odometer during the First Punic War. He makes the "screw of archimedes" (although is not the first), a screw in a cylinder that when turned moves water up and is still used to move (pump) water. He makes a mechanical planetarian, not proud of his mechanical inventions (because this kind of hobby is not common for humans in philosophy) he prints only mathematical ideas. He makes the best estimate of pi by drawing polygons in a circle and describes pi as being between 223/71 and 220/70. Archimedes may have prevented one Roman attack on Syracuse by using a large array of mirrors (speculated to have been highly polished (bronze?) shields) to reflect and focus photons of light onto the attacking ships causing them to catch fire, although this has only been duplicated for closely unmoving ships. Archimedes also has been credited with improving the accuracy and range of the catapult. The Archimedes work "The Sand Reckoner" will be the primary source for future people knowing that Aristarchos understood that the earth and planets rotate the sun, in addition to being evidence that Archimedes and Aristarchos talk to each other. Archimedes screw devices are the precursor of the worm gear. Archimedes calculates the oldest known example of a geometric series with the ratio 1/4 (see image). He proves that the ratio of a circle's perimeter to its diameter is the same as the ratio of the circle's area to the square of the radius. He does not call this ratio π but gives a procedure to approximate it to arbitrary accuracy and gave an approximation of it as between 3 + 10/71 (approximately 3.1408) and 3 + 1/7 (approximately 3.1429). He proves that the area enclosed by a parabola and a straight line is 4/3 the area of a triangle with equal base and height. (see image) Archimedes is the first to identify the concept of center of gravity, and he found the centers of gravity of various geometric figures, assuming uniform density in their interiors, including triangles, paraboloids, and hemispheres. Asimov calls Archimedes the greatest in science and math before Newton. Archimedes is a Greek mathematician, physicist, engineer, astronomer, and philosopher born in the seaport colony of Syracuse, Sicily. It's possible that in a long duration seige that even the burning of a landed ship from a roof might be of value. Cicero writes that the Roman consul Marcellus brought two devices back to Rome from the sacked city of Syracuse. One device mapped the sky on a sphere and the other predicted the motions of the sun and the moon and the planets (i.e., an orrery). He credits Thales and Eudoxus for constructing these devices. For some time this was assumed to be a legend of doubtful nature, but the discovery of the Antikythera mechanism has changed the view of this issue, and it is indeed probable that Archimedes possessed and constructed such devices. Pappus of Alexandria writes that Archimedes had written a practical book on the construction of such spheres entitled On Sphere-Making. Archimedes' works were not widely recognized, even in antiquity. He and his contemporaries probably constitute the peak of Greek mathematical rigour. During the Middle Ages the mathematicians who could understand Archimedes' work were few and far between. Many of his works were lost when the library of Alexandria was burnt (twice) and survived only in Latin or Arabic translations. As a result, his mechanical method was lost until around 1900, after the arithmetization of analysis had been carried out successfully. We can only speculate about the effect that the "method" would have had on the development of calculus had it been known in the 16th and 17th centuries. Archimedes requests that his tombstone include a cylinder circumscribing a sphere, accompanied by the inscription of his amazing theorem that the sphere is exactly two-thirds of the circumscribing cylinder in both surface area and volume. Writings by Archimedes * On the Equilibrium of Planes (2 volumes) This scroll explains the law of the lever and uses it to calculate the areas and centers of gravity of various geometric figures. * On Spirals In this scroll, Archimedes defines what is now called Archimedes' spiral. This is the first mechanical curve (i.e., traced by a moving point) ever considered by a Greek mathematician. * On the Sphere and The Cylinder In this scroll Archimedes obtains the result he was most proud of: that the area and volume of a sphere are in the same relationship to the area and volume of the circumscribed straight cylinder. * On Conoids and Spheroids In this scroll Archimedes calculates the areas and volumes of sections of cones, spheres and paraboloids. * On Floating Bodies (2 volumes) In the first part of this scroll, Archimedes spells out the law of equilibrium of fluids, and proves that water around a center of gravity will adopt a spherical form. This is probably an attempt at explaining the observation made by Greek astronomers that the Earth is round. Note that his fluids are not self-gravitating: he assumes the existence of a point towards which all things fall and derives the spherical shape. One is led to wonder what he would have done had he struck upon the idea of universal gravitation. In the second part, a veritable tour-de-force, he calculates the equilibrium positions of sections of paraboloids. This was probably an idealization of the shapes of ships' hulls. Some of his sections float with the base under water and the summit above water, which is reminiscent of the way icebergs float, although Archimedes probably was not thinking of this application. * The Quadrature of the Parabola In this scroll, Archimedes calculates the area of a segment of a parabola (the figure delimited by a parabola and a secant line not necessarily perpendicular to the axis). The final answer is obtained by triangulating the area and summing the geometric series with ratio 1/4. * Stomachion This is a Greek puzzle similar to Tangram. In this scroll, Archimedes calculates the areas of the various pieces. This may be the first reference we have to this game. Recent discoveries indicate that Archimedes was attempting to determine how many ways the strips of paper could be assembled into the shape of a square. This is possibly the first use of combinatorics to solve a problem. * Archimedes' Cattle Problem Archimedes wrote a letter to the scholars in the Library of Alexandria, who apparently had downplayed the importance of Archimedes' works. In these letters, he dares them to count the numbers of cattle in the Herd of the Sun by solving a number of simultaneous Diophantine equations, some of them quadratic (in the more complicated version). This problem is one of the famous problems solved with the aid of a computer. The solution is a very large number, approximately 7.760271 × 10206544 (See the external links to the Cattle Problem.) * The Sand Reckoner In this scroll, Archimedes counts the number of grains of sand fitting inside the universe. This book mentions Aristarchus of Samos' theory of the solar system (concluding that "this is impossible"), contemporary ideas about the size of the Earth and the distance between various celestial bodies. From the introductory letter we also learn that Archimedes' father was an astronomer. * "The Method" In this work, which was unknown in the Middle Ages, but the importance of which was realised after its discovery, Archimedes pioneered the use of infinitesimals, showing how breaking up a figure in an infinite number of infinitely small parts could be used to determine its area or volume. Archimedes did probably consider these methods not mathematically precise, and he used these methods to find at least some of the areas or volumes he sought, and then used the more traditional method of exhaustion to prove them. Some details can be found at how Archimedes used infinitesimals. What an interesting group of people and interesting time it must have been for the people at the university in Alexandria, perhaps unknown to them, to be with the smartest and most interesting humans on earth like Aristarchos, Archimedes, Eritosthenes, etc.). All people eat together at the university which must have made for some very enlightened conversations. Archimedes' father is an astronomer. Archimedes learns in Alexandria, and decides to move back to Syracuse (which is rare for most people in Alexandria) perhaps because he is related to the King of Syracuse Hieron II. Archimedes is independently wealthy and does not depend on the wealth of royal people in Egypt. Archimedes is asked by Hieron if a crown from a gold smith was really all gold, or if the crown had silver mixed in. Archimedes is told that he cannot damage the crown in the determination. Archimedes can not think of how to solve the problem until one time he steps in a bath and notes that the water overflows. Archimedes realizes that the amount of water that falls out is equal to the volume of his body. If put in water, Archimedes could measure the volume of the crown, then measure the weight of the crown, and compare this weight with an equal volume of pure gold. The crown and the piece of gold with the same volume should weight the same. If the crown weighes more than the pure gold with the same volume, then the crown is not pure gold. Archimedes, excited by this realization, ran naked through the streets of Syracuse (although people were not as disturbed by nudity then) yelling "eureka! eureka!" (or 'Heureka'; Greek ηὕρηκα; I have found it). The crown is partly silver and the goldsmith is executed. Archimedes makes use of levers (Strato was aware of the idea). Archimedes is told to have said "give me a place to stand and I can move the world". Hieron is supposed to have challanged Archimedes, and Archimedes said to have lifted a ship from a harbor on to shore. | ![]() [1] In the process, he calculated the oldest known example of a geometric series with the ratio 1/4 GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arc himedes ![]() [2] parabola and inscribed triangle. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Parabola.png | |
2,250 YBN [250 BCE] | 893) Strato dies, the Lyceum declines, the most popular university in philosophy is the Academy, but science is moving to Alexandria. | ![]() [1] In the process, he calculated the oldest known example of a geometric series with the ratio 1/4 GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arc himedes ![]() [2] parabola and inscribed triangle. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Parabola.png | |
2,250 YBN [250 BCE] | 894) Apollonios of Perga (Απολλώ 57;ιος ο Περγαί_ 9;ς ) (261 BCE Perga {south coast of Turkey} - 190 BCE Pergamum?) is the first to describe the ellipse, parabola, and hyperbola. Apollonius is a Greek geometer and astronomer, of the Alexandrian school. Apollonios is educated at the university in Alexandria, Apollonios may have learned from Archimedes. Like Euclid, Apollonois writes on math, makes 8 "books", 7 of which have been found. These writings include descriptions of the ellipse, parabola and hyperbola, 3 shapes Euclid did not describe. All of these shapes can be made by looking at a 2 dimensional piece of a cone (and are called "conic sections"). Kepler will make use of the ellipse to describe the movement of planets. He possibly thinks planets go around the sun, and the sun goes around earth, like Tycho Brahe will years later. Late in life, Apollonius moves from Alexandria to Pergamum, a city in western Turkey (Asia Minor) that has a library second only to Alexanmdria. | ||
2,246 YBN [246 BCE] | 898) Eratosthenes of Cyrene (Kurinaios) (ἘÏατοσθÎνης) (276 BCE Cyrene now Shahat, on Libyan coast - 196 BCE Alexandria) is the first person to accurately calculate the size of the earth. On the day of summer solstace, the longest day of the year, the sun is directly over head in Syene (now Aswan) in southern egypt at the same time the sun, Eratosthenes measure was degrees from the (perpendicular)/zenith in Alexandria. The difference is because the surface of the earth is curved and not flat. Erastosthenes is aware that Syene and Alexandria are almost on the same line of longitude (or meridian). Eratosthene also knows the distance between Syene and Alexandria (Erastothenes hired a human to pace out the distance between Alexandria and Syene ), and used this distance and the angle of the sun to calculate the diameter of the planet earth. This result was in units of measurement of space called "stadia". Eratosthenes calculates a distance between Alexandria and Syene as 5,000 stadia, and calculates that the angle of the sun (in Alexandria at noon on the longest day of the year) is 1/50th the circumference of a circle. What size the stade Eratosthenes uses is debated. One source has Eratosthenes using the Attic stade of 184.98m (606' 10") based on 600 Attic feet of 308.3m each. This puts the circumference Eratosthenes measures at 46,245km (modern=40,000km) or has an Egyptian Royal cubit of the time as 525mm. For the most probable length of a "stadia" the number Eratosthenes got was 40,000 km (25,000 miles), this number is accurate (the current estimate is 40,075.02 km). This number appeared to be larger than most humans could accept, the smaller value of Poseidonius was accepted. From this large number compared to the "known" earth, Eratosthenes thought the various seas formed a single interconnected ocean. He teaches that Africa might be circumnavigated, and that India can be reached by sailing westwards from Spain. Eratosthenes makes the "Sieve of Eratosthenes", a system for determining prime numbers. Eratosthenes advised adding an extra day every 4 years to the Egyptian calendar, but this will wait for Sosigenes 150 years later to be officially done by Julius Caesar. Eratosthenes makes a map of the "known" earth, from the British Islands in the East to Ceylon in the West, from the Caspian Sea in the North to Ethiopia in the South. This map is better than any before. In astronomy, Eratosthenes measures the angle of the earth's axis with the plane the sun appears to move in, and gets an accurate value. This value is called the "obliquity of ecliptic". Eratosthenes makes a star map of 675 stars. Around 255 BCE he invents the armillary sphere, which will be widely used until the invention of the orrery by Posidonius (135-51 BCE). Eratosthenes denounces those who divide mankind into two groups, Greeks and non-Greeks, and those, like Aristotle and Isocrates who advised Alexander to view the Greeks as friends and non-Greeks as enemies. Eratosthenes praises Alexander for disregarding this attitude. Eratosthenes advocates the Stoic moral principles of virtue and vice as a criterion for the division of men. Eratosthenes is a friend of Archimedes. Eratosthene s' original writings on the measurement of earth are lost, and all that have been found are accounts of his work by CLEOMEDES, PLINY, STRABO, PTOLEMY and others. The account of this measurement given by CLEOMEDES explains that 1) the rays of the Sun meeting the (spherical) Earth are parallel, and at the summer solstice, a gnomon at Alexandria indicated a shadow of 1/50 of a complete circle, while a gnomon at Sy~n6 assumed to lie under the same celestial meridian as Alexandria, on the Tropic of Cancer, cast no shadow. The distance between the two places is 5,000 stades. From this, (by applying the ratio of distance from Alexandria to Syene as equal to the ratio of 1/50 of a full circle), the circumference of the Earth was calculated to be 50*5,000 = 250,000 stades. Eratosthenes is the 3rd Head Librarian of the Royal Library in Alexandria from 245-201 BCE. Eratosthenes is called "Beta" by friends because they claim that Eritosthenes is second best in everything. Eratosthenes was born in Cyrene, a Greek colony in present-day Libya, North Africa. His teachers include the scholar Lysanias of Cyrene and the philosopher Ariston of Chios who had studied under Zeno, the founder of the Stoic school of philosophy. Eratosthenes also studies under the poet and scholar Callimachus who was also born in Cyrene. Eratosthenes then spends some years studying in Athens. After he graduates from schools in Athens, Ptolemy 3, impressed by Eritosthenes' writings, asks him to be Head Librarian of the Library in Alexandria. Eratosthenes also tutors the son of Ptolemy 3. (source?) Eratosthenes gave a home to Eudoxes, Euclid's brightest pupil, who became the first of record to teach the motions of the planets. Eratosthenes' contemporaries at the museum included Aristarchos of Samos (310-230 bce) the first to recognize the earth and other planets orbit the sun, Hipparchos, who imported the 360-degree circular system from Babylonia, and amassed charts of starts and constellations, and Herofilos and Erasistratos who pioneered the study of human anatomy. The library's access to Babylonian and Egyptian knowledge gives it an advantage against all competitors. Because of a wide interest in many sciences, Eratosthenes prefers to be designated as 'philologus' as opposed to 'grammaticus'. The Pinakes of Callimachus (also from Cyrene) must be a very valuable guide to Eratosthenes in his search for information. In his book "On the Measurements of the Earth", Eritosthenes tries to determine the distances of cities to each other and their latitude and longitude. In his main work "Geographica", Eritosthenes shows his familiarity of the earlier writings on geography, looking at the works the "Itinerary" and the works of Megasthenes and Patrocles, explorers employed by the rival Seleucid kingdom. As a result Eratosthenes makes a complete revision of the geographical map of this time. Eratosthenes teaches that the apparent original goal of the author of Homer is to entertain and not to instruct as is the prevailing view of the time. As a stoic, Eratosthenes was more heretical than the orthodox stoics such as Strabo, who accuses Eratosthenes of not mentioning Zeno, the founder of the school, but only Zeno's dissedent pupil Ariston, who founded a new branch of Stoicism in Athens, and who was less moralistic and more scientific than Zeno. | Alexandria, Egypt | |
2,246 YBN [246 BCE] | 936) Ptolemy III (246-221 BCE) sends requests to all leaders to borrow their books {papyri scrolls} for copying. When Athens lends him texts of Euripides, Aeschylus, and Sophocles, Ptolemy III has them copied, but keeps the originals, cheerfully forfeiting the fortune of fifteen talents he deposited as bond. This amount is the equivalent of the annual salary of 300 laborers in 5th century BCE Athens. Ptolemy III refuses to send grain to Athens during famine unless he is allowed to borrow the master copies of the above dramas. Ptolemy III is the first king to search ships for books. Galen, explaining how a copy of "Epidemics" (a work of the Hippocratic medical corpus), which had once belonged to Mnemon of Sidon, reached the library recounts that customs officials had orders from Ptolemy III to confiscate from passing ships all books they had, which were then copied. The originals were deposited in the Library, and marked in the catalog "from the ships". Sometimes owners received copies, but probably many people sailed away from Alexandria minus their first editions. Galen writes that competition between the kings of Pergamon and Egypt, in bidding for old books, inflated the prices and leads to forgeries being made. Galen writes that the books from the ships were first put in warehouses. Seneca will claim that the Ptolemies collect so many manuscripts not for sake of learning but merely as ornaments to display their wealth and power. Ptolemy III stops exporting papyrus to stop the young library created by the Selucids in Pergamon from competing. As a replacement for papyrus, people in Pergamon use cow skin. | ||
2,245 YBN [245 BCE] | 896) Conon names the constellation Coma Berenices ("Berenice's Hair") after Ptolemy's wife Berenice II. She sacrificed her hair in exchange for her husband's safe return from the Third Syrian War, which began in 246 BCE. When the lock of hair disappeared, Conon explained that the goddess had shown her favor by placing it in the sky. Not all Greek astronomers accepted the designation. In Ptolemy's Almagest, Coma Berenices is not listed as a distinct constellation. However, Ptolemy does attribute several seasonal indications (parapegma) to Conon. | ||
2,240 YBN [240 BCE] | 889) Conon (KOnoN) (Κόνων) (circa 280 BCE Samos - circa 220 BCE Alexandria) learns from Euclid, teaches Archimedes. Conon is the court astronomer to Ptolemy III Euergetes. He named the constellation Coma Berenices ("Berenice's Hair") after Ptolemy's wife Berenice II. She sacrificed her hair in exchange for her husband's safe return from the Third Syrian War, which began in 246 BCE. When the lock of hair disappeared, Conon explained that the goddess had shown her favor by placing it in the sky. Not all Greek astronomers accepted the designation. In Ptolemy's Almagest, Coma Berenices is not listed as a distinct constellation. However, Ptolemy does attribute several seasonal indications (parapegma) to Conon. Conon was a friend of the mathematician Archimedes. Apollonius of Perga reported that he worked on conic sections. | ||
2,240 YBN [240 BCE] | 923) Ptolemy III has the Serapeion (Serapeum) (Σεραπε 43;ου SRoPAU?) built presumably to store surplus books of the Royal Library. The Sarapeion is a massive raised acropolis of buildings. The Serapeum is away from the main library in the south west corner of Alexandria, the Egyptian quarter of Rhakotis. The Serapeum is called the "daughter library". In the bilingual foundation plaques, the name Serapis is rendered in the Egyptian form of Osor-Hapi (the Egyptian name is Osorapis). Two obelisks (a thin 4 sided monument becoming thinner up to the top with a pyramidal top), are said to have stood there as well as two red granite sphinxes which are still at the site. A black granite Apis bull (an egyptian god) now in the Alexandria museum was also in the Serapeum. This shows how the vision of the Ptolemies was to combine the Egyptian and Greek populations. Ptolemy 3 creates a temple of Serapis in the South-West part of Alexandria, some distance from the royal quarters. : The excavations by Alan Rowe and others in 1943-1944 will find foundation plaques that clearly bear the name of Ptolemy 3 Euergetes, even though medieval writers will attribute the Serapeum to Ptolemy 2 At the southern end are two long corridors opening into small rooms, and in particular a row of 19 uniform rooms, each about 3 by 4 meters. The excavators theorize that these rooms were used to shelve the scrolls of the Serapeum library, and that the scrolls were consulted in the corridors. One source has the Serapeum started under Ptolemy I Soter but finished under Ptolemy 3 as the foundation plaques excavated in 1942 indicate. In the east end is a huge statue of the god Serapeus (who looks like Zeus), made of wood and covered with ivory and gold, the outstretched arms nearly reach the two side-walls. In the left hand is a sceptre and under the right hand was an image of Cerberus, with a triple head of lion, dog and wolf, with a python coiled around he three heads. An east window behind the statue is arranged so that the first rays of the rising sun light up the features of the god. Under the plateau are underground passages and storerooms. Aphthonios (a Greek sophist and rhetorician living in the second half of the 4th century CE), in his "Progymnasmata", an introductory book on different kinds of rhetoric (fable, narration, comparison, etc.), gives a sample for the style of writing titled "Description" that describes the Sarapeion. Aphthonios writes: "Description: the temple in Alexandria, together with the acropolis Citadels are established for the common security of cities - for they are the highest points of cities. They are not walled round with buildings, so much as they wall round the cities. The centre of Athens held the Athenian acropolis; but the citadel which Alexander established for his own city is in fact what he named it, and it is more accurate to call this an acropolis than that on which the Athenians pride themselves. For it is somewhat as this discourse shall describe. A hill juts out of the ground, rising to a great height, and called an acropolis on both accounts, both because it is raised up on high and because it is placed in the high-point of the city. There are two roads to it, of dissimilar nature. One is a road, the other a way of access. The roads have different names according to their nature. Here it is possible to approach on foot and the road is shared also with those who approach on a wagon; there flights of steps have been cut and there is no passage for wagons. For flight after flight leads higher and higher, not stopping until the hundredth step; for the limit of their number is one which produces a perfect measure. After the steps is a gateway, shut in with grilled gates of moderate size. And four massive columns rise up, bringing four roads to one entrance. On the columns rises a building with many columns of moderate size in front, not of one colour, but they are fixed to the edifice as an ornament. The building's roof is domed, and round the dome is set a great image of the universe. As one enters the acropolis itself a single space is marked out by four sides; the plan of the arrangement is that of a hollow rectangle. There is a court in the centre, surrounded by a colonnade. Other colonnades succeed the court, colonnades divided by equal columns, and their length could not be exceeded. Each colonnade ends in another at right angles, and a double column divides each colonnade, ending the one and starting the other. Chambers are built within the colonnades. Some are repositories for the books, open to those who are diligent in philosophy and stirring up the whole city to mastery of wisdom. Others are established in honour of the ancient gods. The colonnades are roofed, and the roof is made of gold, and the capitals {tops} of the columns are made of bronze overlaid with gold. The decoration of the court is not single. For different parts are differently decorated, and one has the exploits of Perseus. In the middle there rises a column of great height, making the place conspicuous (someone on his way does not know where he is going, unless he uses the pillar as a sign of the direction) and makes the acropolis stand out by land and sea. The beginnings of the universe stand round the capital of the column. Before one comes to the middle of the court there is set an edifice with many entrances, which are named after the ancient gods; and two stone obelisks rise up, and a fountain better than that of the Peisistratids. And the marvel had an incredible number of builders. As one was not sufficient for the making, builders of the whole acropolis were appointed to the number of twelve {by the dozen}. As one comes down from the acropolis, here is a flat place resembling a race-course, which is what the place is called; and here there is another of similar shape, but not equal in size. The beauty is unspeakable. If anything has been omitted, it has been bracketed by amazement; what it was not possible to describe has been omitted." | ||
2,235 YBN [235 BCE] | 890) Philon (Φίλων) (Byzanteum 265-202 BCE), experiments with air, found that air expands with heat, perhaps made air thermometer, noticed that air was consumed by a burning torch in a closed vessel. Philon is a Greek scholar and engineer who writes a collection of books about the most important mechanical inventions of the time. Philon considers in his writings the theoretical basis of mechanical contrivances: the law of the lever for pumps, war machines, and diving devices. He describes an instrument for the demonstration of the expansion of air. This device might have been used as a thermometer, one of the earliest known. Hero will also experiment with air. | ||
2,235 YBN [235 BCE] | 895) Apollonios retires as chief librarian of the library of Alexandria and moves to Rhodes. Ptolemy III Eurgetes appoints Eratosthenes to replace Apollonius. conflicts: Ptolemy II Philadelphus appointed one of Eratosthenes' teachers Callimachus as the second librarian. In 236 BC he was appointed by Ptolemy III Euergetes I as librarian of the Alexandrian library, succeeding the first librarian, Zenodotos, in that post. | ||
2,230 YBN [230 BCE] | 1034) The letter "G" is added to the Latin alphabet in Rome. Before this the letter "C" could be either the "K" or "G" sound, now the letter "G" will have the "G" sound and the letter "C" will only have the "K" sound. A more logical system would be to not add any letter "G", and to use the letter "C" only as "G", "K" for all "K" sounds, but this simple one letter equals one sound only system is not recognized. This confusion about how to pronounce the letter "C" will continue for thousands of years, persisting even today. Later the letter "C" will also take on an "S" and "CH" sound and "G" will take on the "J" sound, adding to a simple and unnecessary confusion. The letter G is added to the Latin alphabet in Rome, by Spurius Carvilius Ruga, according to Plutarch. The letter G is created by the Romans because they feel that C is not an adequate letter to represent both the k and g (as in "good") sounds as is the practice before this letter is invented. So the letter "G" is created by adding a stroke to the letter "C". | ||
2,230 YBN [230 BCE] | 1373) King Asoka (BCE 304-232) (reign: BCE 273-232), an Indian emperor, who ruled the Maurya Empire across the Indian subcontinent, establishes a chain of hospitals in Hindustan around this time. Asoka founds hospitals for humans and the other species and supplies medicine to the public. Asoka creates orders stopping violence against animals. | Hindustan | ![]() [1] Ashoka the Great Mauryan emperor Modern reconstruction of Ashoka's portrait. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Ashoka2.jpg ![]() [2] A poltical map of the Mauryan Empire, including notable cities, such as the capital Pataliputra, and site of the Buddha's enlightenment. Dark blue represents the extend of the Mauryan Empire under Emperor Ashoka, light blue represents possible tributary states, vassals or allies. Green blue represents notable rivers, black represetns modern political borders, and brown represents the border of South Asia. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Mauryan_Empire_Map.gif |
2,212 YBN [212 BCE] | 892) Archimedes is killed by a Roman soldier during the sack of Syracuse during the Second Punic War, despite orders from the Roman general Marcellus that he was not to be harmed. The Greeks said that he was killed while drawing an equation in the sand; engrossed in his diagram and impatient with being interrupted, he is said to have muttered his famous last words before being slain by an enraged Roman soldier: Μη μου τους κύκλου` 2; τάραττ^ 9; ("Do not disturb my circles"). | ||
2,205 YBN [205 BCE] | 937) Ptolemy 5 (reigns 205-180 BCE), scholars organized games, festivals, and library comptetitions. It remained a cult center directed by a Priest. The main shrine of Apollo is in Delphi, for Zeus in Olympus, and for the Muses in Alexandria. | ||
2,204 YBN [204 BCE] | 938) Aristophanes of Byzantium (c237-180bce) (different from dramatist) replaces Eratosthenes as fourth Head Librarian in Alexandria from 204 to 189 BCE. Aristophanes is a capable grammarian who introduces the use of accents into the Greek Language. Aristofanes seems to have less magnetism on fellow scholars than Eratosthenes did. After a 20 uneventful years, he will be succeeded by the last recorded librarian, Aristarchos of Samothrace (not to be confused with Aristarchos of Samos, the astronomer). Aristofanes grows up in Egypt, and is head Librarian under Ptolemy 4 Philopator (reigns 221-205 BCE). Vitruvius will write that Aristophanes systematically read each book in the library. As a judge in poetry competitions Aristophanes could recognize any borrowed lines in addition to identifying the original work. Aristophanes writes many "hypotheseis", which are short summaries that preface works. Much information of lost works will reach ppl of the future through these hypotheseis. In his great lexicographical work "Lexeis", he separates words thought to be used by ancient ppl (Palaioi) and words unknown to ancient people, or new words (Kainoterai). | ||
2,189 YBN [189 BCE] | 948) Apollonius Eidograph is 5th librarian of Alexandria Library from 189-175 BCE. | ||
2,186 YBN [186 BCE] | 1117) The Suà n shù shū (算數書) or "Writings on Reckoning" is the earliest know Chinese mathematical text. This text was found in the tomb of an anonymous civil servant that consists of 1200 bamboo strips written in ink that date to this year. The Suà n shù shū consists of 190 strips of bamboo written in ink. They consist of 69 mathematical problems from a variety of sources, two of the authors were Mr Wáng and Mr Yáng. Each problem has a question, answer and a method. The problems cover elementary arithmetic; fractions; geometric progressions, in particular interest rate calculations and handelling of errors; conversion between different units; the false position method for finding roots and the extraction of approximate square roots; calculation of the volume of various 3-dimensional shapes; relative dimensions of a square and its inscribed circle; Calculation of unknown side of rectangle, given area and one side. All the calculations involving circles are aproximate, equivilent to taking π = 3. | Zhangjiashan, Hubei Provience, China | ![]() [1] The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art Source: http://www.chinapage.com/jiuzhang.gif P D source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:%E4%B9%9D%E7%AB%A0%E7%AE%97%E8%A1%93. gif |
2,175 YBN [175 BCE] | 949) Aristarchos of Samothrake (Samothrace) (Greek: Σαμοθρ^ 0;κη, Samothraki) (not Aristarchos of Samos the astronomer), is the 6th Head Librarian in the Alexandria Library from 175-145 BCE. Aristarcos of Samothrake, is appointed by Ptolemy VI Philometor, and is a Homeric scholar. Alexandrian scholarship is dominated by literary criticism. Aristarchos of Samothrake's work "Life" in the Suidas Lexicon shows that he had 40 pupils, and wrote 800 books of commentary, probably covering most Greek classics. | ||
2,173 YBN [173 BCE] | 955) Polybios (Polybius) (Greek Πολυβι_ 9;ς, c.203 BCE - 120 BCE) was a Greek historian of the Mediterranean world famous for his book called "The Histories" or "The Rise of the Roman Empire", covering the period of 220 BCE to 146 BCE. Polybius writes "It is no difficult task to write from books provided one resides in a city well equipped with achives and a library". This is evidence that public libraries were a feature of most Hellenistic cities. | ||
2,160 YBN [160 BCE] | 1029) Hipparchos (Greek Ἳππαρχ 59;ς) (Nicaea {now Iznik in NW Turkey} 190 BCE - 120 BCE), astronomer in the Mouseion in Alexandria, uses a solar eclipse to determine the distance from the Earth to the Moon. Hipparchos, is the first person to make a trigonometric table, and is probably first to develop a reliable method to predict solar eclipses. Hipparchos compiles a star catalog with 850 stars and their relative brightness, and probably invents the astrolabe. Hipparchos does not use the sun-centered system of Aristarchos, but instead the mistaken earth-centered system Anaxamander and the vast majority of others chose to support. Hipparchos compares the position of the moon compared to the sun during a solar eclipse in Syene and in Alexandria to determine the distance from the Earth to the Moon. Hipparchos recognizes precession (how positions of stars appear to change over centuries) perhaps from Kidinnu of Babylonia, or from previously recorded star positions. Hipparchus wrote at least fourteen books, but only his commentary on a popular astronomical poem by Aratus has been preserved. Most of what is known about Hipparchus comes from Ptolemy's (2nd century AD) Almagest, with additional references to him by Pappus of Alexandria and Theon of Alexandria (4th century) in their commentaries on the Almagest; from Strabo's Geographia ("Geography"), and from Pliny the Elder's Naturalis historia ("Natural history") (1st century). calculates a range of the distance of the earth moon from earth is 60.3x. worked in Rhodes, an island in SE Aegean. used aristarchus luner eclipse method (?) and also measured parallax of earth moon. Hipparchus measured distance from earth to moon to be 30 times diameter of earth. parallax of other planets can only be measured with a telescope so this distance was only distance known/learned/remembered until telescope. Pliny will claim, in his "Natural History", that Hipparchos compiled his catalog of stars so that future astronomers can detect changes in positions and the possible appearance of novae. Lucio Russo writes that Edmund Halley, "probably without realizing that he was completing an experiment ... started two thousand years earlier" will be the first to notice this difference in 1718. In the 2nd and 3rd centuries coins were made in his honour in Bithynia that bear his name and show him with a globe; this confirms the tradition that he was born there. Hipparchus is believed to have died on the island of Rhodes, where he spent most of his later life--Ptolemy attributes observations to him from Rhodes in the period from 141 BC to 127 BC. Hipparchus is recognized as the originator and father of scientific astronomy. He is believed to be the greatest Greek astronomical observer, and many regard him as the greatest astronomer of ancient times, although Cicero gave preferences to Aristarchus of Samos. Some put in this place also Ptolemy of Alexandria. Hipparchus' writings had been mostly superseded by those of Ptolemy, so later copyists have not preserved them for posterity. Earlier Greek astronomers and mathematicians were influenced by Babylonian astronomy to a limited extent, for instance the period relations of the Metonic cycle and Saros cycle may have come from Babylonian sources. Hipparchus seems to have been the first to exploit Babylonian astronomical knowledge and techniques systematically. He was the first Greek known to divide the circle in 360 degrees of 60 arc minutes (Eratosthenes before him used a simpler sexagesimal system dividing a circle into 60 parts). He also used the Babylonian unit pechus ("cubit") of about 2° or 2½°. Hipparchus also studied the motion of the Moon and confirmed the accurate values for some periods of its motion that Chaldean astronomers had obtained before him. The traditional value (from Babylonian System B) for the mean synodic month is 29 days;31,50,8,20 (sexagesimal) = 29.5305941... d. Expressed as 29 days + 12 hours + 793/1080 hours this value has been used later in the Hebrew calendar (possibly from Babylonian sources). The Chaldeans also knew that 251 synodic months = 269 anomalistic months. Hipparchus extended this period by a factor of 17, because after that interval the Moon also would have a similar latitude, and it is close to an integer number of years (345). Therefore, eclipses would reappear under almost identical circumstances. The period is 126007 days 1 hour (rounded). Hipparchus could confirm his computations by comparing eclipses from his own time (presumably 27 January 141 BCE and 26 November 139 BCE according to {Toomer 1980}), with eclipses from Babylonian records 345 years earlier (Almagest IV.2; {Jones 2001}). Before Hipparchus, Meton, Euctemon, and their pupils at Athens had made a solstice observation (i.e., timed the moment of the summer solstice) on June 27, 432 BC (proleptic Julian calendar). Aristarchus of Samos is said to have done so in 280 BC, and Hipparchus also had an observation by Archimedes. Hipparchus himself observed the summer solstice in 135 BC, but he found observations of the moment of equinox more accurate, and he made many during his lifetime. Ptolemy gives an extensive discussion of Hipparchus' work on the length of the year in the Almagest III.1, and quotes many observations that Hipparchus made or used, spanning 162 BCE to 128 BCE. At the end of his career, Hipparchus wrote a book called Peri eniausÃou megéthous ("On the Length of the Year") about his results. Before Hipparchus the Chaldean astronomers knew that the lengths of the seasons are not equal. Hipparchus made equinox and solstice observations, and according to Ptolemy (Almagest III.4) determined that spring (from spring equinox to summer solstice) lasted 94 + 1/2 days, and summer (from summer solstice to autumn equinox) 92 + 1/2 days. This is an unexpected result given a premise of the Sun moving around the Earth in a circle at uniform speed. Hipparchus' solution was to place the Earth not at the center of the Sun's motion, but at some distance from the center. This model described the apparent motion of the Sun fairly well (of course today we know that the planets like the Earth move in ellipses around the Sun, but this was not discovered until Johannes Kepler published his first two laws of planetary motion in 1609). It's not clear if Hipparchos or Ptolemy found these values. Hipparchus also undertook to find the distances and sizes of the Sun and the Moon. He published his results in a work of two books called Peri megethoon kai 'apostèmátoon ("On Sizes and Distances") by Pappus in his commentary on the Almagest V.11; Theon of Smyrna (2nd century) mentions the work with the addition "of the Sun and Moon". Hipparchus measured the apparent diameters of the Sun and Moon with his diopter. Like others before and after him, he found that the Moon's size varies as it moves on its (eccentric) orbit, but he found no perceptible variation in the apparent diameter of the Sun. He found that at the mean distance of the Moon, the Sun and Moon had the same apparent diameter Like others before and after him, he also noticed that the Moon has a noticeable parallax, i.e., that it appears displaced from its calculated position (compared to the Sun or stars), and the difference is greater when closer to the horizon. He knew that this is because the Moon circles the center of the Earth, but the observer is at the surface - Moon, Earth and observer form a triangle with a sharp angle that changes all the time. From the size of this parallax, the distance of the Moon as measured in Earth radii can be determined. For the Sun however, there was no observable parallax (we now know that it is about 8.8", more than ten times smaller than the resolution of the unaided eye). In the first book, Hipparchus assumes that the parallax of the Sun is 0, as if it is at infinite distance. He then analyzed a solar eclipse, presumably that of 14 March 190 BC. Alexandria and Nicaea are on the same meridian. Alexandria is at about 31° North, and the region of the Hellespont at about 41° North; authors like Strabo and Ptolemy had fairly decent values for these geographical positions, and presumably Hipparchus knew them too. So Hipparchus could draw a triangle formed by the two places and the Moon, and from simple geometry was able to establish a distance of the Moon, expressed in Earth radii. Because the eclipse occurred in the morning, the Moon was not in the meridian, and as a consequence the distance found by Hipparchus was a lower limit. In any case, according to Pappus, Hipparchus found that the least distance is 71 (from this eclipse), and the greatest 81 Earth radii. In the second book, Hipparchus starts from the opposite extreme assumption: he assigns a (minimum) distance to the Sun of 470 Earth radii. This would correspond to a parallax of 7', which is apparently the greatest parallax that Hipparchus thought would not be noticed (for comparison: the typical resolution of the human eye is about 2'. In this case, the shadow of the Earth is a cone rather than a cylinder as under the first assumption. Hipparchus observed (at lunar eclipses) that at the mean distance of the Moon, the diameter of the shadow cone (of the earth) is 2+½ lunar diameters. That apparent diameter is, as he had observed, 360/650 degrees (of the sky). With these values and simple geometry, Hipparchus could determine the mean distance; because it was computed for a minimum distance of the Sun, it is the maximum average distance possible for the Moon. With his value for the eccentricity of the orbit, he could compute the least and greatest distances of the Moon too. According to Pappus, he found a least distance of 62, a mean of 67+1/3, and consequently a greatest distance of 72+2/3 Earth radii. With this method, as the parallax of the Sun decreases (i.e., its distance increases), the minimum limit for the mean distance is 59 Earth radii - exactly the mean distance that Ptolemy will later derive. Hipparchus therefore had the problematic result that his minimum distance (from book 1) was greater than his maximum mean distance (from book 2). He was intellectually honest about this discrepancy, and probably realized that especially the first method is very sensitive to the accuracy of the observations and parameters (in fact, modern calculations show that the size of the solar eclipse at Alexandria must have been closer to 9/10 than to the reported 4/5). Ptolemy later measured the lunar parallax directly (Almagest V.13) (presumable against the position of a star?), and used the second method of Hipparchus' with lunar eclipses to compute the distance of the Sun (Almagest V.15). He will criticize Hipparchus for making contradictory assumptions, and obtaining conflicting results (Almagest V.11): but apparently he will fail to understand Hipparchus' strategy to establish limits consistent with the observations, rather than a single value for the distance. Hipparchos' results are the best until his time: the actual mean distance of the Moon is 60.3 Earth radii, within his limits from book 2. Pliny (Naturalis Historia II.X) tells us that Hipparchus demonstrated that lunar eclipses can occur five months apart, and solar eclipses seven months (instead of the usual six months); and the Sun can be hidden twice in thirty days, but as seen by different nations. Ptolemy discussed this a century later at length in Almagest VI.6. The geometry, and the limits of the positions of Sun and Moon when a solar or lunar eclipse is possible, are explained in Almagest VI.5. Hipparchus apparently made similar calculations. The result that two solar eclipses can occur one month apart is important, because this can not be based on observations: one is visible on the northern and the other on the southern hemisphere - as Pliny indicates -, and the latter was inaccessible to the Greek. Prediction of a solar eclipse, i.e., exactly when and where it will be visible, requires a solid lunar theory and proper treatment of the lunar parallax. Hipparchus must have been the first to be able to do this. A rigorous treatment requires spherical trigonometry, but Hipparchus may have made do with planar approximations. He may have discussed these things in Peri tes kata platos meniaias tes selenes kineseoos ("On the monthly motion of the Moon in latitude"), a work mentioned in the Suda. Hipparchus is credited with the invention or improvement of several astronomical instruments, which were used for a long time for naked-eye observations. According to Synesius of Ptolemais (4th century) he made the first astrolabion: this may have been an armillary sphere (which Ptolemy however says he constructed, in Almagest V.1); or the predecessor of the planar instrument called astrolabe (also mentioned by Theon of Alexandria). With an astrolabe Hipparchus was the first to be able to measure the geographical latitude and time by observing stars. Previously this was done at daytime by measuring the shadow cast by a gnomon, or with the portable instrument known as scaphion. Ptolemy mentions (Almagest V.14) that he used a similar instrument as Hipparchus, called dioptra, to measure the apparent diameter of the Sun and Moon. Pappus of Alexandria described it (in his commentary on the Almagest of that chapter), as did Proclus (Hypotyposis IV). It was a 4-foot rod with a scale, a sighting hole at one end, and a wedge that could be moved along the rod to exactly obscure the disk of Sun or Moon. Hipparchus also observed solar equinoxes, which may be done with an equatorial ring: its shadow falls on itself when the Sun is on the equator (i.e., in one of the equinoctial points on the ecliptic), but the shadow falls above or below the opposite side of the ring when the Sun is south or north of the equator. Ptolemy quotes (in Almagest III.1 (H195)) a description by Hipparchus of an equatorial ring in Alexandria; a little further he describes two such instruments present in Alexandria in his own time. Contributions to geography: Hipparchus applied his knowledge of spherical angles to the problem of denoting locations on the Earth's surface. Before him a grid system had been used by Dicaearchus of Messana, but Hipparchus was the first to apply mathematical rigor to the determination of the latitude and longitude of places on the Earth. Hipparchus wrote a critique in three books on the work of the geographer Eratosthenes of Cyrene (3rd century BC), called Pròs tèn 'Eratosthénous geografÃan ("Against the Geography of Eratosthenes"). It is known to us from Strabo of Amaseia, who in his turn criticised Hipparchus in his own Geografia. Hipparchus apparently made many detailed corrections to the locations and distances mentioned by Eratosthenes. It seems he did not introduce many improvements in methods, but he did propose a means to determine the geographical longitudes of different cities at lunar eclipses (Strabo Geografia 7). A lunar eclipse is visible simultaneously on half of the Earth, and the difference in longitude between places can be computed from the difference in local time when the eclipse is observed. His approach would give accurate results if it were correctly carried out but the limitations of timekeeping accuracy in his era made this method impractical. Previously, Eudoxus of Cnidus in the 4th century B.C. had described the stars and constellations in two books called Phaenomena and Entropon. Aratus wrote a poem called Phaenomena or Arateia based on Eudoxus' work. Hipparchus wrote a commentary on the Arateia - his only preserved work - which contains many stellar positions and times for rising, culmination, and setting of the constellations, and these are likely to have been based on his own measurements. Hipparchus made his measurements with an equatorial armillary sphere, and obtained the positions of maybe about 850 stars. It is disputed which coordinate system he used. Ptolemy's catalogue in the Almagest, which is derived from Hipparchus' catalogue, is given in ecliptic coordinates. Hipparchus' original catalogue has not been preserved today. However, an analysis of an ancient statue of Atlas (the so-called Farnese Atlas) published in 2005 shows stars at positions that appear to have been determined using Hipparchus' data.. As with most of his work, Hipparchus star catalogue has been adopted and expanded by Ptolemy. It has been strongly disputed how much of the star catalogue in the Almagest is due to Hipparchus, and how much is original work by Ptolemy. Statistical analysis (e.g. by Bradly Schaeffer, and others) shows that the classical star catalogue has a complex origin. Ptolemy has even been accused of fraud for stating that he re-measured all stars: many of his positions are wrong and it appears that in most cases he used Hipparchus' data and precessed them to his own epoch three centuries later, but using an erroneous (too small) precession constant. In any case the work started by Hipparchus has had a lasting heritage, and has been worked on much later by Al Sufi (964), and by Ulugh Beg as late as 1437. It was superseded only by more accurate observations after invention of the telescope. Hipparchus (is the first?) ranks stars in six magnitude classes according to their brightness: he assignes the value of one to the twenty brightest stars, to weaker ones a value of two, and so forth to the stars with a class of six, which can be barely seen with the naked eye. A similar system is still used today (perhaps a system based on number of photons received/second will be next). Hipparchus is perhaps most famous for having discovered the precession of the equinoxes. His two books on precession, On the Displacement of the Solsticial and Equinoctial Points and On the Length of the Year, are both mentioned in the Almagest of Claudius Ptolemy. According to Ptolemy, Hipparchus measured the longitude of Spica and other bright stars. Comparing his measurements with data from his predecessors, Timocharis and Aristillus, he realized that Spica had moved 2° relative to the autumnal equinox. He also compared the lengths of the tropical year (the time it takes the Sun to return to an equinox) and the sidereal year (the time it takes the Sun to return to a fixed star), and found a slight discrepancy. Hipparchus concluded that the equinoxes were moving ("precessing") through the zodiac, and that the rate of precession was not less than 1° in a century. Ptolemy followed up on Hipparchus' work in the 2nd century AD. He confirmed that precession affected the entire sphere of fixed stars (Hipparchus had speculated that only the stars near the zodiac were affected), and concluded that 1° in 100 years was the correct rate of precession. The modern value is 1° in 72 years. As far as is known, Hipparchus never wrote about astrology, i.e. the application of astronomy to the (fraudulent albeit nonviolent and legal) practice of divination. | ![]() [1] image of Hipparchos from coin? http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/hist ory/Mathematicians/Hipparchus.html PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Hipparchos_1.jpeg ![]() [2] hipparchos stamp UNKNOWN source: http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac .uk/history/PictDisplay/Hipparchus.html | |
2,150 YBN [150 BCE] | 1039) Seleukos (Seleucus) (Asimov: SeLYUKuS, t: SeLYUKOS) of Seleucia (on the Tigris River) (190BCE-?), agrees with the sun-centered theory of Aristarchos. Seleukos views the universe as infinite in size. Seleukos may have used changes in tides as evidence for a sun-centered theory. Seleukos lives in Babylonia and is probably called "Chaldean" or "Babylonian", but was probably part Greek, and lives during the same time as Hipparchos. Strabo will explain that Seleukos understood the yearly changes of the tides from season to season, revealing the fact that tides show a maximum change in height with each consecutive high tide (diurnal inequality) during the solstice, and minimum change of height difference of consecutive high tides during the equinox. This phenomenon is explained by the fact that the earth is tilted to the sun, during the solstice, but is not tilted to the sun during the equinox {add image}, although this could be explained with a tilted sun in an earth-centered theory. This phenomenon will not be understood again until G. H. Darwin in 1898. Plutarch writes: Was {Timaeus} giving the earth motion ..., and should the earth ... be understoof to have been designed not as confined and fixed but as turning and revolving about, in the way expounded later by Aristarchos and Seleukos, the former assuming this as a hypothesis and the latter proclaiming it?" Aetius will write, "Seleucus the mathematician (also one of those who think the earth moves) says that the moon's revolution counteracts the whirlpool motion of the earth". | ||
2,145 YBN [145 BCE] | 951) With the reign of Ptolemy VIII Physcon, the last distinguished librarian of the Alexandria Library Aristarchos of Samothrace goes into exile in the company of other scholars, replaced by "Cydas of the spearmen" (145-116? BCE ). | ||
2,143 YBN [143 BCE] | 1337) Shishi Middle School (Simplified Chinese:石室中学 ,文翁石室 ,pinyin: shÃshì zhōngxúe,wén wēng shÃshì), founded during the Han Dynasty by Wen Weng is the first local Chinese public school, and is the oldest middle school on earth today. | Chengdu, China | |
2,140 YBN [140 BCE] | 1070) Earliest paper artifact (although without writing) is made of hemp fibers and comes from a tomb in China. Before this bamboo and silk are written on in China. The method of making paper by pouring wood pulp mixed in water into a flat mold and drying the sediment will take over 1000 years to be understood in Europe, although it will reach India in the 600s CE. Paper is considered one of the most important inventions in history, since it enabled China to develop its civilization much faster than with earlier writing materials (primarily bamboo), and it did the same with Europe when it was introduced in the 12th century or the 13th century. | Xian, China | |
2,134 YBN [01/01/134 BCE] | 1041) Hipparchos sees a "new" star (supernova) in Scorpio (according to Pliny), around age 56, and decides to make a star map of more than 1000 of the brighter stars. His interest in the fixed stars may have been inspired by the observation of this supernova (according to Pliny), or by his discovery of precession (according to Ptolemy, who will write that Hipparchos could not reconcile his data with earlier observations made by Timocharis and Aristyllos). This map is better than any previous star maps (including those of Eudoxus and Eratosthenes). Hipparchus uses the lines of latitude and longitude of Dicaearchus 150 years before to map the stars. In comparing the current location of stars with earlier recorded locations, Hipparchos finds that there is a uniform shift from west to east, and recognizes that the north celestial pole moves in a slow circle, completing 1 cycle in 26,700 years. This results in the equinox arriving earlier each year and is called the "precession of the equinoxes". Not until Copernicus was this explained as the slow "wobble" of the earth, not the movement of the stars. | ||
2,127 YBN [127 BCE] | 943) After a civil war with system Cleopatra II, her brother Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II (Greek: Πτολεμ^ 5;ίος Ευεργέ` 4;ης) (c. 182 BC - 26 June 116 BC), nicknamed Physcon ("Potbelly" or "Bladder") for his obesity, destroys much of the city of Alexandria. Athenaeus will write around 200 CE: "It appears the scholars of the Museum, the artists, and even the physicians, shocked at the horrors and violence perpetrated, left Alexandria, and that the islands and mainland of Greece were filled with refugee grammarians, philosophers, geometers, musicians, painters, physicians, and other learned men, who, obliged by necessity to teach what they knew, soon became celebrated." Clearly the Mousaeion recovers after this. | ||
2,120 YBN [120 BCE] | 942) Eudoxes of Cyzicus makes the first voyage from Egypt to India which opens a new trade route. This happens only after the Greek people in Alexandria learn about the timing of the monsoon. | ||
2,105 YBN [01/01/105 BCE] | 1042) Poseidonios (Poseidonius) (Greek: Ποσειδa 4;νιος) (POSiDOnEuS) (135 BCE Apamea, Syria - 50 BCE) calculates the largest and most accurate size for the sun, even larger than Aristarchos' calculation. Ptolemy will accept Poseidonios' inaccurate smaller estimate for the size of the earth, and reject the correct estimate of Eratosthenes, and this inaccurate value will last for 1500 years. Poseidonios forms a school in Rhodes. Poseidoni os is a Greek Stoic philosopher, politician, astronomer, geographer, historian, and teacher. He is acclaimed as the greatest polymath of his age. None of his vast body of work can be read in its entirety today as it exists only in fragments. Like Pytheas, Poseidonios thinks that the moon causes the tides, and goes west to the Atlantic ocean to study tides. Poseidonios uses Canopus in place of the sun in order to calculate the size of the earth, but his measurement is too small (as described by Strabo the only source for this data). Ptolemy will accept this lower number, instead of accurate calculation made by Eratosthenes, and this will be the accepted value of the Earth's circumference for the next 1,500 years, and may influence Christopher Columbus that the earth can be circumnavigated. Poseidonius supports the pseudoscience of astrology. He attempted to measure the distance and size of the Sun. In about 90 BCE Posidonius estimated the astronomical unit to be a0/rE = 9893, which was still too small by half. In measuring the size of the Sun, however, he reached a figure larger and more accurate than those proposed by other Greek astronomers and Aristarchus of Samos. Posidonius also calculated the size and distance of the Moon. Posidonius constructed an orrery, possibly similar to the Antikythera mechanism. Posidonius's orrery, according to Cicero, exhibited the diurnal motions of the sun, moon, and the five known planets. | ||
2,100 YBN [100 BCE] | 952) Antiochus of Ascalon (130 BCE - 68 BCE) is the first philosopher in Alexandria of record. Antiochus is a member of the Academy, and teaches Cicero in Athens. Antiochus is mentioned in Cicero's "Academica" as a supporter of the Old Academy, in opposition to the more skeptical trend of the Middle and New Academy. Antiochus tries to blend Plato, Aristotle and Zeno, and this will contribute to the rise of neoplatonism. | ||
2,100 YBN [100 BCE] | 1054) Earliest waterwheel. The power of the waterwheel is mainly used to mill flour but will be used for a variety of purposes where a spinning motor can be used. | ||
2,100 YBN [100 BCE] | 1374) Around this time the Romans establish hospitals (valetudinaria) for the treatment of their sick and injured soldiers. Care of the soldiers is important because the power of Rome is based on the legions. These hospitals are identified only according to the layout of building remains, and not by surviving records or finds of health science tools. | Rome | |
2,080 YBN [80 BCE] | 870) Antikythera mechanism (ο μηχανι` 3;μός των Αντικυ_ 2;ήρων) used to display the positions of astronomical objects (like planets). This is the oldest analog computer, and differential gear (links two shafts in a casing, constraining the sum of the rotational angles of the shafts to equal the rotational angle of the casing) yet found. This object may be evidence that the sun centered theory first identified by Aristarcos of Samos may have been more popular than previously thought. | ||
2,076 YBN [76 BCE] | 1047) Cicero (KiKerO), Marcus Tullius Cicero, Roman politician, and philosopher writes many works, that will be preserved by Christians, which will help to understand the history of Rome in this time. | ||
2,075 YBN [75 BCE] | 1116) The first use of negative numbers is in the Chinese mathematics book "The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art" (Jiu-zhang Suanshu). Negative numbers are in read and positive numbers in black. "The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art" lays out an approach to mathematics that centers on finding the most general methods of solving problems, which may be contrasted with the approach common to ancient Greek mathematicians, who tended to deduce propositions from an initial set of axioms. | China | ![]() [1] The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art Source: http://www.chinapage.com/jiuzhang.gif P D source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:%E4%B9%9D%E7%AB%A0%E7%AE%97%E8%A1%93. gif |
2,070 YBN [70 BCE] | 953) Heracleides of Tarentum, the most important Empiricist in the history of the school practices human anatomy, develops surgical techniques, while maintaining the Empiricist experimental method of curing. He writes a book on drugs, dietics, and a history of the Empirical school. Many of these writing will only reach people of the future from Arabic translations. He was the most famous of the Empirical physicians of his day. He made experiments on the properties of opium. | ||
2,060 YBN [60 BCE] | 958) Diodorus Siculus (c.90 BCE - c.30 BCE) is a Greek historian, born at Agyrium in Sicily (now called Agira, in the Province of Enna). Diodorus' history, which he named "Bibliotheca Historia" ("Historical Library"), consistes of forty books, which were divided into three sections. The first six books are geographical in theme, and describe the history and culture of Egypt (book I), of Mesopotamia, India, Scythia, and Arabia (II), of North Africa (III), and of Greece and Europe (IV - VI). In the next section (books VII - XVII), he recounts the history of the World starting with the Trojan War, down to the death of Alexander the Great. The last section (books XVII to the end) concerns the historical events from the successors of Alexander down to either 60 BCE or the beginning of Caesar's Gallic War in 45 BCE. (The end has been lost, so it is unclear whether Diodorus reached the beginning of the Gallic War as he promised at the beginning of his work or, as evidence suggests, old and tired from his labors he stopped short at 60 BCE.) | ||
2,060 YBN [60 BCE] | 959) Philo (20 BCE - 40 CE), known also as Philo of Alexandria and as Philo Judeaus, is a Hellenized Jewish philosopher born in Alexandria, Egypt. Philo is thought to be the pre-cursor to the Judeo-Christian school of thought. Philo Judeaus believes in the Old Testiment, and studies Greek philosophy. Philo's conception of the matter out of which the world was created is similar to that of Plato and the Stoics. According to him, God does not create the world-stuff, but finds it ready at hand. God cannot create it, as in its nature it resists all contact with the divine. Sometimes, following the Stoics, he designates God as "the efficient cause,"and matter as "the affected cause." He seems to have found this conception in the Bible (Gen. i. 2) in the image of the spirit of God hovering over the waters ("De Opificio Mundi," § 2 ). Philo, again like Plato and the Stoics, conceives of matter as having no attributes or form; this, however, does not harmonize with the assumption of four elements. Philo wrongly views matter as evil, on the ground that no praise is meted out to it in Genesis ("Quis Rerum Divinarum Heres Sit," § 32 ). As a result, he rejects an actual Creation, but accepts only a formation of the world, as Plato holds. Philo frequently compares God to an architect or gardener, who formed the present world (the κόσμος ἀισϑητ 72;ς) according to a pattern, the ideal world (κόσμος νοητός). Philo takes the details of his story of the Creation entirely from Gen. i. A specially important position is assigned here to the Logos, which executes the several acts of the Creation, as God cannot come into contact with matter, actually creating only the soul of the good. Philo's works will be enthusiastically received by early Christians, some of whom see a Christian in him. Eusebius will later speculate that the Therapeutae, the Jewish group of ascetic hermits in the Egyptian desert that Philo describes in De vita contemplativa ("Contemplative Life") is in fact a Christian group, but being written in 10 CE they cannot be, although they may be similar to early christian monastic groups. Philo himself claims in his Embassy to Gaius to have been part of an embassy sent by the Alexandrian Jews to the Roman Emperor Gaius. Philo says he was carrying a petition which described the sufferings of the Alexandrian Jews, and which asked the emperor to secure their rights. His account of the Creation is almost identical with that of Plato; he follows the latter's "Timaeus" closely in his exposition of the world as having no beginning and no end. Like Plato, he places the creative activity as well as the act of creation outside of time, on the Platonic ground that time begins only with the world. The influence of Pythagorism appears in number-symbolism, to which Philo frequently refers. | ||
2,056 YBN [56 BCE] | 1045) Lucretius (BCE c95-c55) describes light as being made of tiny atoms that move very fast. Lucretius describes light as being made of tiny atoms that move very fast. Lucretius describes light and heat as being made of tiny atoms that move very fast. Heat, itself relates to the velocity of atoms over a given volume of space, however, light particles in the infrared contribute to that motion and therefore are particles that contribute to the phenomenon of heat. Lucretius (LYUKREsEuS), Titus Lucretius Carus, Roman poet and philosopher, writes "De Natura Rerum" (On the Nature of things) which describes a mechanical Epikourean view of universe in a (longer than average) poem. Influenced by Democritus, Lucretius supports the idea that all things are made of atoms including souls and even gods. Like Epikouros, Lucretius thinks that the Gods are not concerned with the lives of humans, and death is not to be feared. In addition Lucretius thinks that there is no after life, only peaceful nothingness. Lucretius is the first to divide human history in to the stone age, bronze age, and iron age. Lucretius is the boldest person of this time to speak out against religion, superstition and mysticism. | Rome, Italy | |
2,050 YBN [50 BCE] | 1050) First glass blowing. | ||
2,048 YBN [48 BCE] | 956) A fire set by soldiers for Julius Caesar may have burned only some storehouses of books, or may have partially or completely burned the Royal Library too, but in any event, the Royal Mouseion (which possibly housed the Royal Library) and Sarapeion survived undamaged. In the Roman civil war, defeated Roman general Pompey came to Egypt seeking refuge from his pursuing rival Julius Caesar. Initially, the 13 year old Ptolemy XIII Philopator (Greek: Πτολεμ^ 5;ίος Θεός Φιλοπά` 4;ωρ, 62 BCE/61 BCE - January 13, 47? BCE, reign 51 BCE- 47? BCE) and his regent Pothinus pretended to have accepted his request, but on September 29, 48 BCE, Pothinus himself murders the general, in hopes of winning favor with Caesar when the victorious general arrives. When Caesar did arrive he was presented with the head of his deceased rival and former ally, but reportedly, instead of being pleased, reacted with disgust and ordered that Pompey's body be located and given a proper Roman funeral. Cleopatra 7, suspicious of her brother Ptolemy XIII, hides inside a rolled carpet and is brought to see Caesar. Caesar is attracted to Cleopatra 7 and sides with her against her brother Ptolemy XIII. Caesar arranges the execution of Pothinus and the official return to the throne of Cleopatra VII, though she never officially ends her marriage to Ptolemy XIII. Civil war starts in Egypt between Ptolemy XIII, who is 13 and Caesar allied with Cleaopatra VII. Caesar himself describes what happens. At sea his ships are outnumbered by Ptolemy XIII's ships, and on land Caesar and his troops are cut off from fresh water. 50 additional warships join Ptolemy XIII and Caesar might lose control of the harbor and sea and therefore be cutoff from any help he might be able to get. Caesar orders his troops to set fire to all P13's ships at sea and the ships that lay in the dockyards. Caesar lands his troops on the Isle of Pharos. In "Alexandrian War", Caesar never mentions destroying the library, and a lieutenant follows after the writing of Caesar by saying that none of the buildings in Alexandria burned because they were made of stone, although at least one source claims that both Caesar and the lieutenant sound apologetic. In addition, the author of "Alexandrian War" later describes how the Alexandrians, in their attempt to rebuild their ships, were short of oars and resorted to lifting the roofs from porticos, gymnasia, and public buildings to use their beams as oars, revealing that some buildings had wooden roofs. Livy writes that the Library has over 400,000 scrolls at this time. One wall of the palace (with Julius Caeser trapped inside) faces the sea, this wall is the side Achillas' (a Roman General in charge of the Egyptian army) ships launch an unsuccessful attack on. Luciano Canfora speculates that "from this wing pitch-soaked torches are thrown onto the ships". Fire burns buildings adjacent to the harbor. Warehouses and depots where 'grain and books' are stored. These buildings contain 'by chance' some 40,000 scrolls of excellent quality {this may be where books from the ships were temporarily stored, or may have been scrolls ready for import or export as part of a large trade in hand written scroll copies, many of which may yet be found sometime, although perhaps decayed by now, although the 40,000 may have been only a small portion of the royal library, perhaps prepared to be moved to Rome by Caesar. The key words in the description of Orosius are "by chance"}. This important info comes from Dion Cassius and Orosius, both who drew material from Livy, as did Lucan. By the accounts of Dion Cassius and Orosius, the scrolls burned are clearly unconnected to the Library collection. Orosius would never have paraphrased Livy as describing books there "by chance". Clearly books were export goods, perhaps on their way to Rome, or other cultered cities whose needs are supplied by the industrious Alexandrian booksellers. Lucan (executed by Nero in 65 CE) states that "beyond the ships the fire spread into other quarters of the city...The buildings close to the sea caught fire; the wind lent force to the powers of disaster; the flames...ran over the roofs at meteoric speed.' Senaca the Stoic philosopher (also executed by Nero in 65 CE), states that "40,000 books were burnt in Alexandria during Caesar's war." By the end of the 1st century CE Plutarch (of Chaeronea) writes in "Life of Caesar" (49.3): "When the enemy tried to cut off his fleet, Caesar was forced to repel the danger by using fire, which spread from the dockyards and destroyed the "Great Library" {megale bibliotheke}". Plutarch will visit Alexandria probably after his education in Athens, and so probably will visit the Mouseion and find out for himself that its "Great Library" is no longer in existence since its destruction in Caesar's war. Aulus Gellius will write in the second century CE that nearly 700,000 books are "all burned during the sack of the city in our first war in Alexandria, not intentionally or by anyone's order, but accidentally by the auxiliary soldiers." Ammianus Marcellinus in the fourth century writes "burning down by fire of a priceless library 700,000 books during the Alexandrian war when the city was destroyed in the time of Caesar, the dictator". Seneca indicates 40,000 scrolls lost, but Aulus Hirtius write nothing, Cicero, a bibliophile and gossip critical of Julius Caesar writes nothing, even eyewitness Strato does not mention Caesar's fire destoying the Library. (delete? The Mousaeion flourishes until 3rd cent CE. Plutarch is anti-cesar, Cesar ends with fire, general states alexandria didn't burn made of stone, dio cassius=only docks and storehouses for grain and books {copies for export} burned ) Dio Cassius in early third century, in his account of the Alexandrian war, states "many places were set on fire, so that among others were also burned to ashes, the arsenal {neorion, a building of weapons}, the storehouses {apothecae} of the grain, and of the books, which are said to be of great number and excellence". "Apothecae" is also used by Galen to mean book stacks of the Royal Library. Galen will write that "the assistants used to inscribe the name of the owner or supplier before the books were deposited in the book-stacks {apothecae}". To start they lay books in heaps in certain houses (accession rooms), and from there they then "take them for use in the libraries {bibliothecae}". The Greek word αποθήκ_ 1; currently translates to "storehouse" and "deposit". Some people translate this statement as "many places were set on fire, with the result that the docks and storehouses of grain among other builds were burned, and also the library, whose volumes, it is said, were of the greatest number and excellence." Plutarch may confuse the reference to "bibliothekas" βιβλιο_ 2;ήκας, taken to mean "deposits of books" (Dion Cassius uses the same phrase) also used to mean Libraries, although Plutarch appears to have visited Alexandria. Livy's "History of Rome" text is probably the source for the report of 40,000 or 400,000 books burned by Caesar's fire. This book was lost by 641 CE, but in Senaca's "On tranquility of the soul", Senaca will state "of what use are books without number and complete collections if their owner barely finds time in the course of his life even to read their titles? At Alexandria, 40,000 books were burned. Let someone else praise this finest monument of royal wealth, as Livy did, who says that it was the outstanding achievement of the good taste and care of kings.", Orosius probably will read the same Livy passage Seneca here attacks. This part is probably based on Livy's "History of Rome", the relevent part has not yet been found. Dio Cassius, a historian of the early third century AD, writes "After this many battles took place between them {the armies of Caesar and Cleopatra with the armies of Ptolemy XIII} by day and night, and many parts were set on fire, so that among other places the docks and the grain warehouses were burnt, and also the books, which were, they say, very many and excellent.". Ammianus Marcellinus (~330 to ~393), a historian of the 4th century CE, states: "In addition there are {in Alexandria} temples with elevated roofs, among which the Serapeum stands out. Although it cannot be done justice with an inadequate description, it is so adorned with great columned halls, and statuary which seems almost alive, and a great number of other works, that, apart from the Capitolium, by which the venerable city of Rome claims eternal renown, nothing more magnificent can be seen in the whole world. In this temple were libraries beyond calculation, and the trustworthy testimony of ancient records agrees that 700,000 books, brought together by the unsleeping care of the Ptolemaic kings, were burned in the Alexandrian war, when the city was sacked under the dictator Caesar." Here, Ammianus clearly has mistaken the Serapeum for the main library in the Brucheion district, which makes this account suspect. His figure of 700,000 scrolls agrees with Aulus Gellius. Orosius, a Christian chronicler of the 5th century CE, writes "In the course of the battle, the royal fleet, which happened to have been hauled onto the shore, was ordered to be set on fire, and that fire, when it had spread also to a part of the city, burned 400,000 {one copy of this text has 40,000, the best copies have 40,000} books which happened to be stored in a nearby building, a remarkable record of the zeal and efforts of our forebearers, who had collected so many great works of human genius." Caesar states at the time of the fire that he is in one of the palaces. Knowing that, it is doubtful that just the Library would have burned without the rest of the royal area being burned too. Enemies of Caesar, in particular Cicero, never mention Caesar burning the great library. Strabo gives an eyewitness account of the Mousaeion 20 years later which does not include descriptions of any damage. It's possible the story grew from a warehouse of books to the Royal Library, or simply a mistake of similar words. Livy's "History of Rome" is perhaps first to have the story, then Seneca in the 1st century ce has 40,000 books burned, Plutarchs version is next in the first century CE and has the Library being destroyed, Dio Cassius in late 200s has storehouses of grain and books on the docks being burned, Ammianus in the 300s has the Library, in the 400s Orosius has 40,000 (or 400,000) books stored in nearby buildings. Strabo, 20 years after Caesar's death, visits Alexandria, and provides the best description of the ancient city: the harbor, the temples, the theatre, the Sema, and the Mouseion, but not one word about the Library (although Strabo also does not mention the Sarepeum). It is unusual for the Library to be on fire but not the Mouseion which Strabo clearly indicates is intact after the time of Caesar. There appears to be no interruption in scholarly work at the Museum; Didymus Chalcenterus (ca. 63 BC to AD 10), worked before Caesar to the time of Augustus with no apparent interruption. There is some evidence that the fire did destroy a separate Royal Library building from Strabo in the passage: "For Eratosthenes takes all these as matters actually established by the testimony of the men who had been in the regions, for he has read many treatises with which he was well provided having at his disposal such a very large library as Hipparchus himself asserts it was." indicating that the library available to Eratosthenes which Hipparchus described is no more and so Strato cannot check for himself the many original geographical reports, or perhaps Strabo means that the library then was somehow bigger or better then the library now, or that many of those reports have since been lost for some other reason (age, decay, replacement) besides the Caesar fire. Possibly, the reason Strabo does not mention the loss of the royal library is because of an imposed ban on the subject under the Julio-Claudian family. Even if the Royal Library was destroyed, the Royal Mouseion probably had a large collection of scrolls, the Serapeum, and the Caesareion also had considerable amounts of scrolls.(?) The continued existence of the Library is also supported by an ancient inscription found in the early 20th century, dedicated to Tiberius Claudius Balbillus of Rome (d. AD 56). As noted in the "Handbuch der Bibliothekswissenschaft" (Georg Leyh, Wiesbaden 1955): "We have to understand the office which Ti. Claudius Balbillus held {...}, which included the title 'supra Museum et ab Alexandrina bibliotheca', to have combined the direction of the Museum with that of the united libraries, as an academy." Athenaeus (c. AD 200) wrote in detail in the Deipnosophistai about the wealth of Ptolemy II (309-246 BC) and the type and number of his ships. When it came to the Library and Museum, he wrote: "Why should I now have to point to the books, the establishment of libraries and the collection in the Museum, when this is in every man's memory?" Athenaeus views both places to be so famous that it is not necessary to describe them in detail, so certainly some of the Alexandrian libraries were still in operation at the time. Clearly the Mouseion survives and if many original scrolls were burned, the library must have been rebuilt (although perhaps missing some precious original writings), because Philostraus in the third century, describes people receiving the privilege of free meals at the Mouseion from Hadrian (76 CE-138 CE). | ||
2,045 YBN [45 BCE] | 954) Arius Didymus, the teacher (court philosopher) of Augustus in Athens (not to be confused with Alexandrian historian Didymus Chalcenterus), writes a summary (compendium, epitome) of the four leading philosophic schools, the Peripatetic, Academic, Stoic, and Epicurean. Arius Didymus continues the blending of the major philosophies started by Antiochus of Ascalon. In Alexandria this new fusion of philosophies will result in two major groups, one which develops within the religious thought of Jewish and later Christian philosophers, and the other formulated by Pagan philosophers. | ||
2,045 YBN [45 BCE] | 1056) Julian calendar goes into use. Julius Caesar adopts this calendar on the advice of he astronomer Sosigenes of Alexandria. This calendar has 365 days divided into 12 months, with a leap day added to February every four years. This calendar will last until 1582 when replaced by the Gregorian calendar. Caesar changes the previous calendar which is based on lunar months and the cycle of Meton to a solar calendar (like the calendar used in Egypt) based on 365 day years (plus a 366 day year, unlike Egypt, every fourth year) Little is known about Sosigenes. There are only 2 mentions of him by Pliny the Elder: "... There were three main schools, the Chaldaean, the Egyptian, and the Greek; and to these a fourth was added in our country by Caesar during his dictatorship, who with the assistance of the learned astronomer Sosigenes brought the separate years back into conformity with the course of the sun." In Pliny book 2, 8, indicates that Sosigenes thought that Mercury goes around the Sun: (get modern translation) "Next upon it, but nothing of that bignesse and powerful efficacie, is the starre Mercurie, of some cleped Apollo: in an inferiour circle hee goeth, after the like manner, a swifter course by nine daies: shining sometimes before the sunne rising, otherwhiles after his setting, never farther distant from him than 23 degrees, as both the same Timæus and Sosigenes doe shew." | ||
2,045 YBN [45 BCE] | 1523) Julius Caesar (JUlEuS KISoR) (BCE 100-44), is declared dictator for life by the Roman Senate. Some historians consider this to be the end of the Roman Republic, a representative democracy and the start of the Roman Empire, a monarchy. From this time on, Julius Caesar's family name "Caeser" will be used as a title for a supreme ruler, which is the meaning of the word "Kaiser" in German, "tsar" in the Slavonic languages, and "qaysar" in Arabic languages. | Rome, Italy | ![]() [1] Description: Büste des Gaius Iulius Caesar PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Giulio-cesare-enhanced_1-800x1450.jpg ![]() [2] Julius Caesar PD source: http://www4.vjc.edu/ENG36002Sp02 /discuss/msgReader$35 |
2,041 YBN [41 BCE] | 957) According to Plutarch (of Chaeronea) in the first century CE, at this time, Marcus Antonius sends scrolls from the Pergamum library to Cleaopatra VII, theoretically to make good on the loss of scrolls from the Caesar fire. Plutarch will write in "Life of Antony": "Calvisius, who was a companion of Caesar, brought forward against Antony the following charges also regarding his behaviour towards Cleopatra: he had bestowed upon her the libraries from Pergamum, in which there were two hundred thousand volumes;" and then goes on to write "However, most of the charges thus brought by Calvisius were thought to be falsehoods", so this shipment of books is doubtful. This claim that Marc Antony sent the Pergamum library to Clepoatra VII is evidence, even if untrue, that a library (although perhaps the Serapeum or Mousaeion) is still in existence in the first century CE, which leaves only the Christian destruction and the Islamic destruction. | ||
2,040 YBN [40 BCE] | 1058) Vitruvius (ViTrUVEuS) Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, Roman engineer and writer, writes a book "De architectura", 10 books on architecture. Vitruvius is the author of "De architectura", known today as "The Ten Books of Architecture", a treatise in Latin on architecture, dedicated to the emperor Augustus. It is the only surviving major book on architecture from classical antiquity. Vitruvius speaks highly of the Greek Engineer Ctesibius. The books of Vitruvius deal with astronomy, acoustics, and contruction of different kinds of sundials and water-wheels. Vitruvius thinks the axis of the earth is set in bearings. Vitruvius uses 3 1/8 for pi, which is less accurate than the value given by Archimedes only 200 years before. Vitruvius is the first Roman architect to have written in the field of Architecture. He himself cites older works. He is a codifier of existing architectural practice. Vitruvius describes lifting platforms that use pulleys and capstans, or windlasses, operated by human, animal, or water power. | ||
2,033 YBN [08/01/33 BCE] | 961) Strabo (Strabon), (Greek Στράβω_ 7;) (63 BCE/64 BCE - c. 24 AD), a historian, geographer and philosopher. Strabo is mostly remembered for his 17-volume work Geographica ("Geography"), which presents a descriptive history of people and places from this time. Strabo's History is nearly completely lost. Although Strabo quotes it himself, and other classical authors mention that it existed, the only surviving document is a fragment of papyrus now in possession of the University of Milan. Strabo lives in Alexandria from 25-20 BCE, and works in the Mousaeion. Strabo documents q parade from India with gifts which include a huge snake for Augustus, then in Samos. Strabo studies the mystery of why the Nile River flows from inland to the Mediterranean Sea, which had baffled Greek science since Thales and Herodotus. With no more battles between Ptolemies, peace results in a renaissance in Alexandria. Strabo writes of the Mousaeion in Alexandria: "The Museum, too, is part of the royal palace. It comprises the covered walk, the exedra or portico, and a great hall in which learned members of the Museum take their meals in common. Money, too, is held in common in this community; (I can't understand if this means that they don't have their own money?) they also have a priest who is head of the Museum, formerly appointed by the sovereigns and now appointed by Augustus." Strabo decribes the "Soma" (the body), a circular structure, chosen by Ptolemy I as the site for Alexander's tomb, which holds bodies of the Ptolemys too. The Soma is part of the royal palace. Alexander's body is still in Alexandria, but not in a golden but alabaster sarcophagus, as a result of Ptolemy 'the clandestine' attempting to profane the tomb. Many people interpret Strabo not mentioning the library because it may not be a separate room or building. "Strabo" ("squinter") is a term given by Romans of this time to anyone whose eyes are distorted or crooked. The fathers of Julius Caesar and Pompey the Great were called "Gaius Julius Caesar Strabo" and "Pompeius Strabo". | ||
2,033 YBN [08/01/33 BCE] | 962) Didymus Chalcenterus (ca. 63 BC to AD 10), was a Greek scholar and grammarian who worked in the Mousaeion in Alexandria and in Rome. He is chiefly important as having introduced Alexandrian learning to the Romans. He was a follower of the school of Aristarchus, upon whose recension of Homer he wrote a treatise, fragments of which have been preserved in the Venetian scholia. He also wrote commentaries on many other Greek poets and prose authors. Didymus' son Apion, whom Roman Emperor Tiberius will call 'cymbal of the world' implying that his fame resounds everywhere, will write an Egyptian history, and 'Against the Jews', reflecting a growing mood of anti-semitism which Philo deplored, and which was to lead to the eventual destruction of the Jewish quarter. His surname (meaning brazen-bowelled) came from his indefatigable industry: he was said to have written so many books (more than 3,500) that he was unable to recollect their names. | ||
2,033 YBN [33 BCE] | 1059) Strabo (STrABO), a Greek historian, geographer, and philosopher, makes 17 volumes (16 that have been found), of geography based on Eratosthenes' work and accepts Eratosthenes' estimate for the size of earth. Strabo writes a long history of Rome not yet found. Strabo recognizes that Vesuvius is a volcano (which will erupt 50 years after Strabo's death). Strabo was born in a wealthy family from Amaseia, which is in modern Amasya, Turkey, within Pontus; which had recently become part of the Roman Empire. He studies under various geographers and philosophers; first in Nysa, later in Rome. He is philosophically a Stoic and politically a proponent of Roman imperialism. Later he will make extensive travels to Egypt and Ethiopia, among others. It is not known when his Geography is written, though comments within the work itself place the finished version within the reign of Emperor Tiberius. Some place its first drafts at around 7 CE, others around 18 CE. Mention is given to the death in 23 CE of Juba, king of Maurousia. Strabo's History is nearly completely lost. Although Strabo quotes it himself, and other classical authors mention that it existed, the only surviving document is a fragment of papyrus now in possession of the University of Milan (renumbered {Papyrus} 46). Impressed by the size of the unmapped parts of earth, Strabo suggests that there are other continents. Strabo wrongly accepts Homer's geographic descriptions over the more accurate data of Herodotus. Strabo writes about the Mouseion in Alexandria in addition to the original papyri of Aristotle's writing. Strabo's conversion from a sphere to plane in inaccurate. Strabo's "Geography" is an important source for information about the Mouseion of Alexandria. In book 17, Strabo writes: "The Museum is also a part of the royal palaces; it has a public walk, an Exedra {a semi-circular room} with seats, and a large house, in which is the common mess-hall of the men of learning who share the Museum. This group of men not only hold property in common, but also have a priest in charge of the Museum, who formerly was appointed by the kings, but is now appointed by Caesar." | Amasya, Pontus {on the coast of Turkey} | ![]() [1] The Greek geographer Strabo in a 16th century engraving. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Strabo.jpg |
2,030 YBN [08/01/30 BCE] | 963) Tryphon (c.60 BCE‑10 BCE) was a Greek grammarian who lived and worked in the Mousaeion in Alexandria. He was a contemporary of Didymus Chalcenterus. Tryphon wrote several specialized works on aspects of language and grammar, from which only a handful of fragments now survive. These included treatises on word-types, dialects, accentuation, pronunciation, and orthography, as well as a grammar (Tekhné grammatiké) and a dictionary. The two extant works that bear his name, "On Meters" and "On Tropes", may or may not be by him. | ||
2,027 YBN [01/06/27 BCE] | 1524) The Roman Senate grants Octavian (63 BCE - 14 CE) the title "Augustus". Some historians consider this the end of the Roman Republic, a representative democracy, and the Roman Empire, a monarchy. | Rome, Italy | ![]() [1] Bust of Emperor Augustus. An old, beginning of the 20th century photo plate. Digitally cleaned up (both the photo and the and slightly colored. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Aug11_01.jpg ![]() [2] Description Portrait of Caesar Augustus. Marble, head: ca. 30-20 BC, body: middle of the 2nd century CE. Dimensions H. 1.96 m (6 ft. 5 in.) Credit line Borghese Collection; purchase, 1807 Accession number Ma 1278 (MR 99) Location Department of Greek, Etruscan and Roman antiquities, Denon wing, ground floor, room 23 Photographer/source English Wikipedia, original upload 4 June 2004 by ChrisO under same filename PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Caesar_augustus.jpg |
2,027 YBN [27 BCE] | 1065) Pantheon is built. The Pantheon, ("Temple of all the Gods"), is a building in Rome which is originally built as a temple to the seven deities of the seven planets in the state religion of Ancient Rome. It is the best-preserved of all Roman buildings and the oldest important building in the world with its original roof intact. It has been in continuous use throughout its history. Although the identity of the Pantheon's primary architect remains uncertain, it is largely assigned to Apollodorus of Damascus. The Pantheon will be destroyed in 80 CE, but rebuilt by Hadrian in 125 CE. In 609 the Byzantine emperor Phocas will give the building to Pope Boniface IV, who will reconsecrate it as a Christian church, the Church of Mary and all the Martyr Saints, which title it still retains. | Rome | ![]() [1] An image of Pantheon in Rome, Italy. Image taken by Martin Olsson (mnemo on wikipedia and commons, martin@minimum.se), 2nd of May 2005. GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Pantheon_rome_2005may.jpg |
2,008 YBN [8 BCE] | 1071) Earliest paper artifact with writing, has at least 20 ancient Chinese characters in an ancient garrison near the Yumen Pass at Dunhuang in northwest China used during the Western Han Dynesty (206 BCE-25 CE). This is more than 100 years before Tsai Lun, the person traditionally thought to have invented paper. | Dunhuang, Jiuquan, Gansu province, China | |
1,980 YBN [08/01/20 CE] | 966) Aristonicus, a Greek grammarian who lives during the reigns of Augustus and Tiberius, and teaches in Rome, writes a book on the Mousaeion that would probably give a good description and perhaps explain the origins of the Mouseion, but has not yet been found. | ||
1,980 YBN [20 CE] | 912) Aulus Cornelius Celsus (25 BCE - 50 CE), a Roman encyclopedist, makes 8 books in Latin describing Greek learning. This Celsus is different from the Celsus of the 2nd Century CE who will write "The True Word", a book critical of Christianity. His only extant work, the De Medicina, is the only surviving section of a much larger encyclopedia, and is a primary source on diet, pharmacy and surgery and related fields. The lost portions of his encyclopedia likely included volumes on agriculture, law, rhetoric, and military arts. Celsus' De Medicina is one of the best sources on Alexandrian medical knowledge. In "Of Medicine", Celsus describes the preparation of numerous ancient medicinal remedies including the preparation of opioids. In addition, he describes many 1st century Roman surgical procedures which include treatment for bladder stones, tonsillectormy, and the setting of fractures. Celsus is the first to discuss heart attacks. Celsus writes on dentistry and describes the use of a dental mirror. He describes a "cataract", a condition where the lens of the eye grows opaque, in addition to a procedure for removing the clouding. Asimov claims that Celsus is the first to write about insanity (although I think there must be somebody before this), which is an abstract label and is the source of many human rights abuse and much pseudoscience. Celsus probably copied much of his writings from the writings of Hippocrates. Celsus expresses his (in my view, mistaken) belief in the ethicalness of experimentation on humans, writing in "De Medicina": "It is not cruel to inflict on a few criminals sufferings which may benefit multitudes of innocent people through all centuries." Celsus' work was rediscovered by Pope Nicholas V and published in 1478. His work became famous for its elegant Latin style. | Gallia Narbonensis, southern France | |
1,980 YBN [20 CE] | 1390) Jesus of Nazareth (also Jesus of Galilee), probably a monotheist believer in Judaism lives in this time. Jesus leaves no writings, and the earliest record of Jesus' life is recorded in the sayings of the "Gospel Q", a number of saying attributed to Jesus similar to those found in the Gospel of Thomas. Some scholars characterize Jesus from these earliest sayings as being Cynic-like, similar to Diogenes of Sinope, living voluntarily in poverty, begging, criticizing conventional values and wealth, speaking boldly, engaging in troublesome public behavior, etc. In addition, there is an element of belief and focus on a God. The traditional belief by many scholars has been that Jesus was killed as the four main gospels of the New Testament state, however, others argue that the idea that Jesus was killed will be created by the author of the Mark gospel around 80 CE. Followers of Jesus will go on to form one of the largest religions on earth, Christianity which will last for more than 2000 years. Shockingly, the popularity of this average preacher of Judaism, believed to be unfairly killed like many trillions of humans throughout the history of earth, will grow to dominate much of the earth, replacing the older polytheistic religion of Greece and Rome. The rise of the Christian religion, with violent intolerant conformity, will terribly slow the tradition of science growing on earth. Christians will destroy, close or take over all the non-Christian libraries and schools, destroying many valuable books of tremendous scientific and historical value. The rise of Christianity will also slow the natural development of atheism, the new religious fanatacism being more intolerant of atheism than the older polytheism/paganism, although clearly the persecution of Anaxagoras and Socrates for atheism is evidence of a continuous intolerance of those who reject the claims of religions. | Galilee | ![]() [1] Mural painting from the catacomb of Commodilla. Bust of Christ. This is one of first bearded images of Christ, during the 4th century Jesus was beginning to be depicted as older and bearded, in contrast to earlier Christian art, which usually showed a young and clean-shaven Jesus. * Date: Late 4th century * Commodilla catacombs Christ from http://drwagnernet.com/40a/lecture-view. cfm?lecture=5&image=10 Cristo barbato (dettaglio), affresco 60x72, fine IV-inizio V secolo, Catacombe di Commodilla, Roma PD source: http://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki /Image:Christ_with_beard.jpg ![]() [2] This image of what Jesus may have looked like is on the cover of Popular Mechanics this month. Israeli and British forensic anthropologists and computer programmers got together to create the face featured in the 1.2-million circulation magazine [t knowing the dishonesty of Popular Mechanics' 9/11 ''debunking'', I have serious doubts about anything they funded, but I don't see a head like this as being unlikely. Roman depictions have no beard until later, would beard not be longer?] COPYRIGHTED source: http://archives.cnn.com/2002/TEC H/science/12/25/face.jesus/ |
1,959 YBN [41 CE] | 968) Claudius has a new museum built alongside the old one in Alexandria from 41-54 CE. | ||
1,957 YBN [43 CE] | 1076) Pomponius Mela (mElu), a Roman geographer, makes a small book (less than 100 pages), a compilation of geography, "De situ orbis libri III" for popular reading by humans in Rome. Except for Pliny this is the only existing book on geography written in classic Latin. Mela copies the Greek geographers that went before him. Mela divides the earth in to 5 zones, North Frigid, North Temperate, Torrid, South Temperate and South Frigid. Mela incorrectly believes that only the temperate zones are livable in, and also incorrectly believes that the torrid zone was too hot to be passed by humans to the South Temperate zone. In western Europe his knowledge (as was natural in a Spanish subject of Imperial Rome) was somewhat in advance of the Greek geographers. He defines the western coast-line of Spain and Gaul and its indentation by the Bay of Biscay more accurately than Eratosthenes or Strabo, his ideas of the British Isles and their position are also clearer than his predecessors. The first edition of Mela was published at Milan in 1471. | Tingentera, Southern Spain | |
1,950 YBN [50 CE] | 1078) Heron of Alexandria (Greek: Ήρων ο Αλεξαν^ 8;ρεύς) (c.10 CE - c.70 CE), a Greek engineer in Alexandria, makes the first recorded steam engine. The potential of the steam engine will not be understood until the late 1600s. Heron invents an aeopile, which is a hollow metal sphere that rotates from the power of steam jets that escape through open tubes on each side of the sphere. Heron describes the lever, pulley, wheel, inclined plane, screw, and wedge. Understands and uses syphons, syringes and gears. Hero uses gears to change the wheel rotations of a chariot to the rotations of a pointer that indicate the number of wheel rotations, which is the first odometer (meter that indicates distance traveled). Hero writes a book on air, which shows that air is a substance and will not enter a container already filled with air, unless air is allowed to escape and be replaced. Hero reasons that because air can be compressed, air must be made of particles separated by space. Hero made a "book" on mirrors and on light. Hero describes a generalized version of the law of levers by Archimedes. Hero was either the son or pupil of Ctesibius. Hero's inventions recorded in his work "Pneumatics" are mostly frivolous, many connected to religious ceremonies in order to deceive worshippers with what appear to be supernatural events. Among Hero many inventions are: a mechanical singing bird, a device that opens a temple door when a fire is lit on an alter, a device that emits a small jet of steam which supports a small sphere, a trumpet sounded by compressed air, a syringe, an alter organ blown by a windmill. Hero invents a steam boiler, which forces a hot air blast to be driven into a pipe, by pouring cold water into the boiler. This is the principle behind the "Roman bath" introduced around the same time, and is also the principle behind "central heating" still in use today. It is almost certain that Hero taught at the Museum which included the famous Library of Alexandria, because most of his writings appear as lecture notes for courses in mathematics, mechanics, physics and pneumatics. Hero probably agreed with the Atomists, accepting the theory of atoms as the most accurate.(needs citation: ancient biography of Heron?) Hero wrongly thinks light comes from the eyes and moves at infinite velocty, but was accurate in saying that the angle of light that touches a surface is equal to the angle the light reflects from surface. Works known to be by Hero: * Pneumatica, a description of machines working on air, steam or water pressure. * Automata, a description of machines which enable wonders in temples by mechanical or pneumatical means (e.g. automatic opening or closing of temple doors, statues that pour wine, etc.). * Mechanica, written for architects, containing means to lift heavy objects. * Metrica, a description of how to calculate surfaces and volumes of diverse objects. * On the Dioptra, a collection of methods to measure lengths. In this work the odometer is described, and also an apparatus which resembles a theodolite. * Belopoeica, a description of war machines. * Catoptrica, about the progression of light, reflection and the use of mirrors. Pappos (c.330 ) will describe the contribution of Heron in Book VIII of his Mathematical Collection. Pappos will write: "The mechanicians of Heron's school say that mechanics can be divided into a theoretical and a manual part; the theoretical part is composed of geometry, arithmetic, astronomy and physics, the manual of work in metals, architecture, carpentering and painting and anything involving skill with the hands." "... the ancients also describe as mechanicians the wonder-workers, of whom some work by means of pneumatics, as Heron in his Pneumatica, some by using strings and ropes, thinking to imitate the movements of living things, as Heron in his Automata and Balancings, ... or by using water to tell the time, as Heron in his Hydria, which appears to have affinities with the science of sundials." Heron's formula defines the area of a triangle. A proof of this formula can be found in his book "Metrica". It is now believed that Archimedes already knew this formula, and it is possible that it was known long before. | Alexandria, Egypt | ![]() [1] Hero's aeolipile From Knight's American Mechanical Dictionary, 1876. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Aeolipile_illustration.JPG ![]() [2] Heron's formula can also be written this way. GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Her on%27s_formula |
1,950 YBN [50 CE] | 1097) Roman emperor Claudius has a new Museum built next to the original Museum. | Alexandria, Egypt | |
1,925 YBN [75 CE] | 1270) Last cuneiform text dates to here ending 3000 years of cuneiform writing. Cuneiform is replaced by Aramaic. Legal, literary and astronomical texts are the last written in cuneiform. | Sumer/Babylon | |
1,923 YBN [77 CE] | 1083) Pliny the Elder, ("Gaius Plinius Cecilius Secundus") (PlinE) (23 CE Novum Comum (now Como), Italy - August 24, 79 CE near Mount Vesuvius, Italy) completes his major work titled "Natural History" in 37 volumes. "Natural History" is made from copying text of 500 other earlier people and contains astronomy, geology and zoology. Pliny shows wisdom in rejecting the idea of immortality. In addition to "Natural History", Pliny writes a "History of his Times" in thirty-one books, which has yet to be found. Pliny takes a keen interest in nature, and in the natural sciences, studying them in a way that was then new in Rome, where studies of these kind are regarded as useless(N.H. xxii.15). One of Pliny's lost works "History of his Times" possibly extending from the reign of Nero to that of Vespasian, and deliberately reserves it for publication after his death (N. H., Praef. 20). Perhaps Pliny may have been frightened of punishment for sharing his experiences, but I think this shows Pliny's selfless concern and care for humanity and it's future. It will be quoted by Tacitus (Ann. xiii.20, xv.53; Hist. iii.29), and is one of the authorities that will be followed by Suetonius and Plutarch. He also virtually completes his great work, the "Naturalis Historia" (Natural History), an encyclopedia into which Pliny collected much of the knowledge of his time. He dedicates "Naturalis Historia" to the emperor Titus Flavius Vespasianus, the son of Vespasian in 77. In Zoology, Pliny accepts a number of false stories as being true, for example, unicorns, mermaids, and flying horses. Pliny's nephew and aire, Pliny the Younger will sends a letter with an account of his uncle's writings and his manner of life (iii.5) where he will write: "He began to work long before daybreak. He read nothing without making extracts; he used even to say that there was no book so bad as not to contain something of value. In the country it was only the time when he was actually in his bath that was exempted from study. When travelling, as though freed from every other care, he devoted himself to study alone. In short, he deemed all time wasted that was not employed in study." His only writings to have survived to modern times is the "Naturalis Historia", and this will be used as an authority over the following centuries by countless scholars. | Spain? | |
1,920 YBN [80 CE] | 1077) Pedanius Dioscorides (DEOSKORiDEZ), Greek physician, pharmacologist and botanist who practises in Rome during the reign of Nero writes "De Materia Medica" in 5 books. "De Materia Medica" is the first encyclopedia of medical plants and drugs, and describes 600 plants almost 1000 drugs. These descriptions are accurate and free from superstition. | Tingentera, Southern Spain | ![]() [1] Dioscorides from www.nlm.nih.gov PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Dioscorides.jpg ![]() [2] Dioscorides: Materia Medica. (Arabic copy) PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Arabic_herbal_medicine_guidebook.jpeg |
1,919 YBN [81 CE] | 969) Emperor Domitian (reigns 81-96 CE) starts his reign with an effort to "rebuild the libraries that had been burned" {in the fire under Nero}, "had the whole empire searched for copies of works that had disappeared", and "sent emissaries to Alexandria charged with copying and correcting the texts" {yet more evidence that the royal library in Alexandria is intact at this time} | ||
1,903 YBN [97 CE] | 1085) Sextus Julius Frontinus (FroNTInuS) (30 CE - 104 CE), a Roman soldier, politician, engineer and author, is put in charge of water system of Rome by Emperor Nerva. Frontinus writes a two volume work, "De aquis urbis Romae" containing a history and description of the water supply system (aquaducts) of Rome. In his writing Frontius boasts how the Roman aquaducts are better than those of Egypt and Greece. | Rome, Italy | |
1,895 YBN [105 CE] | 1086) Tsai Lun (TSI lUN) (c.50 CE Kueiyang, Kweichow - c.118 CE) is thought by many to have invented paper from matter like tree bark, hemp, silk and fishing net, but artifacts of paper have been found that date to before Lun by more than 100 years. Tsai Lun is a eunuch person, usually a male that is castrated (testicles are removed) viewed as a safer (less aggressive) servant for royal people. | Kueiyang, Kweichow?, China | ![]() [1] Cai Lun (traditional Chinese: 蔡倫; simplified Chinese: 蔡伦; pinyin: Cà i Lún; Wade-Giles: Ts'ai Lun) (ca. AD 50-121), courtesy name Jingzhong (敬仲), was a Chinese eunuch, who is conventionally regarded as the inventor of paper, in forms recognizable in modern times as paper (as opposed to Egyptian papyrus). PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Cai_Lun.jpg |
1,880 YBN [01/01/120 CE] | 1040) Philostratus (c170 CE - c244? CE) will write (between 230 and 238) that "Great honors were paid to {Dionysius of Miletus, a contemporary philosopher} by the cities that admired his talent, but the greatest was from the Emperor. For Hadrian (January 24, 76 CE - July 10, 138 CE, Roman emperor 117-138) appointed him satrap {prefect} over peoples by no means obscure, and enrolled him in the order of the knights and among those who had free meals in the Museum. (By the Museum I mean a dinning-table in Egypt to which are invited the most distinguished men of all countries.)" Philostratos also describes membership into the Mouseion, granted by the emperor Hadrian, for Polemo, another philosopher, writing: "...and Hadrian ... also enrolled {Polemo} in the circle of the Museum, with the Egyptian right of free meals." Clearly, this is evidence that the Mouseion was still functioning as usual after the Cesar fire, and likely up to the time of this writing (c230), since there is no mention of a later destruction of the Mouseion. In addition to indicating that these meals may have been quite expensive to be a privilege that might be appointed by a Roman Emperor. The "free meals" are clearly of note in the memory of Philostratus. | ||
1,880 YBN [120 CE] | 970) Claudius Ptolemaeus (Klaudios Ptolemaios) (Greek: Κλαύδι_ 9;ς Πτολεμ^ 5;ῖος; c.90 - c.168 CE) (Ptolemy, an astronomer, no known relation to Ptolemy royal family) writes a 13-volume "The Great Treatise", later named "Almagest", systematizes Alexandrian knowledge of astronomy and catalogs a thousand stars. Ptolemy creates an elegant mathematics of epicycles to explain the apparent motions of the stars and planets based on the incorrect geocentric cosmology derived from the texts of Aristotle. This work will be influential in Europe until the 16th century. Claudius Ptolemaeus (Greek: Κλαύδι_ 9;ς Πτολεμ^ 5;ῖος; c. 90 - c. 168), known in English as Ptolemy, was a Greek-speaking geographer, astronomer, and astrologer who lived in the Hellenistic culture of Roman Egypt. He may have been a Hellenized Egyptian but no description of his family background or physical appearance exists, though it is likely he was born in Egypt. Ptolemy was the author of several scientific treatises, three of which have been of continuing importance to later Islamic and European science. The first is the astronomical treatise that is now known as the Almagest (in Greek Η μεγάλη Σύνταξ_ 3;ς, "The Great Treatise"). The second is the Geography, which is a thorough discussion of the geographic knowledge of the Greco-Roman world. The third is the astrological treatise known as the Tetrabiblos ("Four books") in which he attempted to adapt horoscopic astrology to the Aristotelian natural philosophy of his day. | ||
1,850 YBN [150 CE] | 1087) Claudius Ptolemaeus, (Greek: Κλαύδι_ 9;ς Πτολεμ^ 5;ῖος), (c.90 - c.168) writes "Mathematike Syntaxis ("The Mathematical Arrangement") which supports an Earth-centered cosmology. Ptolemy, (ToLomE), Claudius Ptolemaeus, (Greek: Κλαύδι_ 9;ς Πτολεμ^ 5;ῖος), (c.90 - c.168), a Greek-speaking Astronomer, Geographer and Astrologer, in the Museum in Alexandria, writes an astronomy book "Mathematike Syntaxis ("The Mathematical Arrangement"), called by later people "Almagest" (The Greatest), in which Ptolemy names the 48 constellations still used today, and also includes a star catalog (star names and locations) based on the work of Hipparchus. Sadly Ptolemy supports the erroneous earth-centered theory and this theory will persist until Copernicus in the 1500s. Ptolemy writes a book on optics that describes refraction, reflection and color of light, and a book on geography. | Alexandria, Egypt | |
1,838 YBN [162 CE] | 971) Galen (Greek: Γαληνό` 2; Galinos, Latin: Claudius Galenus of Pergamum) (129-200 CE), is a Greek physician. Sadly and shockingly, Galen's views will dominate the science of health in Europe for more than one thousand years. Galen is the first to understand that blood flows through veins, and is first to study nerve function. Galen is the first to identify many muscles and to decribe the movement of urine through ureters to the bladder. Galen is the first person to use a pulse in solving a problem. Galen also argues that the mind is in the brain, not in the heart as Aristotle claimed. Galen does not recognize blood circulation and wrongly thinks that venous and arterial systems are separate. Galen recpgnizes that blood must get from one half of the heart to the other half, and theorizes that there are tiny holes too small to see in the thick muscular wall separating the two halves. This view will not change until, 1500 years later, with William Harvey's work in the 17th century. Since most of his knowledge of anatomy is based on dissection of pigs, dogs, and Barbary apes, he also presumes wrongly that "rete mirabile", a blood vessel plexus of ungulates (hooved animal and whales), also existed in the human body. He also resists the idea of tourniquets to stop bleeding and tragically vigorously spreads the inaccurate opinion of blood letting as a treatment. Galen's authority will dominate health science all the way to the 16th century. With the rise of Christianity, people will not experiment and studies of physiology and anatomy will stop. Blood letting becomes a standard medical procedure. Vesalius (1514-1564), more than 1300 years later, will present the first serious challenge to the dominance of Galen's views. Galen is attracted to Alexandria because of the reputation of the health profession there. Galen will be the last great physician of this time. Galen writes numerous works. Interestingly, those who practice healing through science and the temple priests who practice the pseudoscience of religious healing both coexist together in the Serapeum. Galen will be court physician under emperor Marcus Aurelius for some time. According to Isaac Asimov, Galen's best work is in anatomy. Dissection of humans is viewed as bad in Rome and Galen could only dissect other species, including dogs, goats, pigs, and monkeys. Galen is describes anatomy in meticulous detail. Galen writes that muscles work in groups. Galen cuts the spinal cord of many species at various levels and writes on the resulting paralysis (loss of movement of the body part). Galen uses the three fluid theory of Erasistratus. Galen regards wounds as "windows into the body". Galen performed many audacious operations that were not again used for almost two millennia, including brain and eye surgery. To perform cataract surgery, Galen would insert a long needle-like instrument into the eye behind the lens. He would then pull it back slightly and remove the cataract. The slightest slip could cause permanent blindness. Galen had set the standard for modern medicine in many different ways. In Rome, Galen writes extensively, lectures and publicly demonstrates his knowledge of anatomy. Galen gains a reputation as an experienced physician and his practice had a widespread clientèle. One of them is the consul Flavius Boethius who introduces him to the Imperial court where Galen becomes a court physician to Emperor Marcus Aurelius. Later he will also treat Lucius Verus, Commodus and Septimius Severus. Reputedly, he speaks mostly Greek, which in the field of medicine is a more highly respected language than Latin at the time. Galen spends the rest of his life in the Imperial court, writing and experimenting. He performs vivisections of numerous animals to study the function of the kidneys and the spinal cord. Galen transmitted Hippocratic medicine all the way to the Renaissance. His "On the Elements According to Hippocrates" describes the philosopher's inaccurate system of four bodily humours, blood, yellow bile, black bile and phlegm, which were mystically identified with the four classical elements, and in turn with the seasons. He created his own theories from those principles, and much of Galen's work can be seen as building on the Hippocratic theories of the body, rather than being new. Galen mainly ignores the Latin writings of Celsus, but accepts the ancient works of Asclepiades. Amongst Galen's own major works is a seventeen-volume "On the Usefulness of the Parts of the Human Body". Like Pliny, Galen wrongly thinks that everything in the universe is made by a God for some purpose. He also writes about philosophy and philology (the study of words and language), as well as extensively writing on anatomy. His collected works total twenty-two volumes, and he writes a line a day for most of his life. Galen's own theories, in accord with Plato's, emphasizes purposeful creation by a single Creator ( "Nature", in Greek "phusis") - a major reason why later Christian and Muslim scholars will be able to accept his views and will preserve his writings. His fundamental principle of life was pneuma (air, or breath) that later writers will connect with the erronius ancient idea of a "soul". These writings on philosophy are a product of Galen's well rounded education, and throughout his life Galen is keen to emphasise the philosophical element to medicine. Galen maintained the inaccurate opinions that "Pneuma physicon" (animal spirit) in the brain is responsible for movement, perception, and senses, that "Pneuma zoticon" (vital spirit) in the heart controls blood and body temperature, and that "Natural spirit" in the liver handled nutrition and metabolism. However, he correctly rejects the Pneumatic theory that air passes through the veins rather than blood. Galen expands his knowledge partly by experimenting with live animals (in a way that is clearly painful to the animal and which I vote against, although science was advanced by such experimentation). One of his methods is to publicly dissect a living pig, cutting its nerve bundles one at a time. Eventually he cuts a laryngeal nerve (now also known as Galen's Nerve) and the pig stops squealing. He also ties the ureters of living animals, swelling the kidneys, therefore showing that urine comes from the kidneys, and severes spinal cords to demonstrate paralysis. In addition to working with pigs, Galen also experiments with barbary apes and goats, but emphasizes that he practises on pigs due to the fact that, in some respects, they are anatomically similar to humans. Public dissections are also a highly valuable way of disputing and disproving the biological theories of others, and are one of the main methods of academic medical learning in Rome. It is quite common for large numbers of medical students to attend these public gatherings, which will sometimes turn into debates where learning is increased. Galen's books will be the standard book of healing through science until Vesalius. It is very possible that Galen excelled in part from use of the Pergamum public library, a library second only to that of Alexandria.{check in Galen writings} Galen, through his works, will transmit the Greek knowledge of healing into the future. | ||
1,827 YBN [03/31/173 CE] | 974) Valerius Diodorus describes himself as "ex-vice librarian and member of the Museum" which shows the Mousaeion in Alexandria still has members. | ||
1,822 YBN [178 CE] | 1030) Celsus (KeLSuS) writes "The True Word" against the Christian religion. Celsus is thought to live in Rome, however his familiarity with the Jewish religion and knowledge of Egyptian ideas makes some historians think he belonged to the Eastern part of the empire. But perhaps he acquires this knowledge either by travelling, or by mingling with the foreign population of Rome. Celsus writes his only work of record "True Discourse" (or, "True Reason") against Christianity in approximately 178 CE. Celsus divides the work into two sections, the first in which objections are explained from a fictional Jewish person and the other in which Celsus speaks as the Pagan philosopher that he is. Celsus ridicules Christians because they advocate blind faith instead of reason. Around 60 years after it is first published, the book written by Celsus will inspire a rebuttle written by Origen titled "Contra Celsum", which is the only source for Celsus' book, who will be later condemned along with other critics of Christianity such as Porphyry. | ||
1,820 YBN [03/31/180 CE] | 975) Pantaenus is the head of the Christian (catechetical) school in Alexandria from 180-200 CE. He teaches Clement. This school claims as its founder the Evangelist St Mark. Christianity is now a powerful movement, whose danger is felt by the Imperial government. Christian people now have their own teachers and school in Alexandria in competition with the Mouseion school of philosophy, associated with the traditional Hellenic and Roman polytheistic religion. | ||
1,785 YBN [215 CE] | 980) Emperor Caracalla massacres Alexandria youth and punishes the Mousaeion. Gibbon writes "from a secure post in the Temple of Serapis, {Caracalla} viewed and directed the slaughter of many thousand citizens, as well as strangers...". After the massacre, Caracalla stops the public games and abolishs funding and stipends of members (called "syssitia", the public subsidy given for the maintenance of scholars at the Museum) and expels all foreign members of the Mousaeion. | ||
1,768 YBN [232 CE] | 981) Ammonius Saccas (not to be confused with Ammonius of Alexandria, the Christian philosopher), often called the founder of the neoplatonic school, teaches Platonic philosophy at Alexandria from 232-243 CE. Ammonius teaches Plotinus and Origen. Ammianus writes that Alexandria "now lost the quarter called Bruchion which had long been the dwelling of the foremost men". | ||
1,755 YBN [245 CE] | 982) Plotinus (Greek: Πλωτίν_ 9;ς)(c.205 Lycopolis, Upper Egypt-270), thought by many to be (along with Ammonius Saccas) the father of Neoplatonism, teacher of Neo-Platonism, the last phase of ancient philosophy, writes 9 books called "Enneades". Plotinus views a dual nature of the universe based on a sharp contrast between reason and matter, believing in a God as indivisible and an absolute one, in "evil" matter and in "non-evil" matter. The allowance of "non-evil matter" is opposed to the anti-nature view of the early christians. As a Pagan person clearly the one God idea is clear in Plotinus' description of a God as an absolute one. His (scientifically-useless) metaphysical writings will inspire centuries of Christian, Jewish, Muslim, and Gnostic metaphysicians and mystics. Asimov writes that Plotinus is a Roman philosopher who modifies the system of Plato, adding mysticism in order to compete with eastern religions, gaining popularity in Rome at this time. | ||
1,750 YBN [250 CE] | 1091) Diofantos DEOFoNTOS (Greek: Διόφαν` 4;ος ὁ Ἀλεξαν 48;ρεύς) (c.210 CE - c.290 CE), a mathematician working in the Museum in Alexandria, uses equations with variables that must be integers. These equations will come to be called "Diophantine equations", named after Diofantos. Diofantos' most famous work is the "Arithmetica" originally thirteen Greek books, of which only six survive today in Greek manuscripts. Diophantus also wrote a treatise on polygonal numbers, of which part survives. The "editio princeps" of Diofantos will be published in 1575 by Xylander, and editions of Arithmetica will exert a profound influence on the development of algebra in Europe in the late sixteenth through eighteenth centuries. | ![]() [1] Work by Diophantus (died in about 280 B.C.), translated from Greek into Latin by Claude Gaspard Bachet de Méziriac. This edition of the book was published in 1621. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Diophantus-cover.jpg ![]() [2] Work by Diophantus (died in about 280 B.C.), with additions by Pierre de Fermat (died in 1665). This edition of the book was published in 1670. p. 61 contains Diophantus' problem II.VIII, with the famous note added by Fermat which became known as Fermat's last theorem. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Diophantus-II-8-Fermat.jpg | |
1,738 YBN [262 CE] | 1031) Porfurios (Porphyry) (c.232-c. 304 AD) (Greek: Πορφυρ^ 3;ου) writes "Adversus Christianos" (Against the Christians) in 15 books, of which only fragments remain. Porfurios also advocates rights for the other species. (reduce and check is exact from wiki) Porphyry (c.232-c. 304 AD) was a Neoplatonist philosopher. He was born Malchus ("king") in Tyre, but his teacher in Athens, Cassius Longinus, gave him the name Porphyrius (clad in purple), a punning allusion to the color of the imperial robes. Under Longinus he studied grammar and rhetoric. In 262 he went to Rome, attracted by the reputation of Plotinus, and for six years devoted himself to the study of Neoplatonism. Having injured his health by overwork, he went to live in Sicily for five years. On his return to Rome, he lectured on philosophy and completed an edition of the writings of Plotinus (who had died in the meantime) to gether with a biogrpahy of his teacher. Iamblichus is mentioned in ancient Neoplatonic writings as his pupis, but this most likely means only that he was the dominant figure in the next generation of philosophers. The two men differed publicly on the issue of theurgy. In his later years, he married Marcella, a widow with seven children and an enthusiastic student of philosophy. Little more is known of his life, and the date of his death is uncertain. Porphyry is best known for his contributions to philosophy. Apart from writing the Aids to the Study of the Intelligibles, a basic summary of Neoplatonism, he is especially appreciated for his Introduction to Categories (Introductio in Praedicamenta), a commentary on Aristotle's Categories. The Introduction describes how qualities attributed to things may be classified, breaking down the philosophical concept of substance as a relationship genus/species. As Porphyry's most influential contribution to philosophy, the Introduction to Categories incorporated Aristotle's logic into Neoplatonism, in particular the doctrine of the categories interpreted in terms of entities (in later philosophy, "universal"). Boethius' Isagoge, a Latin translation of the Introduction, became a standard medieval textbook in the schools and universities which set the stage for medieval philosophical-theological developments of logic and the problem of universals. In medieval textbooks, the all-important Arbor porphyriana ("Porphyrian Tree") illustrates his logical classification of substance. To this day, taxonomists benefit from Porphyry's Tree in classifying everything from plants to animals to insects to whales. Porphyry is also known as a violent opponent of Christianity and defender of Paganism; of his Adversus Christianos (Against the Christians) in 15 books, only fragments remain. He famously said, "The Gods have proclaimed Christ to have been most pious, but the Christians are a confused and vicious sect." Counter-treatises were written by Eusebius of Caesarea, Apollinarius (or Apollinaris) of Laodicea, Methodius of Olympus, and Macarius of Magnesia, but all these are lost. Porphyry's identification of the Book of Daniel as the work of a writer in the time of Antiochus Epiphanes, is given by Jerome. There is no proof of the assertion of Socrates, the ecclesiastical historian, and Augustine, that Porphyry was once a Christian. Porphyry was also opposed to the theurgy of his disciple Iamblichus. Much of Iamblichus' mysteries is dedicated to the defense of mystic theurgic divine possession against the critiques of Porphyry. Porphyry was, like Pythagoras, known as an advocate of vegetarianism on spiritual or ethical grounds. These two philosophers are perhaps the most famous vegetarians of classical antiquity. He wrote the De Abstinentia (On Abstinence) and also a De Non Necandis ad Epulandum Animantibus (roughly On the Impropriety of Killing Living Beings for Food) in support of abstinence from animal flesh, and is cited with approval in vegetarian literature up to the present day. Porphyry also wrote widely on astrology, religion, philosophy, and musical theory; and produced a biography of his teacher, Plotinus. Another book of his on the life of Pythagoras, named Vita Pythagorae or Life of Pythagoras, is not to be confused with the book of the same name by Iamblichus. In "On Abstinence from Animal Food", Porfurios advocates rights for the other species, saying "he who forbids men to feed on animals, and thinks it is unjust, will also say that it is not just to kill them, and deprive them of life". In this work, Porfurios also argues against sacrificing animals, writing: "Pythagoreans themselves did not spare animals when they sacrificed to the gods. ... I intend to oppose these opinions, and those of the multitude". | ||
1,733 YBN [267 CE] | 984) Hadrian's Library in Athens is among the first of the major libraries to be attacked. Hadrian's Library is destroyed by the Herulians (also called Heruli, nomatic Germanic people), who encountered little resistance. | ||
1,728 YBN [272 CE] | 985) After the occupation of Alexandria by Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, Emperor Aurelian attacks in the royal quarter result in so much destruction that members of the Mouseion either flee the country or take refuge in the Serapeum. Ammianus Marcellinus records: "But Alexandria itself was extended, not gradually, like other cities, but at its very beginning, to great dimensions, and for a long time was exhausted with internal disputes, until finally, after many years, when Aurelian was emperor, the civic quarrels escalated into deadly strife. Its walls were torn down and it lost the greater part of the area which was called the Brucheion, and which had long been the dwelling place of its most distinguished men." Possibly scrolls are transfered to the Serapeum, Kaisareion or Claudianum annexes. Epiphanius will write about the Brucheion a few after Ammianus, that where the library had once been, "there is now a desert" (Patrologia Graeca, 43, 252) Clearly if the Museum was destroyed it was rebuilt after, because The Suidas lists Theon (335-405 CE) as a member, and Synesios (c370-413 CE) writes about the Museum in the early 5th century. | ||
1,710 YBN [290 CE] | 1092) Zosimus of Panopolis (c.250 CE Panopolis {now Akhmim}, Egypt - ?), is a Greek alchemist who summarizes 300 hundred writings on alchemy, the beginnings of Chemistry, in an encyclopedia of 28 books. The books contain a majority of mysticism. Zosimus may have been aware of arsenic, describes the forming of lead acetate, and the sweet taste of lead acetate. The 4 element (fire, air, earth, water) Greek theory will last until Lavoisier. Zosimus related the story of the first alchemist, Chemes, who wrote the teachings of the fallen angels (supposedly angels who fell to earth in order to seduce human women) in a book called Chema. "Chemia" (Greek χημεία) is the Greek word for chemistry, to which the Arabs added the article, al for "alchemy", from their own language. | Panopolis {now Akhmim}, Egypt | |
1,703 YBN [297 CE] | 986) Emperor Diocletian invades Alexandria, appearing in person, and many citizens are brutally slaughtered. Men of learning are not spared, and their books, in particular those on alchemy, are collected and burnt. Soon after this time the largest persecution of the Christians begins. | ||
1,695 YBN [305 CE] | 989) Christian prisoners have a dispute called the Meletian schism, concerning the treatment of those people who have lapsed in church discipline (the lapsi). Peter, the Bishop of Alexandria, represents the more tolerant view, Meletius, Bishop of Lycopolis (assiut), the more rigid school. This division centers on the amount of time until a person is re-admited and then their status after being readmited. This tolerant and ridgid division will last for many years. Another issue of conflict is whether to include ancient Greek learning in basic education or to only strictly teach a purely Christian course. | ||
1,685 YBN [315 CE] | 1004) Aphthonois visits Alexandria and will note later in his "Prosgymnasmata" that although a library still exists in the Serapeum complex, only those alcoves containing philosophical works were accessible, and the stacks associated with the cult of pagan deities had been closed. | ||
1,680 YBN [320 CE] | 1094) Pappos (Greek: Πάππος) (Pappus) (c.290 CE Alexandria - ?? c.350 CE Alexandria) is one of the most important Hellenistic mathematicians of this time, known for his work "Synagoge" or "Collection" (written c.340). Pappos is a Hellenized Egyptian born in Alexandria, Egypt. Although very little is known about his life, the written records suggest he is a teacher. "Synagoge", his best-known work, (thought to be written around 340) is a compendium of Greek mathematics in eight volumes, the first volume is missing while the other 7 volumes have missing parts. "Synagoge" (means "Collection") covers a wide range of topics, including geometry, recreational mathematics, doubling the cube, polygons and polyhedra (three dimensional shapes made of a finite number of polygons). Pappus writes in detail on the astronomical system credited to Ptolomy. Pappos is a likely a member of the Mouseion with access to many works, and in his own work "Synagoge" in which he outlines the history of the Mouseion and its scientists {check}. | Alexandria, Egypt | |
1,650 YBN [350 CE] | 1133) The first use of a lodestone as a direction finder is in the Chinese book "Book of the Devil Valley Master". | China | |
1,643 YBN [357 CE] | 995) Constantius II founds the Imperial Library in Byzantium. Themistius, a Pagan Roman Senator praises Constantius' initiative to found this library. | ||
1,638 YBN [362 CE] | 1032) Flavius Claudius lulianus, Julian (the Apostate), (Greek: Ιουλια_ 7;ός o Παραβά` 4;ης) (331-June 26, 363) issues a "tolerance edict" which reopens the Pagan temples, and calls back exiled Christian bishops. Julian writes "Against the Galileans" which has only been preserved from the writings of Cyril of Alexandria, in his rebuttal "Against Julian". | ||
1,637 YBN [06/26/363 CE] | 1044) The Eastern Roman Emperor Julian (Greek: Ιουλια_ 7;ός o Παραβά` 4;ης; 331-June 26, 363) dies as a result of a spear wound. Julian will be the last "Pagan" (or believer in Hellenic religion) Emperor. After Julian, there will be little protection for the Libraries in Alexandria, Greece and the rest of the Roman Empire which are stored in temples dedicated to the traditional Greek Gods. | ||
1,637 YBN [363 CE] | 1010) Ammanias Marcellinus (c330 Syrian Antioch - c393), Roman soldier and historian writes about Alexandria: "There are besides in the city temples pompous with lofty roofs, conspicuous among them the Serapeum, which, though feeble words merely belittle it, yet is so adorned with extensive columned halls, with almost breathing statues, and a great number of other works of art, that next to the Capitolium, with which revered Rome elevates herself to eternity, the whole world beholds nothing more magnificent. In this were invaluable libraries, and the unanimous testimony of ancient records declares that 700,000 volumes {voluminum}, brought together by the unremitting energy of the Ptolemaic kings, were burned in the Alexandrine war, when the city was sacked under the dictator Caesar {Rolfe comments that 'Ammonius confuses two libraries, that of the Bruchion and that of the Serapeum. The former was founded by Ptolemy Soter (322-282 BCE) and in the time of Callimachus contained 400,000 volumes; the Serapeum, founded by Ptolemy Philadelphus (285-247 BCE), contained 42,800. At the time of the battle of Pharsalia the total number was 532,800 and it may have reached 700,000 by the time of the Alexandrine war. One rumor reported by Plutarch relates how Antony gave Cleopatra 200,000 volumes that had been collected at Pergamum.} {Ammianus continues} ... But Alexandria herself, not gradually (like other cities), but at her very origin, attained her wide extent; and for a long time she was greviously troubled by internal dissensions, until at last, many years later under the rule of Aurelian {in 272 CE}, the quarrels of the citizens turned into deadly strife; then her walls were destroyed and she lost the greater part of the district called the Bruchion {at least a fourth of the city and contains the royal palace}, which had long been the abode of distinguished men. From there came Aristarchus, eminent in thorny problems of grammatical lore, and Herodian, a most accurate investigator in science and Saccas Ammonius, the teacher of Plotinus, and numerous other writers in many famous branches of literature. Among these Didymus Chalcenterus {means of brazen guts, for his tireless industry} was conspicuous for the abundance of his diversified knowledge, although in those six books in which he sometimes unsuccessfully criticises Cicero, imitating the scurrilous writers of Silli {Satirical poems}, he makes the same impression on learned ears as a puppy-dog barking from a distance with quavering voice around a lion roaring awfully. And although very many writers flourished in early times as well as these whom I have mentioned, nevertheless not even today is learning of various kinds silent in that same city; for the teachers of the arts show signs of life, and the geometrical measuring-rod brings to light whatever is concealed, the stream of music is not yet wholly dried up among them, harmony is not reduced to silence, the consideration of the motion of the universe and of the stars is still kept warm with some, few though they be, and there are others who are skilled in numbers; and a few besides are versed in the knowledge which reveals the course of the fates. Moreover, studies in the art of healing, whose help is often required in this life of ours, which is neither frugal nor sober, are so enriched from day to day, that although a physician's work itself indicates it, yet in place of every testimony it is enough to commend his knowledge of the art, if he has said that he was trained in Alexandria. But enough on this point. If one wishes to investigate with attentive mind the many publications on the knowledge of the divine, and the origin of divination, he will find that learning of this kind has been spread abroad from Egypt through the whole world. There, for the first time, long before other men, they discovered the cradles, so to speak, of the various religions, and now carefully guard the first beginnings of worship, stored up in secret writings. Trained in this wisdom, Pythagoras, secretly honoring the gods, made whatever he said or believed recognized authority, and often showed his golden thigh at Olympia {wishing to represent himself as the equal of Apollo}, and let himself be seen from time to time talking with an eagle. From here Anaxagoras foretold a rain of stones, and by handling mud from a well predicted an earthquake. Solon, too, aided by the opinions of the Egyptian priests, passed laws in accordance with the measure of justice, and thus gave also to Roman law its greatest support {Herodotus 1,30 states Solon went to Egypt after making laws, see also Aristotle "Constitution of Athens". The Romans are said to have made use of Solon's code in compiling the XII Tables}. On this source, Plato drew and after visiting Egypt, traversed higher regions {of thought}, and rivaled Jupiter in lofty language, gloriously serving in the field of wisdom." (Again. for me, it is unusual that Plato is so revered, for a person having no significant scientific contributions. Perhaps once the celebrity of Plato was established, his fame and name recognition overcame any criticism or doubts about the value of Plato's contribution to science and knowledge.) | ||
1,636 YBN [364 CE] | 993) Ammianus Marcellinus writes that even Rome is virtually devoid of books. All libraries in Rome are closed. Ammianus Marcellinus relates that there are certain people in Rome who 'hated learning like poison', and "libraries were closed for ever like tombs" | ||
1,636 YBN [364 CE] | 996) Emperor Jovianus has the library of the Trajanum Temple in Antioch burned. | ||
1,634 YBN [366 CE] | 1100) The Caesarion, a Pagan temple in Alexandria with a library is plundered and destroyed by Christian people. | Alexandria, Egypt | |
1,630 YBN [370 CE] | 1376) Around this time Basil of Caesarea, (CE c330-379) (Greek: Άγιος Βασίλε_ 3;ος ο Μέγας), Bishop of Caesarea, establishes a religious foundation that includes a hospital, an isolation unit for those suffering from leprosy, and buildings to house the poor, the elderly, and the sick. Following this example similar hospitals will be built in the eastern part of the Roman Empire. | Cappadocia | ![]() [1] Archbishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:BASIL.jpg |
1,625 YBN [375 CE] | 992) Aphthonius of Antioch, who must visit the Serapeum a few years before it's destruction, mentions the storerooms for books attached to the colonnades (rows of columns), and claims that the books were open to all who desired to study, and attracted the whole city to master wisdom. | ||
1,625 YBN [375 CE] | 994) Ammianus Marcellinus writes of Alexandria: "The city lost the greater part of the Brucheion which was the residence of the most distinguished men" and "Even now in that city the various branches of learning make their voices heard: for the teachers of the arts are still alive, the geometer's rod reveals hidden knowledge, the study of music has not yet completely dried up there, harmony has not been silenced and some few still keep the fires burning in the study of the movement of the earth and stars in addition to them there are a few men learned in the science which reveals the ways of fate. But the study of medicine...grows greater from day to day." | ||
1,620 YBN [380 CE] | 999) Theon, father of Hypatia, is the last recorded scholar-member of the Mouseion in Alexandria. | ||
1,614 YBN [386 CE] | 997) Jerome sees the royal quarter of Alexandria almost deserted and the center of city life conglomerates in the Egyptian quarter around the Serapeum. The royal quarter has become "a site near Alexandria called Kourchon" (i.e. Brucheion). | ||
1,611 YBN [389 CE] | 1001) Emperor Theodosius I (Emperor 379-395 CE) releases a series of decrees which declare among other things that any Pagan feast that has not yet been transfered to a Christian feast is now to be a workday. | ||
1,609 YBN [391 CE] | 1003) The library in the Temple to Serapis (the Serapeum) in Alexandria is violently destroyed by Christian people and the temple is converted to a church. (summarize quotes from historians) The Serapeum is an acropolis with a central temple building in the center and other buildings surrounding the border of the acropolis. Alfred Butler relates that there were 2 chambers set apart for the library, both within the temple, concluding: "...if the Library was part of the temple building, and if the temple building was utterly destroyed, how can it be argued that the Library did not perish? The destruction of the temple was complete: it was thrown down to the foundations. Eunapius says that 'they wrought havoc with the Serapeum and made war on its statues....The foundations alone were not removed owing to the difficulty in moving such huge blocks of stone.' Theodoret, speaking of the same events, says, 'The sanctuaries of the idols were uprooted from their foundations.' Socrates says that the Emperor's order was for the demolition of all the heathen temples in Alexandria, and that 'Theophilus threw down the temple of Serapis': and again, 'The temples were overthrown, and the bronze statues melted down to make domestic vessels.' The same writer records the discovery of stones with hieroglyphic inscriptions during the demolistion of the temple of Serapis: and similar language is used by Sozomen, who describes the Christians as having uninterruptedly occupied the Serapeum from its capture by Theophilus to his own time....Rufinus...speaks of the exterior range of buildings round the edge of the plateau as practically uninjured, though void of its former pagan occupiers: but he makes it clear, that while this outer range remained, with its lecure rooms and dwelling-rooms, not only the great temple of Serapis, but the colonnades about it, had been levelled to the ground.". Much of the Serapeum lasts as late as the 12th century. There are several accounts of the destruction of the Serapeum from Rufinus, Socrates Scholasticus, Sozimen, Theodoret, Eunapius and John of Nikiou. The earliest description of the sack of the Serapeum is from Sophronius, a Christian scholar, called "On the Overthrow of Serapis", but this text has not yet been found. Tyrannius Rufinus (who dies in 410 CE), an orthodox Latin Christian, lives much of his life in Alexandria, translates Eusebius's History of the Church into Latin and then adds his own books X and XI, which takes the book up until this time. Book XI has a description of the sacking of the Serapeum. Rufunus of Aquila will write in 399 CE: "I suppose that everyone has heard of the temple of Serapis in Alexandria, and that many are also familiar with it. The site was elevated, not naturally but artificially, to a height of a hundred or more steps, its enormous rectangular premises extending in every direction. All the rooms up to the floor on top were vaulted, and being furnished with ceiling lights and concealed inner chambers separate from one another, were used for various services and secret functions. On the upper level, furthermore, the outermost structures in the whole circumference provided space for halls and shrines and for lofty apartments which normally housed either the temple staff of those called hagneuontes, meaning those who keep themselves pure. Behind these in turn were porticoes {a porch with columns in front of a door} arranged in rectangles which ran around the whole circumference of the inside. In the middle of the entire area rose the sanctuary with priceless columns, the exterior fashioned of marble, spacious and magnificent to behold. In it there was a statue of Serapis so large that its right hand touched one wall and its left the other; this monster is said to have been made of every kind of metal and wood. The interior walls of the shrine were believed to have been covered with plates of gold overlaid with silver and then bronze, the last as a protection for the more precious metals. There were also some things cunningly devised to excite the amazement and wonder of those who saw them. There was a tiny window so oriented toward the direction of sunrise that on the day appointed for the statue of the sun to be carried in to greet Serapis, careful observation of the seasons had ensured that as the statue was entering, a ray of sunlight coming through this window would light up the mouth and lips of Serapis, so that to the people looking on it it would seem as though the sun was greeting Serapis with a kiss. (this is possible, perhaps on the longest day of the year. comments from Amidon: The existence of the window is confirmed by Alexandrian coinage, and the same arrangement for sun and window is found in other Egyptian temples. The image of the sun kissing Serapis is found on coins and lamps of the period.) There was another like trick. Magnets, it is said, have the power to pull and draw iron to themselves. The image of the sun had been made by its artisan of the finest sort of iron with this in view: that a magnet, which, as we said, naturally attracts iron, and which was set in the ceiling panels, might by natural force draw the iron to itself when the statue was placed so directly beneath it, that statue appearing to the people to rise and hang in the air. (the levitating statue is a doubtful story, although perhaps a small metal statue could be thrown up and stuck to the ceiling, but even that is doubtful given the weak strength of natural magnets of the time. Amidon: The use of magnets in temple ceilings for the purpose Rufinus describes is well attested; cf. Claudiusn "Magnes" 22-39; Pliny "Natural History" 34-42 (a magnet in the ceiling of an Alexandrian temple);Ausonius "Mosella" 315-317; Augustine "City of God" 21.6; Thelamon PC 182,184. still, only perhaps with enough strength to hold metal objects, but I serious doubt levitating is anything other than unwitnessed fantasical stories, a similar story is told about wind blowing back arrows after a prayer to a God, Rufinus conceeds 'the impious may find this hard to believe')... Now as we started to say, when the letter had been read our people were ready to overthrow the author of {the} error, but a rumor had been spread by the Pagans that if a human hand touched the statue, the earth would split open on the spot and crumble into the abyss, while the sky would crash down at once. This gave the people pause for a moment, until one of the soldiers, armed with faith rather than weapons, seized a double-headed axe, drew himself up, and struck the old fraud on the jaw with all his might. A roar went up from both sides, but the sky did not fall, nor did the earth collapse. Thus with repeated strokes he felled the smoke-grimed diety of rotten wood, which upon being thrown down burned as easily as dry wood when it was kindled. After this the head was wrenched from the neck, the bushel having been taken down, and dragged off; then the feet and other members were chopped off with axes and dragged apart with ropes attached, and piece by piece, each in a different place, the decrepit dotard (DOTeRD, somebody whose age has impaired their intellect) was burned to ashes before the eyes of the Alexandria which had worshipped him. Last of all the torso which was left was put to the torch in the amphitheater, and that was the end of the vain superstition and ancient error of Serapis. ... Once the very pinnacle of idolatry had been thrown down, all of the idols, or one should rather say monsters, throughout Alexandria were pilloried {ridiculed and abused} by a like destruction and similar disgrace through the efforts of its most vigilant priest. The mind shutters to speak of the snares laid by the demons for wretched mortals, the corpses, the crimes uncovered in what they call "shrines," the number of decapitated babies' heads found in gilded urns, the number of pictures of excruciating deaths of poor wretches. When these were brought to light and displayed to public view, even though their very confusion and shame scattered the pagans, still those who could bear to remain were amazed at how they had been enmeshed for so many centuries in such vile and shameful deceptions. Hence many of them, having condemned this error and realized its wickedness, embraced the faith of Christ and the true religion. (interesting that compared to child sacrifice, Christianity may have looked more civilized, but Christian people murdered many people, and have just as many unrealistic beliefs as Pagan/polytheist people did.) ... but nothing was done which resulted in the place becoming deserted. The dens of iniquity and age-worn burial grounds were demolished, and lofty churches, temples of the true God, were put up. For on the site of Serapis' tomb the unholy sanctuaries were leveled, and on the one side there rose a {Christian} martyr's shrine, on the other a church. ... But after the death of Serapis, who had never been alive, what temples of any other demon could remain standing? It would hardly be enough to say that all the deserted shrines in Alexandria, of whatever demon, {no doubt including "the Muses"} came down almost column by column. In fact, in all the cities of Egypt, the settlements, the villages, the countryside everywhere, the riverbanks, even the desert, wherever shrines, or rather graveyards, could be found, the persistence of the several bishops resulted in their being wrecked and razed to the ground {that is to say completely and permanently demolished}, so that the countryside, which had wrongly been given over to the demons, was restored to agriculture. Another thing was done in Alexandria: the busts of Serapis, which had been in every house in the walls, the entrances, the doorposts, and even the windows, were so cut and filed away that not even a trace or mention of him or any other demon remained anywhere. In their place everyone painted the sign of the Lord's cross on doorposts, and even the windows, were so cut and filed away that not even a trace or mention of him or any other demon remained anywhere. In their place everyone painted the sign of the Lord's cross on doorposts, entrances, windows, walls, and columns."{I think this shows the thoroughness of this transition} Socrates Scholasticus, in his "Historia Ecclesiastica" describes the destruction of the Serapeum this way: "Demoli tion of the Idolatrous Temples at Alexandria, and the Consequent Conflict between the Pagans and Christians. At the request of Theophilus, Bishop of Alexandria, the Emperor issued an order at this time for the demolition of the heathen temples in that city; commanding also that it should be put in execution under the direction of Theophilus. Seizing this opportunity, Theophilus exerted himself to the utmost to expose the pagan mysteries to contempt. And to begin with, he caused the Mithreum {an often underground or partially underground temple dedicated to the worship of Mithras, a Persian God , see Socrates 3.2 for more detail} to be cleaned out, and exhibited to public view the tokens of its bloody mysteries. Then he destroyed the Serapeum, and the bloody rights of the Mithreum he publicly caricatured {to imitate in an exaggerated, distorted manner }; the Serapeum also he showed full of extravagant superstitions, and he had the phalli {penises} of Priapus carried through the midst of the forum. The Pagans of Alexandria, and especially the professors of philosophy, were unable to repress their rage at this exposure, and exceeded in revengeful ferocity their outrages on a former occasion: for with one accord, at a preconcerted signal, they rushed impetuously upon the Christians, and murdered every one they could lay hands on. The Christians also made an attempt to resist the assailants, and so the mischief was the more augmented. This desperate brawl was prolonged until fulfillment of enough bloodshed put an end to it. Then it was discovered that very few of the heathens had been killed, but a great number of Christians had; while the number of wounded on each side was almost innumerable. Fear then possessed the Pagans on account of what was done, as they considered the Emperor's displeasure. For having done what seemed good in their own eyes, and by their bloodshed having quenched their courage, some fled in one direction, some in another, and many quitting Alexandria, dispersed themselves in various cities. Among these were the two grammarians Helladius and Ammonius, whose pupil I was in my youth at Constantinople. Helladius was said to be the priest of Jupiter, and Ammonius of Simius. Thus this disturbance having been terminated, the governor of Alexandria, and the commander-in-chief of the troops in Egypt, assisted Theophilus in demolishing the heathen temples. These were therefore razed to the ground, and the images of their gods molten into pots and other convenient utensils for the use of the Alexandrian church; for the emperor had instructed Theophilus to distribute them for the relief of the poor. All the images were accordingly broken to pieces, except one statue of the god before mentioned, which Theophilus preserved and set up in a public place; `Lest,' said he, `at a future time the heathens should deny that they had ever worshiped such gods.' This action gave great offense to Ammonius the grammarian in particular, who to my knowledge was accustomed to say that `the religcion of the Gentiles was grossly abused in that that single statue was not also melted, but preserved, in order to render that religion ridiculous.' Helladius however boasted in the presence of some that he had slain in that desperate onset nine men with his own hand. Such were the doings at Alexandria at that time." Eunapios (Eunapius) (Ευνάπιος) (346 Sardis - ~414 ) writes: "Now, not long after, an unmistakable sign was given that there was in him {Antoninius} some diviner element. For no sooner had he left the world of men than the cult of the temples in Alexandria and at the shrine of Serapis {greek: Sarapei'on} was scattered to the winds, and not only the ceremonies of the cult but the buildings as well, and everything happened as in the myths of the poets when the Giants gained the upper hand. The temples at Canobus also suffered the same fate in the reign of Theodosius, when Theophilus {the Christian bishop of Alexandria} presided over the abominable ones like a sort of Eurymedon. Who ruled over the proud Giants, (Odyssey Vii 59) and Evagrius was prefect of the city, and Romanus in command of the legions in Egypt. For these men, girding themselves in their wrath against our sacred places as though against stones and stone-masons, made a raid on the temples, and though they could not allege even a rumour of war to justify them, they demolished the temple of Serapis {Sarapei'w} and war against the temple offerings, whereby they won a victory without meeting a foe or fighting a battle. In this fashion they fought so strenuously against the statues and votive offerings {Given or dedicated in fulfillment of a vow or pledge } that they not only conquered but stole them as well, and their own military tactics were to ensure that the thief should escape detection. Only the floor of the temple of Searpis {Sarapei'on} they did not take, simply because of the weight of the stones which were not easy to move from their place. Then these warlike and honorable men, after they had thrown everything into confusion and disorder and had thrust out hands, unstained indeed by blood but not pure from greed, boasted that they had overcome the gods, and viewed {was reckoned} their sacrilege and impiety a thing to glory in. Next, into the sacred places they imported monks, as they called them, who were men in appearance but led the lives of swine, and openly did and allowed countless unspeakable crimes. But this they accounted piety, to show contempt for things divine. For in those days every man who wore a black robe and consented to behave in unseemly fashion in public, possessed the power of a tyrant, to such a pitch of virtue had the human race advanced! All this however I have described in my 'Universal History'. They settled these monks at Canobus also, and thus they fettered the human race to the worship of slaves, and those not even honest slaves, instead of the true gods. For they collected the bones and skulls of criminals who had been put to death for numerous crimes, men whom the law courts of the city had condemned to punishment, made them out to be gods, haunted their sepulchres {Christian churches were built over the graves of martyrs}, and thought that they became better by defiling themselves at their graves. 'Martyrs' the dead men were called, and 'ministers' of a sort, and 'ambassadors' from the gods to carry men's prayers, -these slaves in vilest servitude, who had been consumed by stripes {cars from whipping} and carried on their phantom forms the scars of their villainy. However these are the gods that earth produces! {kind of a funny statement showing kind of comedic view of belief in gods} This then, greatly increased the reputation of Antoninus also for foresight, in that he had foretold to all that the temples would become tombs. Likewise the famous Iamblichus, as I have handed down in my account of his life, when a certain Egyptian invoked Apollo, and to the great amazement of those who saw the vision, Apollo came: 'My friends,' said he, 'cease to wonder; this is only the ghost of a gladiator.' So great a difference does it make whether one beholds a thing with the intelligence or with the deceitful eyes of the flesh. But Iamblichus saw through marvels that were present, whereas Antoninus foresaw future events. This fact of itself argues his superior powers. his end came painlessly, when he attained to a ripe old age free from sickness. And to all intelligent men the end of the temples which he had prognosticated was painful indeed." Theodoret (~380-~?) writes: "The illustrious Athanasius was succeeded by the admirable Petrus, Petrus by Timotheus, and Timotheus by Theophilus, a man of sound wisdom and of a lofty courage. By him Alexandria was set free from the error of idolatry; for, not content with razing the idols' temples to the ground, he exposed the tricks of the priests to the victims of their wiles. For they had constructed statues of bronze and wood hollow within, and fastened the backs of them to the temple walls, leaving in these walls certain invisible openings. Then coming up from their secret chambers they got inside the statues, and through them gave any order they liked and the hearers, tricked and cheated, obeyed. These tricks the wise Theophilus exposed to the people. Moreover he went up into the temple of Serapis, which has been described by some as excelling in size and beauty all the temples in the world. There he saw an image of which the bulk struck beholders with terror, increased by a lying report which got abroad that if any one approached it, there would be a great earthquake, and that all the people would be destroyed. The bishop looked on all these tales as the mere drivelling of tipsy old women, and in utter derision of the lifeless monster's enormous size, he told a man who had an axe to give Serapis a good blow with it. No sooner had the man struck, than all the people cried out, for they were afraid of the threatened catastrophe. Serapis however, who had received the blow, felt no pain, inasmuch as he was made of wood, and uttered never a word, since he was a lifeless block (clearly the effort to win people over to their religion is evident in this and other writings from both the Christian and Pagan sides in this time). His head was cut off, and forthwith out ran multitudes of mice, for the Egyptian god was a dwelling place for mice. Serapis was broken into small pieces of which some were committed to the flames, buit his head was carried through all the town in sight of his worshippers, who mocked the weakness of him to whom they had bowed the knee. Thus all over the world the shrines of the idols were destroyed." Salaminius Hermias Sozomen (c400-c450), historian of the Christian church writes: "About this period, the bishop of Alexandria, to whom the temple of Dionysus had, at his own request, been granted by the emperor, converted the edifice into a church. The statues were removed, the adyta were exposed; and, in order to cast contumely on the pagan mysteries, he made a procession for the display of these objects; the phalli, and whatever other object had been concealed in the adyta (The sanctum, or sacred place, in an ancient temple ) which really was, or seemed to be, ridiculous, he made a public exhibition of. The pagans, amazed at so unexpected an exposure, could not suffer it in silence, but conspired together to attack the Christians. They killed many of the Christians, wounded others, and seized the Serapion, a temple which was conspicuous for beauty and vastness and which was seated on an eminence. This they converted into a temporary citadel; and hither they conveyed many of the Christians, put them to the torture, and compelled them to offer sacrifice. Those who refused compliance were crucified, had both legs broken, or were put to death in some cruel manner. When the sedition had prevailed for some time, the rulers came and urged the people to remember the laws, to lay down their arms, and to give up the Serapion. There came then Romanus, the general of the military legions in Egpyt; and Evagrius was the prefect of Alexandria. As their efforts, however, to reduce the people to submission were utterly in vain, they made known what had transpired to the emperor. Those who had shut themselves up in the Serapion prepared a more spirited resistance, from fear of the punishment that they knew would await their audacious proceedings, and they were further instigated to revolt by the inflammatory discourses of a man named Olympius, attired in the garments of a philosopher, who told them that they ought to die rather than neglect the gods of their fathers. Perceiving that they were greatly dispirited by the destruction of the idolatrous statues, he assured them that such a circumstance did not warrant their renouncing their religion; for that the statues were composed of corruptible materials, and were mere pictures, and therefore would disappear; whereas, the powers which had dwelt within them, had flown to heaven. By such representations as these, he retained the multitude with him in the Serapion. When the emperor was informed of these occurrences, he declared that the Christians who had been slain were blessed, inasmuch as they had been admitted to the honor of martyrdom, and had suffered in defense of the faith. He offered free pardon30 to those who had slain them, hoping that by this act of clemency they would be the more readily induced to embrace Christianity; and he commanded the demolition of the temples in Alexandria which had been the cause of the popular sedition. It is said that, when this imperial edict was read in public, the Christians uttered loud shouts of joy, because the emperor laid the odium of what had occurred upon the pagans. The people who were guarding the Serapion were so terrified at hearing these shouts, that they took to flight, and the Christians immediately obtained possession of the spot, which they have retained ever since. I have been informed that, on the night preceding this occurrence, Olympius heard the voice of one singing hallelujah in the Serapion. The doors were shut and everything was still; and as he could see no one, but could only hear the voice of the singer, he at once understood what the sign signified; and unknown to any one he quitted the Serapion and embarked for Italy. It is said that when the temple was being demolished, some stones were found, on which were hieroglyphic characters in the form of a cross, which on being submitted to the inspection of the learned, were interpreted as signifying the life to come.31 These characters led to the conversion of several of the pagans, as did likewise other inscriptions found in the same place, and which contained predictions of the destruction of the temple. It was thus that the Serapion was taken, and, a little while after, converted into a church; it received the name of the Emperor Arcadius. There were still pagans in many cities, who contended zealously in behalf of their temples; as, for instance, the inhabitants of Petraea and of Areopolis, in Arabia; of Raphi and Gaza, in Palestine; of Heriopolis in Phoenicia; and of Apamea, on the river Axius, in Syria. I have been informed that the inhabitants of the last-named city often armed the men of Galilee and the peasants of Lebanon in defense of their temples; and that at last, they even carried their audacity to such a height, as to slay a bishop named Marcellus. This bishop had commanded the demolition of all the temples in the city and villages, under the supposition that it would not be easy otherwise for them to be converted from their former religion. Having heard that there was a very spacious temple at Aulon, a district of Apamea, he repaired thither with a body of soldiers and gladiators. He stationed himself at a distance from the scene of conflict, beyond the reach of the arrows; for he was afflicted with the gout, and was unable to fight, to pursue, or to flee. Whilst the soldiers and gladiators were engaged in the assault against the temple, some pagans, discovering that he was alone, hastened to the place where he was separated from the combat; they arose suddenly and seized him, and burnt him alive. The perpetrators of this deed were not then known, but, in course of time, they were detected, and the sons of Marcellus determined upon avenging his death. The council of the province, however, prohibited them from executing this design, and declared that it was not just that the relatives or friends of Marcellus should seek to avenge his death; when they should rather return thanks to God for having accounted him worthy to die in such a cause." Clearly this is a period, under Theodosius where most if not all Pagan temples are destroyed. John Malalas (490-~570 CE) will write: "After the reign of Arcadius, his brother Honorius resigned in Rome for 31 years. He was irascible and chaste. This emperor closed the temple of Serapis Helios in Alexandria the Great." The Church built over the ruins of the Serapeum is named after Honorius, the youngest son of the Emperor Theodosius. Aphthonius, a contemporary of the destruction, writes in a "description of the Acropolis of Alexandria" (the Serapeum is commonly called the Acropolis of Alexandria), "On the inner side of the collonade were built rooms, some of which served as books stores (tameia tois biblios) and were open to those who devoted their life to the cause of learning. It was these study-rooms that exalted the city to be the first in philosophy. Some other rooms were set up for the 'worship of the old gods'." Aphthonius uses the past tense to describe the rooms for the worship of the old gods, and this indicates that by the time of this writing he knows that these features no longer exist. The writing of Eunapius, Theodoret and others are strong evidence that the Mouseion and Serapeum did not last past 391. A Neoplatonic philosopher Olympius, assumes leadership in the resistance in the Serapeum; the pagans are joined by Ammonius (a preist of Thoth {Egyptian version of Greek God Hermes}) and Helladius (a preist of Ammon {Egyptian version of Greek God Zeus}), teachers of Greek language and literature; and by a poet Palladas and probably by the poet Claudian. Theopilus also orders the destruction of the temple of the god Serapis in Canopus. Church historians Rufinus, Sozomenos and Damascius (in his "Life of Isidore") relate how Olympius, in his philopher's cloak, placed himself at the head of the defenders, and calls for total sacrifice in defense of the sacred symbols of their ancestor's religion. As the pagan defenders watched the destruction of their statues of the gods, Olympius repeatedly assures them that the spirit inside the statues goes to heaven and only their early form is destroyed. Under the leadership of Olympius the pagans reportedly capture, torture and crucify some Christians. Among those killed is the renowned rhetor (teacher of rhetoric, the art of the effective use of language) Gessius. Helladius takes pride in killing 9 Christians in the street skirmishes. After the fall of the Serapeum, Olympius, Ammonius, Helladius, Claudian, and other pagan left Alexandria. Ammonius and Helladius flee to Constantinople where they look back with pain and lament at the defeat dealt to Hellenic religion (there really is no clear name, like Christianity for this polytheistic religion centered on Zeus, I guess "Hellenic religion" is going to have to be what I use}. Ammonius, in particular despairs over the destruction of the statues of the gods and the ridicule to which they were subjected; on Theophilus' order the status of the god Thoth (with the head of a baboon) had been exhibited to the mob, who had mocked its sacredness. When the emperor's edict ordering the destruction of the temple was proclaimed, and soldiers and Christians began their occupation of the Serapeum, Olypius escaped to Italy by sea. Palladas {friend of Theon and author of a poem about the young Hypatia} remained in Alexandria but was deprived of the salary allotted him by the city for teaching Greek literature. Just four months after issuing his first edict, Theodosius needs to reiterate the prohibition against pagan worship {CTh. XVI.10.11}, this time addressing it to the prefect and military governor in Egypt. The Serapeum was the most famous of the temples in the East and had stood for more than six centuries. Bands of monks and Christian officials had long been accustomed to take the law into their own hands and destroy various centers of Pagan worship, but the destruction of the Serapeum seemed to confirm that such actions enjoyed the Emperor's tacit approval at least, and served to encourage such action in the future. | Alexandria, Egypt | |
1,600 YBN [400 CE] | 1005) Eunapius describes the Pagan temples in Alexandria as "scattered to the winds" in terms of cult ceremonies. Around this time Orosius reports that Christians have already plundered the contents of Alexandrian libraries. Copy ing and preservation by Christians of only those philosophical treatises that do not go against their religious beliefs contribute to the loss of thousands of manuscripts. | ||
1,600 YBN [400 CE] | 1118) The Bakhshali Manuscript, an Indian mathematics text, is one of the earliest records of the use of the number zero and negative numbers. | Bakhshali, Pakistan | ![]() [1] The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art Source: http://www.chinapage.com/jiuzhang.gif P D source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:%E4%B9%9D%E7%AB%A0%E7%AE%97%E8%A1%93. gif |
1,600 YBN [400 CE] | 1329) Paper is invented in America by Mayan people independently of Asia. This paper is called "Amatl" and is made by boiling the inner bark of several species of fig trees (genus Ficus) and pounding the resulting fibers with a stone (and allowed to dry). The paper is light brown with corrugated lines, is stretchy and delicate. | Mesoamerica | ![]() [1] Part of the Huexotzinco Codex, printed on amatl Source URL: http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/treasures/tr t045.html Image made in 1531 by Nahua Indians in legal case in Mexico and Spain against Spanish administrators who abused them. The Indians were part of the Cortes estate. Cortes was a co-plantiff against the administrators who mismanaged his estate. Image taken form a Library of Congress page. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Huex_codex_1a_loc.jpg |
1,591 YBN [409 CE] | 998) Synesios (Synesius) (c370-413 CE), who studies under Hypatia, describes the pictures of philosophers in the Mouseion. There is no later reference to the Mouseion's existence in the fifth century. This is evidence that the Mouseion survived intact after the destruction of the Sarapeion in 391. Since Synesios is thought to have died around 414, and there are no other references after Synesios, it is possible that the Mouseion was destroyed a short time before or after the murder of Hypatia. This is in Chapter 6 of "A Eulogy of Baldness", Synesios writes: "You may look at the pictures in the Museum, I mean those of Diogenes and Socrates, and whomever you please of those who in their age were wise, and your survey would be an inspection of bald heads." This is evidence that there were pictures {probably painted on papyrus} of famous philosophers and scholars. We probably would know what the famous scholars of the Mouseion looked like, had the Mouseion survived. | ||
1,588 YBN [10/15/412 CE] | 1006) Theophilus dies, and is succeeded by his nephew Cyril. Theophilus is refered to as the "church's pharaoh". Theophilus's harsh and authoritarian conduct provokes anger among Alexandrian Pagan people, monks of the desert Nitria, the Bishop of Constantinople, John Chrysostom, and from various Christian groups in the East. Church historians of today express great respect for Cyril, but his contemporaries view Cyril differently describing him as impetuous (in other words forcefully impulsive), and power-hungry. Cyril arouses strong opposition in Egypt. There are three days of fighting between supporters of Timothy, Theophilus' archdeacon, and supporters of Cyril. | ||
1,588 YBN [10/17/412 CE] | 1007) The supporters of Cyril (Κυρίλλ 59;υ) win the three day battle and Cyril is bishop. Socrates Scholasticus, a Christian historian, alive at this time, writes: "Cyril succeeds Theophilus Bishop of Alexandria. Shortly afterwards Theophilus bishop of Alexandria having fallen into a lethargic state, died on the 15th of October,19 in the ninth consulate of Honorius, and the fifth of Theodosius. A great contest immediately arose about the appointment of a successor, some seeking to place Timothy the archdeacon in the episcopal chair; and others desiring Cyril, who was a nephew of Theophilus. A tumult having arisen on this account among the people, Abundantius, the commander of the troops in Egypt, took sides with Timothy. (Yet the partisans of Cyril triumphed.)20 Whereupon on the third day after the death of Theophilus, Cyril came into possession of the episcopate, with greater power than Theophilus had ever exercised. For from that time the bishopric of Alexandria went beyond the limits of its sacerdotal functions, and assumed the administration of secular matters.21 Cyril immediately therefore shut up the churches of the Novatians at Alexandria, and took possession of all their consecrated vessels and ornaments; and then stripped their bishop Theopemptus of all that he had." | ||
1,585 YBN [03/??/415 CE] | 1009) Hypatia (Greek: Υπατία and Ὑπατία 62;) (c360 - 415), a popular female philosopher, mathematician and astronomer in Alexandria is murdered by Christian people. Many people site this as the end of ancient science. Clearly, the seed of science survived, as science grows now, in the time we live in. There are 4 major sources for information about Hypatia 1) A passage in the "Ecclesiastical History" by a Christian historian, Socrates Scholasticus (380 Constantinople -~450 CE) 2) A number of letters by Hypatia's pupil, Synesius of Cyrene (c370-413 CE) 3) An entry in the Suda Lexicon, an 10th century CE encyclopedia which mistakenly has Hypatia as married and some people think is a mixing of two texts, one from a sixth-century encyclopedia, "the Onomatologus of Hesychius the Illustrious" and the other from a still lost work, "The Life of Isidorus" by the Neoplatonist philosopher Damascius. (It's not clear if "The Philosophical History" from Damaskios is taken directly from a primary source.) 4) An excerpt from The Chronicle of John, Coptic Bishop of Nikiu who lives around 696 CE. Socrates of Scholasticus, a Christian historian alive at the time of the murder of Hypatia writes: "Conflict between the Christians and Jews at Alexandria: and breach between the Bishop Cyril (Κυρίλλ 59;υ) and the Prefect Orestes. About this same time it happened that the Jewish inhabitants were driven out of Alexandria by Cyril the bishop on the following account. The Alexandrian public is more delighted-with tumult than any other people: and if at any time it should find a pretext, breaks forth into the most intolerable excesses; for it never ceases from its turbulence without bloodshed. It happened on the present occasion that a disturbance arose among the populace, not from a cause of any serious importance, but out of an evil that has become very popular in almost all cities, viz. a fondness for dancing exhibitions.38 In consequence of the Jews being disengaged from business on the Sabbath, and spending their time, not in hearing the Law, but in theatrical amusements, dancers usually collect great crowds on that day, and disorder is almost invariably produced. And although this was in some degree controlled by the governor of Alexandria, nevertheless the Jews continued opposing these measures. And although they are always hostile toward the Christians they were roused to still greater opposition against them on account of the dancers. When therefore Orestes the prefect was publishing an edict-for so they are accustomed to call public notices-in the theatre for the regulation of the shows, some of the bishop Cyril's party were present to learn the nature of the orders about to be issued. There was among them a certain Hierax, a teacher of the rudimental branches of literature, and one who was a very enthusiastic listener of the bishop Cyril's sermons, and made himself conspicuous by his forwardness in applauding. When the Jews observed this person in the theatre, they immediately cried out that he had come there for no other purpose than to excite sedition among the people. Now Orestes had long regarded with jealousy the growing power of the bishops, because they encroached on the jurisdiction of the authorities appointed by the emperor, especially as Cyril wished to set spies over his proceedings; he therefore ordered Hierax to be seized, and publicly subjected him to the torture in the theatre. Cyril, on being informed of this, sent for the principal Jews, and threatened them with the utmost severities unless they desisted from their molestation of the Christians. The Jewish populace on hearing these menaces, instead of suppressing their violence, only became more furious, and were led to form conspiracies for the destruction of the Christians; one of these was of so desperate a character as to cause their entire expulsion from Alexandria; this I shall now describe. Having agreed that each one of them should wear a ring on his finger made of the bark of a palm branch, for the sake of mutual recognition, they determined to make a nightly attack on the Christians. They therefore sent persons into the streets to raise an outcry that the church named after Alexander was on fire. Thus many Christians on hearing this ran out, some from one direction and some from another, in great anxiety to save their church. The Jews immediately fell upon and slew them; readily distinguishing each other by their rings. At daybreak the authors of this atrocity could not be concealed: and Cyril, accompanied by an immense crowd of people, going to their synagogues-for so they call their house of prayer-took them away from them,and drove the Jews out of the city, permitting the multitude to plunder their goods. Thus the Jews who had inhabited the city from the time of Alexander the Macedonian were expelled from it, stripped of all they possessed, and dispersed some in one direction and some in another. One of them, a physician39 named Adamantius, fled to Atticus bishop of Constantinople, and professing Christianity, some time afterwards returned to Alexandria and fixed his residence there. But Orestes the governor of Alexandria was filled with great indignation at these transactions, and was excessively grieved that a city of such magnitude should have been suddenly bereft of so large a portion of its population; he therefore at once communicated the whole affair to theemperor. Cyril also wrote to him, describing the outrageous conduct of the Jews; and in the meanwhile sent persons to Orestes who should mediate concerning a reconciliation: for this the people had urged him to do. And when Orestes refused to listen to friendly advances, Cyril extended toward him the book of gospels,40 believing that respect for religion would induce him to lay aside his resentment. When, however, even this had no pacific effect on the prefect, but he persisted in implacable hostility against the bishop, the following event afterwards occurred. Chapter XIV. The Monks of Nitria come down and raise a Sedition against the Prefect of Alexandria. Some of the monks inhabiting the mountains of Nitria, of a very fiery disposition, whom Theophilus some time before had unjustly armed against Dioscorus and his brethren, being again transported with an ardent zeal, resolved to fight in behalf of Cyril. About five hundred of them therefore quitting their monasteries, came into the city; and meeting the prefect in his chariot, they called him a pagan idolater, and applied to him many other abusive epithets. He supposing this to be a snare laid for him by Cyril, exclaimed that he was a Christian, and had been baptized by Atticus the bishop at Constantinople. As they gave but little heed to his protestations, and a certain one of them named Ammonius threw a stone at Orestes which struck him on the head and covered him with the blood that flowed from the wound, all the guards with a few exceptions fled, plunging into the crowd, some in one direction and some in another, fearing to be stoned to death. Meanwhile the populace of Alexandria ran to the rescue of the governor, and put the rest of the monks to flight; but having secured Ammonius they delivered him up to the prefect. He immediately put him publicly to the torture, which was inflicted with such severity that he died under the effects of it: and not long: after he gave an account to the emperors of what had taken place. Cyril also on the other hand forwarded his statement of the matter to the emperor: and causing the body of Ammonius to be deposited in a certain church, he gave him the new appellation of Thaumasius,41 ordering him to be enrolled among the martyrs, and eulogizing his magnanimity in church as that of one who had fallen in a conflict in defence of piety. But the more sober-minded, although Christians, did not accept Cyril's prejudiced estimate of him; for they well knew that he had suffered the punishment due to his rashness, and that he had not lost his life under the torture because he would not deny Christ. And Cyril himself being conscious of this, suffered the recollection of the circumstance to be gradually obliterated by silence. But the animosity between Cyril and Orestes did not by any means subside at this point, but was kindled afresh by an occurrence similar to the preceding. Chapter XV. Of Hypatia the Female Philosopher. There was a woman at Alexandria named Hypatia, daughter of the philosopher Theon, who made such attainments in literature and science, as to far surpass all the philosophers of her own time. Having succeeded to the school of Plato and Plotinus, she explained the principles of philosophy to her auditors, many of whom came from a distance to receive her instructions. On account of the self-possession and ease of manner, which she had acquired in consequence of the cultivation of her mind, she not unfrequently appeared in public in presence of the magistrates. Neither did she feel abashed in coming to an assembly of men. For all men on account of her extraordinary dignity and virtue admired her the more. Yet even she fell a victim to the political jealousy which at that time prevailed. For as she had frequent interviews with Orestes (the Roman Prefect or Governor of Egypt at the time ), it was slanderously reported among the Christian populace, that it was she who prevented Orestes from being reconciled to the Bishop. Some of them therefore, hurried away by a fierce and bigoted zeal, whose ringleader was a reader named Peter, waylaid her returning home, and dragging her from her carriage, they took her to the church called Caesareum, where they completely stripped her, and then murdered her with tiles {the words are οστράκ_ 9;ις ανείλο_ 7;, oyster shells, but this word was applied to brick ceiling tiles}. After tearing her body in pieces, they took her mangled limbs to a place called Cinaron, and there burnt them. This affair brought not the least disgrace (in other words some amount of disgrace), not only upon Cyril, but also upon the whole Alexandrian church. And surely nothing can be farther from the spirit of Christianity than the allowance of massacres, fights, and transactions of that sort. This happened in the month of March during Lent, in the fourth year of Cyril's episcopate, under the tenth consulate of Honorius, and the sixth of Theodosius." A century later, Damaskios, the last of the Neoplatonists, forced out of Athens in 529 by Justinian, will write in "The Philosophical History": "Hypatia: she was born, brought up and educated in Alexandria and being endowed with a nobler nature than her father, she was not content with the mathematical education that her father gave her, but occupied herself with some distinction in the other branches of philosophy. And wraping herself in a philosopher's cloak, she progressed through the town, publicly interpreting the works of Plato, Aristotle or any other philosopher to those who wished to listen. As well as being a gifted teacher, she had reached the peak of moral virtue and was just and prudent; she remained a virgin, but as she was remarkably beautiful and attractive one of her students fell in love with her and, not being able to control his passion, he betrayed it to her as well. Ignorant legend has it that Hypatia cured him of his disease through music. But the truth is that when music failed to have any effect, she produced a rag of the type used by women, stained with blood and, showing him the symbol of the impurity of birth she said: "This is what you are in love with, young man, and not a thing of beauty". His soul was overcome by shame and astonishment at the unseemly display and he adopted a more rational attitude. Hypatia being of such a nature -skilled and dialectical (arriving at the truth through logical argument ) in speech, wise and politic (using prudence, shrewdness, proceeding from policy) in behavior- the entire city naturally loved her and held her in exceptional esteem, while the powers-that-be paid their respects first to her, as indeed was the custom in Athens. Even if philosophy itself was dead, its name at least still seemed most honorable and worthy of admiration to those who ran the affairs of the city. It happened one day that Cyril, the man in charge of the opposing sect, was passing Hypatia's house and seeing a great crowd at the door "a mix of men and horses", some going, some coming and some standing around, he asked what the crowd was and why there was the commotion in front of the house. His attendants told him that honors were being paid to the philosopher Hypatia and that this was her house. When he heard this, envy so gnawed at his soul that he soon began to plot her murder -the most ungodly murder of all. When she left her house as usual, a crowd of bestial men -truly abominable- those who take account neither of divine vengeance nor of human retribution- fell upon and killed the philosopher; and while she still gasped for air they cut out her eyes; thus inflicting the greatest pollution and disgrace on the city. And the Emperor was angry {missing text is probably to the effect "and would have sought punishment"} ... had not Aedesius been bribed. He removed the punishment from the murderers and brought it upon himself and his offspring; it was his grandson who paid the penalty." John, Bishop of Nikiu, writes around 696 CE: "AND IN THOSE DAYS there appeared in Alexandria a female philosopher, a pagan named Hypatia, and she was devoted at all times to magic, astrolabes and instruments of music, and she beguiled many people through (her) Satanic wiles. And the governor of the city honored her exceedingly; for she had beguiled him through her magic. And he ceased attending church as had been his custom. But he went once under circumstances of danger. And he not only did this, but he drew many believers to her, and he himself received the unbelievers at his house. And on a certain day when they were making merry over a theatrical exhibition connected with dancers, the governor of the city published (an edict) regarding the public exhibitions in the city of Alexandria: and all the inhabitants of the city had assembled there {in the theater}. Now Cyril, who had been appointed patriarch after Theophilus, was eager to gain exact intelligence regarding this edict. And there was a man named Hierax, a Christian possessing understanding and intelligence who used to mock the Pagans but was a devoted adherent of the illustrious Father the patriarch and was obedient to his monitions (warnings of imminent danger). He was also well versed in the Christian faith. (Now this man attended the theater to learn the nature of this edict.) But when the Jews saw him in the theater they cried out and said: "This man has not come with any good purpose, but only to provoke an uproar." And Orestes the prefect was displeased with the children of the holy church, and Hierax was seized and subjected to punishment publicly in the theater, although he was wholly guiltless. And Cyril was wroth with the governor of the city for so doing, and likewise for his putting to death an illustrious monk of the convent of Pernodj (The Coptic word for the desert of Nitria) named Ammonius, and other monks (also). And when the chief magistrate (This is apparently wrong. It should be "Cyril" {a magistrate is a civil officer with the authority to enforce the law}) of the city heard this, he sent word to the Jews as follows: "Cease your hostilities against the Christians." But they refused to hearken to what they heard; for they gloried in the support of the Prefect who was with them, and so they added outrage to outrage and plotted a massacre through a treacherous device. And they posted beside them at night in all the streets of the city certain men, while others cried out and said: "The church of the apostolic Athanasius is on fire: come to its succour, all ye Christians." And the Christians on hearing their cry came fourth quite ignorant of the treachery of the Jews. And when the Christians came forth, the Jews arose and wickedly massacred the Christians and shed the blood of many, guiltless though they were. And in the morning, when the surviving Christians heard of the wicked deed which the Jews had wrought, they betook themselves to the patriarch. And the Christians mustered all together and went and marched in wrath to the synagogues of the Jews and took possession of them, and purified them and converted them into churches. And one of them they named after the name of St. George. And as for the Jewish assassins they expelled them from the city, and pillaged all their possessions and drove them forth wholly despoiled, and Orestes the prefect was unable to render them any help. And thereafter a multitude of believers in God arose under the guidance of Peter the magistrate -- now this Peter was a perfect believer in all respects in Jesus Christ -- and they proceeded to seek for the pagan woman who had beguiled the people of the city and the prefect through her enchantments. And when they learnt the place where she was, they proceeded to her and found her seated on a (lofty) chair; and having made her descend they dragged her along till they brought her to the great church, named Caesarion. Now this was in the days of the fast. And they tore off her clothing and dragged her (till they brought her) through the streets of the city till she died. And they carried her to a place named Cinaron, and they burned her body with fire. And all the people surrounded the patriarch Cyril and named him "the new Theophilus"; for he had destroyed the last remains of idolatry in the city." John Malalas (490-~570 CE): "At that time the emperor Theodsius built the Great Church of Alexandria, which is known to the present day as the church of Theodosius, for he favored Cyril the bishop of Alexandria. At that time the Alexandrians, given free rein by their bishop, seized and burnt on a pyre of brushwood Hypatia the famous philosopher, who had a great reputation and who was an old woman." Palladas, a poet, probably born around 319 CE, a contemporary of Theon, (and mentioned as a defender of the Serapeum), writes a poem about Hypatia when she is young: "Whenever I look upon you and your words, I pay reverence, As I look upon the heavenly home of the virgin. For your concerns are directed at the heavens, Revered Hypatia, you who are yourself the beauty of reasoning, The immaculate star of wise learning." (the word "virgin" probably refers to the constellation Virgo {not the Christian Virgin Mary}). Philostorgius (364-c425) in his History of the Church, dedicates an entire chapter to the murder of Hypatia, but only a summary by Photius (c820-2/6/893) has ever been found, because Philostorgias, although Christian was deemed a heretic because of his support for Arian philosophy, and his work was ostracized by the intolerant orthodox Christian people that followed. The summary of this chapter by Photius is this: "Philostorgius says, that Hypatia, the daughter of Theon, was so well educated in mathematics by her father, that she far surpassed her teacher, and especially in astronomy, and taught many others the mathematical sciences. The impious writer asserts that (Photius clearly shows fear in preserving such a text. Much of this text is filled with ridicule of Philostorgius.), during the reign of Theodosius the younger, she was torn to pieces by the Homoousian party (those who follow the Nicene Creed of Jesus as a part of their one God and not as a different thing)." According to a few sources, although not all, Damaskios includes the story that: Hypatia was entrusted by the authories of Alexandria with the direction of the Neoplatonic school, for which office she received a salary. Hypatia spoke and wrote in Greek, like many of the scholars in Alexandria, even though they lived under Roman rule, they were descended from Greek people that settled in Alexandria after Egypt was conquered by Alexander the Great. Many people site this as the end of ancient science. However, others cite the closing of the Academy in Athens as the end in 529, or explain that by the time of the destruction of the Mouseion, Serapeion and murder of Hypatia (all from 390 to 415) science had already died, but I disagree with this conclusion because the tradition of the Mouseion lived on even if in watered-down form and only a few hundred years before are Galen and Ptolemy, not necessarily the peak of science, but firmly in the field of science. Clearly, the seed of science survived, as science grows now, in the time we live in. Being a female teaching science, Hypatia is recognized for contributing to women's rights and equal opportunity. | ![]() [1] The one on the left is Claudius Ptolemy's armillary astrolabon, and the one on the right is the plane astrolabe or astrolabium which was first described by Theon in his treatise on this device. Now I ask, do these two instruments look like the same device to you? COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.hypatia-lovers.com/pa ge21.html | |
1,584 YBN [416 CE] | 1011) The Museum in Alexandria is permanently destroyed by Christian people. Paulus Orosius describes the temples in Alexandria as having empty bookshelves, the contents emptied "by men of our time". Adding this together with the Suda reference to Theon being a member, and the last reference to the Mouseion from Synesios in 409 with no mention of any destruction before his death in 414, and no mention of any public library in Alexandria by people writing in the 5th and 6th century, it appears probable that the Mouseion (including any remaining library) may have been completely and permanently destroyed in 415 or 416. Orosius, writes (originally in Latin), "During the combat orders were issued to set fire to the royal fleet, which by chance was drawn on shore. The flames spread to part of the city and there burned four hundred thousand books stored in a building which happened to be nearby. So perished that marvelous monument of the literary activity of our ancestors, who had gathered together so many great works of brilliant geniuses. in regard to this, however true it may be that in some of the temples there remain up to the present time book chests, which we ouselves have seen, and that, as we are told, these were emptied by our own men in our own day when these temples were plundered - this statement is true enough - yet it seems fairer to suppose that other collections had later been formed to rivel the ancient love of literature, and not that there had once been another library which had books separate from the four hundred thousand volumes mentioned, and for that reason had escaped destruction." This last sentence is the source of controversy and is a confusing statement. Alfred Butler translates this last statment as "On this point, however true it may be that at the present day there are empty bookshelves in some of the temples (I myself have seen them), and that these shelves were emptied and the books destroyed by our own people in our own time (which is the fact): still the fairer opinion is that, subsequently to the conflagration, other collections had been formed to vie with the ancient love of literature, and not that there originally existed any second library, which was separate from the 400,000 volumes and owed its preservation to the fact of its separateness." Butler interprets this as meaning that no part of the great Ptolemaic Library was rescued from the burning, but that other books were collected in emulation of the old Library after the fire. This also combines well with Strabo lamenting with the past tense about the library that was available to Hipparchos, apparently no longer in existence, a library that had perhaps lost many original works, but was then replenished. The key point is that in the Caesar fire some original valuable scrolls may have been lost, but the Mouseion and Library obviously and clearly lived on until this time when they were destroyed permanently by Christian people, the Serapeum lasting as a set of churches for sometime after this. evidently after a visit to Alexandria, "Its (which?) walls were torn down..." and "Therefore, although there are still today book cases in the temples, which we have seen, whose spoliation (check exact word) reminds us that they have been emptied by the men of our age, yet it would be more worthy to believe that other books had been acquired to compete with the concerns for studies in earlier times, than to believe that there was some other library separate from the 400,000 books, which in this way escaped the latter's fate". It is a confusing quote, and it is saying perhaps that although there were recent efforts to build up temple libraries in Alexandria, there is no other library contemporary with the main library that survived its fate. Orosius writes "There are temples nowadays, which we have seen, whose book-cases have been emptied by our men. And this is a matter that admits no doubt." Alfred Butler gives more detail about the complete absence of any mention of any public library in Alexandria in the fifth or 6th century after the description of Orosius in 416. Butler writes: "Take one particular instance...the visit of John Moschus and his friend Sophronius to Egypt not many years before the Arab conquest; ... the keen intellectual interest of the two scholars and their fondness for anything in the shape of a book (Supra pp96 seq.)" and though they travelled and resided a great deal in Egypt, their pages will be searched in vein for any allusion to other than private libraries in the country. Two centuries of silence, ending in the silence of John Moschus and Sophronius, seem to render it impossible that any great public library can have existed when the Arabs entered Alexandria." | ||
1,577 YBN [423 CE] | 1012) Honorius and Theodosius issue one of their final edicts (CTh. XVI.10.22) regarding pagans, they remark that "We now believe that there are none." This is solid evidence that all pagan temples are destroyed. | ||
1,569 YBN [431 CE] | 1139) The Council of Ephesus sentences Porfurios' (and other) books against Christianity to be burned (but does not mention the emperor Julian's anti-christian writings). This is the first of 3 major book burnings that will remove any and all writings that criticize the Christian religion. The result will be very effective, leaving the only surviving works so far found to be rebuttles of these works by Christian writers. | Ephesus, | |
1,561 YBN [439 CE] | 1013) Socrates Scholasticus (380 CE Constantinople - ~450 CE) completes his "Historia Ecclesiatica" (Church History), a history that covers 305-439 CE. Socrates expresses an issue of conflict in the new rising Christian religion: whether to include ancient Greek learning in basic education or to only strictly teach a purely Christian course. In his history, Socrates identifies the common belief that "the education of the Christians in the philosophy of the heathens, in which there is constant assertion of Polytheism, instead of being conducive to the promotion of true religion, is rather to be deprecated as subversive of it." Socrates then goes on to reject this claim writing "First, Greek learning was never recognized by either Christ or his apostles as divinely inspired nor, on the other hand, was it wholly rejected as pernicious. Second, there are many philosophers among the Greeks who were not far from the knowledge of God. Third, the divinely inspired scriptures undoubtably inculcate {implant,teach} doctrines that are both admirable in themselves and heavenly in character; they also eminently tend to produce piety and integrity of life in those who are guided by their precepts...But they do not instruct us in the art of reasoning, by means of which we may be enabled successfully to resist those who oppose the truth. Besides adversaries are more easily foiled when we can turn their own weapons against them."{3 166 Eccl Hist Chapter XVI} | ||
1,552 YBN [448 CE] | 1043) Theodosius II (April, 401 - July 28, 450), Eastern Roman Emperor (408-450) orders all non-christian books burned. In fighting the ancient Hellenic tradition, or "Paganism" as it would be later called, the Christian people destroy much of the science learned and recorded in books stored in temples to the traditional Greek Gods. This may be when many science books are burned, and no doubt the lost books of Kelsos ("The True Word") and Porfurios ("Against the Christians") that criticise Christianity are all destroyed. No remains have ever been found from the books critical of the Christian religion written by Kelsos, Porfurios and others, although some of these writings are preserved in rebuttles by Christian writers that have survived. According to Wilmer Wright, with this law, the anti-Christian writings of Porfurios will be condemned but those of Julian ignored. | ||
1,550 YBN [450 CE] | 1096) Proklos (Proclus) (PrOKlOS) (Greek: Πρόκλο` 2;) (410 CE Constantinople {now Istanbul, Turkey} - 04/17/485 CE Athens) is the last Pagan science person recognized for any thing, at this time, because of the intolerance of the Christian people that now have a majority, it is dangerous to be Pagan. Proclus teaches at the Academy in the last century of its existence and is the head of that school. Proclus writes a commentary of Ptolomy and Euclid. Proklos writes about Euclid, Ktesibios, and Pappos, all three who make important contributions to science. | Athens, Greece | |
1,511 YBN [489 CE] | 1384) The Nestorian established scientific center in Edessa, is transferred to the School of Nisibis, also known as "Nisibīn", then under Persian rule with its secular faculties at Gundishapur, Khuzestan. Here, scholars, together with Pagan philosophers banished by Justinian from Athens carried out important research in Medicine, Astronomy, and Mathematics". | Gundishapur, Khuzestan (southwest of Iran, not far from the Karun river.) | |
1,501 YBN [499 CE] | 1309) Although debated, Aryabhata in India describes a sun-centered planetary model with the earth turning on its own axis, and planets following elliptical orbits in his book "Aryabhatiya". Aryabhata (Devanāgarī: आर्यभé 5;) (CE 476 - 550), an Indian astronomer and mathematician, writes "Aryabhatiya", in which he describes a star system model, the śīghrocca, which is the basic planetary period in relation to the Sun, and this is seen by some historians as a sign of an underlying heliocentric model. Aryabhata defines the sizes of the planets' orbits in terms of these periods. Aryabhata writes that the Moon and planets shine by reflected sunlight. He also correctly explains eclipses of the Sun and the Moon, and presents methods for their calculation and prediction. Aryabhata has an elliptical model of the planets, with which he accurately calculates many astronomical constants, such as the periods of the planets around the Sun, and the times of the solar and lunar eclipses. | Kusumapura (modern Patna), India | ![]() [1] Español: Estatua de Aryabhata en India This image of a public statue in IUCAA Pune was photographed in May 2006 by myself, and I release all rights. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:2064_aryabhata-crp.jpg |
1,500 YBN [500 CE] | 1101) The first clinker-built boats. | Scandinavia | |
1,480 YBN [01/01/520 CE] | 1099) Boethius, Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius (c.480 CE Rome - 524 CE Ticinum (now Pavia), Italy), a high ranking person in the the Roman government under the Ostrogoth emperor of Rome Theodoric, translates works of Aristotle from Greek to Latin, summarizes various science subjects, in addition to writing "On he Consolation of Philosophy" from prison, after Theodoric arrests him for treason. Boethius expressed ancient Hellenic ideas of free will, and virtue, but Boethius is thought to be Christian. Boethius is one of the last Roman people to understood Greek. The writings of Boethius will be the only source of Greek science for people in Europe until Arabic writings are translated to Latin 600 years later. | Italy | ![]() [1] Initial depicting Boethius teaching his students from folio 4r of a manuscript of the Consolation of Philosophy (Italy?, 1385) MS Hunter 374 (V.1.11), Glasgow University library Source URL: http://special.lib.gla.ac.uk/exhibns/tre asures/boethius.html PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Boethius_initial_consolation_philosop hy.jpg ![]() [2] Boethius: Consolation of philosophy. This early printed book has many hand-painted illustrations depicting Lady Philosophy and scenes of daily life in fifteenth-century Ghent (1485). From English Wikipedia: en:Image:Boethius.consolation.philosophy .jpg Original sources: http://www.loc.gov/rr/european/guide/hum an.html and http://www.loc.gov/rr/european/guide/ima ges/eu025001.jpg PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Boethius.consolation.philosophy.jpg |
1,472 YBN [528 CE] | 1377) The Byzantine emperor Justinian builds a hospital, as reward for services given by a physician, Sampson the Hospitable. | Constantanople | ![]() [1] Saint Sampson the Hospitable COPYRIGHTED FAIR USE source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Saint_Samson_the_Hospitable.jpg |
1,471 YBN [529 CE] | 1014) Roman Emperor Justinian closes the Academy in Athens. The head of the Academy, Damascus and 6 other philosophers seek asylum in Persia. Justinian also decrees that all anti-Christian books are to be burned in this year {exact date}. None of the 'True Doctrine" of Kelsos in the second century, the 15 books of Porfurios' "Against the Christians" in the third century, and Julian's "Against the Galileans" of the fourth century have ever been found, however some of their writing remains in rebuttles by Christian writers, for example Origen's "Against Kelsos" quotes Kelsos, Macarius Magnes may possibly preserve some of Porfurios' writing for which even 3 major Christian rebuttles have never been found, and Kurillos (Cyril) of Alexandria's "Pro Christiana Religione" reveals some of Julian's writings. | ||
1,471 YBN [529 CE] | 1423) The Roman Emperor Justinian (reign 527-565) orders death by fire, and confiscation of all possessions by the State to be the punishment for heresy against the Christian religion in his Codex Iustiniani (CJ 1.5.). | Byzantium | ![]() [1] Mosaic of Justinian I, obtained from the Macedonia FAQ website, http://faq.Macedonia.org/ The mosiac itself is in the San Vitale church in en:Ravenna, Italy. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Justinian.jpg ![]() [2] Alphabetical index on the Corpus Juris (Index omnium legum et paragraphorum quae in Pandectis, Codice et Institutionibus continentur, per literas digestus.), printed by Gulielmo Rovillio, Lyon, 1571 PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Digesto_01.jpg |
1,470 YBN [530 CE] | 1426) John Philoponus (also John the Grammarian), (CE c490â€"c570), a Christian philosopher in Alexandria, in a commentary on Aristotle's "Physics" critisizes Aristotle's theory of motion where air is thought to rush behind a projectile to keep it moving, by writing that a projectile moves on account of a kinetic force which is impressed on it by the mover and which exhausts itself in the course of the movement. Philoponus then evaluates the medium, concluding instead of being responsible for the continuation of a projectile's motion, the medium is actually an impediment to the projectile's motion. Concepts similar to Philoponus' impetus theory appear in earlier writers such as Hipparchos (2nd c. BCE) and Synesios (4th c. CE) | Alexandria, Egypt | |
1,467 YBN [533 CE] | 1015) Chosroe (Khosrau) of Persia and Justinian approve a treaty which ensures the protection of the philosophers who fled from prosecution. These philosophers, for example Damascius, the head of the Academy when closed by Justinian, do not return to Athens, but Alexandria instead. | ||
1,458 YBN [542 CE] | 1381) The Hôtel-Dieu (Hospice of God) in Lyon, the oldest hospital in France is founded. In this and the Hotel-Dieu in Paris, monks use religious-based treatments more than trying to cure health problems through science. The monasteries have an infirmitorium, a place where sick monks are taken for treatment. The monasteries have a pharmacy and frequently a garden with medicinal plants. In addition to caring for sick monks, the monasteries open their doors to pilgrims and to other travelers. | Lyon, France | ![]() [1] Hospital Hôtel-Dieu : patio interior source: http://www.lyon.fr/vdl/sections/ es/tourisme/histoire/?aIndex=2 |
1,411 YBN [589 CE] | 1328) Toilet paper is used in China at this time. In this year the Chinese scholar-official Yan Zhitui (531-591 AD) writes: "Paper on which there are quotations or commentaries from Five Classics or the names of sages, I dare not use for toilet purposes". | China | |
1,400 YBN [600 CE] | 1111) The first windmill is built. This windmill has a vertical shaft. Made of six to twelve sails covered in fabric or palm leaves, they are used to grind corn and draw up water. | Persia | |
1,387 YBN [613 CE] | 1391) Muhammad (Arabic: محمد) (full name: Abu al-Qasim Muhammad ibn 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim), begins to preach monotheistic religion in Mecca. Muhammad claims that complete "surrender" to a single god (the literal meaning of the word "islām") is man's religion (dīn), and that he is a prophet and messenger of God, in the same way that Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, David, Jesus, and other prophets were. This is the beginning of the religion of Islam which will grow to dominate all Arab and Persian nations. All or most of the Holy book of Islam, the Qur'an will apparently be written down by Muhammad's followers after supposedly being revealed by the Angel Grabriel while Muhammad was alive. The Qur'an is primarily an orally related document, and the written compilation of the whole Qur'an in its definite form will be completed early after the death of Muhammad. Initially, Islam will promote literacy and education, and much of the science of Greece and other nations being supressed and destroyed under Christianity will be preserved by Arabic people living under Islam, however Islam, like many religions, will violently enforce belief and conformity which will slow the natural growth of science and atheism in Arabic nations for centuries. | Mecca, Arabia (modern Saudi Arabia) | ![]() [1] Muhammd solves a dispute over lifting the black stone into position at al-Ka'ba. Note from pp. 100-101 of ''The illustrations to the World history of Rashid al-Din / David Talbot Rice ; edited by Basil Gray. Edinburgh : Edinburgh University Press, c1976.'' - In the center, Muhammad, with two long hair plaits, places the stone on a carpet held at the four corners by representatives of the four tribes, so that all have the honor of lifting it. The carpet is a kelim from Central Asia. Behind, two other men lift the black curtain which conceals the doors of the sancuary. This work may be assigned to the Master of the Scenes from the Life of the Prophet. Source Jami' al-Tavarikh (''The Compendium of Chronicles'' or ''The Universal Histroy'') This illustration is in a folio in the Oriental Manuscript Section of the Edinburgh University Library, Special Collections and Archives Date 1315 Author Rashid Al-Din The earliest surviving image of Muhammad from Rashid al-Din's Jami' al-Tawarikh, approximately 1315, depicting the episode of the Black Stone. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Mohammed_kaaba_1315.jpg |
1,372 YBN [628 CE] | 1115) Brahmagupta (c.598 CE - c.668 CE) is the first person recorded to use the number zero. Brahmagupta (c.598 CE - c.668 CE), an Indian astronomer and mathematician, is the head of the astronomical observatory at Ujjain, and while there writes two texts on mathematics and astronomy: the "Brahma Sputa Siddhanta" (The Opening of the Universe) in 628, and the "Khandakhadyaka" in 665. The main work of Brahmagupta, Brahmasphuta-siddhanta (The Opening of the Universe), written in this year, 628, contains some remarkably advanced ideas. Brahmasphuta-siddhanta is the earliest known text to use zero as a number, includes rules for using both negative and positive numbers, a method for computing square roots, methods of solving linear and some quadratic equations, and rules for summing series, Brahmagupta's identity, and the Brahmagupta"s theorem. The book is written completely in verse. Brahmagupta attempts to define division by zero as equal to zero, however division by 0 remains undefined in modern mathematics. Bramagupta wrongly denies the rotation of the earth and uses algebra to solve astronomical problems. | Ujjain, India | ![]() [1] Brahmagupta's identity, GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bra hmagupta%27s_identity ![]() [2] Diagram illustrating Brahmagupta's theorem. Brahmagupta's theorem states that AF = FD. More specifically, let A, B, C and D be four points on a circle such that the lines AC and BD are perpendicular. Denote the intersection of AC and BD by M. Drop the perpendicular from M to the line BC, calling the intersection E. Let F be the intersection of the line EM and the edge AD. Then, the theorem states that F is in the middle of AD.[5] PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Brahmaguptra%27s_theorem.svg |
1,367 YBN [633 CE] | 1114) Isidore of Seville (c.560 CE Cartagena, Seville - 4/4/636 CE Seville) writes an Encyclopedia called "Etymologies" which describes the accumulated learning from the Greek tradition. | Seville, Spain | ![]() [1] Holy Isidor of Sevilla, bishop between 1628 and 1682 Bartolomé Esteban Murillo [t perhaps important to note that no paintings or drawings exist of Isadore (to my knowledge and I haven't searched) PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Isidor_von_Sevilla.jpeg ![]() [2] Statue of Isidore of Seville, outside of the Biblioteca Nacional de España, in Madrid. San Isidoro. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:SanIsidoroBibNac.JPG |
1,360 YBN [640 CE] | 1120) Theophanes records that Greek fire was invented around 670 in Constantinople by Kallinikos (Callinicus), an architect from Heliopolis in Syria (now Baalbek, Lebanon). This is the first reported use of a flame throwing weapon. Many accounts note that the fires it causes can not put out by pouring water on the flames, and that the water serves to spread the flames, suggesting a complex base-chemistry. Therefore, 'Greek fire' must be a flammable liquid that can float on water - it may have been gasoline (petrol) or some other flammable liquid hydrocarbon refined from oil, as oil was known to eastern chemists. | Constantinople | ![]() [1] Depiction of Greek fire in the Madrid Skylitzes manuscript. Image from an illuminated manuscript showing greek fire in use. From the Skylitzes manuscript in Madrid PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Greekfire-madridskylitzes1.jpg |
1,358 YBN [642 CE] | 1017) Mostafa El-Abaddi describes that the events of the early Arab conquests are recorded by historians from both sides, by Arab, Copt and Byzantine people, and that for more than five centuries after the Arab invasion there will be not one single reference to any event connected with an Alexandrian Library under Arab rule. Not until the early 1200s will there be a report from an Arab writer "Abdullatif of Bagdad" around 1200 CE who will write a confused statement upon seeing Pompey's Piller that "I believe this was the site of the stoa where Aristotle and his successors taught; it was the center of learning set up by Alexander when he founded his city; in it was the book-store which was burnt by Amr, by order of Caliph Omar". Obviously, the report about Aristotle is wrong, placing Aristotle in the wrong school in the wrong country, so clearly there is a lot of erroneous info here. Many of the Arab people will associate Aristotle with the Greek learning in Egypt. A much more detailed report will be given by Ibn Al-Qifti in his "History of Wise Men" written in the 1200s, which tells this story: "There was at that time a man named John the Grammarian of Alexandria in Egypt; he was a pupil of Severus, and had been a Coptic priest, but was deprived of his office owing to some heresy concerning the Trinity, by a council held at Babylon... He lived to see the capture of Alexandria by the Arabs, and made the acquaintance of Amr (also Amrou) the Arab General in Egypt, whose clear and active mind was no less astronished then delighted with John's intellectual acuteness and great learning. Emboldened by Amr's favour, John one day remarked, 'You have examined the whole city, and have set your seal on every kind of valuable. I make no claim for anything that is useful to you, but things useless to you may be of service to us.' 'What are you thinking of?' asked Amr. 'The books of wisdom', said John, 'which are in the royal treasuries.' Amr asked, 'And who collected these books?' John answered, 'Ptolemy Philadephus, King of Alexandria, was fond of learning.... His search for books went far and wide, and he spared no costs in acquiring them. He appointed Demetrios in charge. He soon collected 54,000 books. One day the king asked Demetrius, 'Do you think there are still on earth books of knowledge out of our hands?' 'Yes', answered Demetrius, 'there are still multitudes of them in Sind {North of India}, India, Persia, Georgia, Armenia, Babylonia, Music and Greece.' The King was astonished to hear that, and said, 'Continue gathering them.' In that way he went on till he dies and these books continued to be guarded and preserved by the kings and their successors till our day.' Amr said, 'I cannot dispose of these books without the authority of Caliph.' According to Al-Qifti, Amr sends a letter to Omar, and Omar responses with: 'Touching the books you mention, if what is written in them agrees with the Book of God, they are not required; if it disagrees, they are not desired. Destroy them therefore."' Amr then ordered the books to be distributed among the baths of Alexandria and used as fuel for heating; it takes six months to consume them. 'Listen and wonder' concludes Al-Qifti. El-Abaddi explains that the main problems identified with this story are identified by J.H. Butler, who identified John the Grammarian with John Philoponus who lived 100 years before the Arab invasion, and that the text can be divided into 3 parts, the first part about John the Grammarian is taken almost verbatim from a work of the tenth century by Ibn Al-Nadim which does not include anything about the library. The second part probably came from the second century BCE, Letter of Aristias. The third part is probably a 12th century creation used to justify the Sunni Saladin selling many valuable books as being less of a crime than the burning of books. Luciano Canfora claims that at this time the city's books are now mainly Christian writings, Acts of Councils, and "sacred literature" in general. Canfora includes details about John Philoponus and a friend, Philaretes, a Jewish doctor arguing with Amr, and trying to convince Amr that the library was destroyed recently. According to (get author name, one author), Edward Gibbon debunks this story. Alfred Butler in 1902 discusses at length the Arabic and other sources for this story. This story first appears in Abu'l Faraj, an Arab historian of the 13th century CE. The story first appears more than 500 years after the Arab conquest of Alexandria. John the Grammarian appears to be the Alexandrian philosopher John Philoponus, who must have been dead by the time of the conquest. It seems that both the Alexandrian libraries were destroyed by the end of the fourth century, citing Orosius describing the bookcases only, and then as spoiling. The same exact response of 'destroy everything' is recorded by Ibn Khaldun relating to the destruction of another library in Persia. Alfred Butler summarizes the reasons to doubt this report of Amr destroying the books of the great library: "1) that the story makes its first appearance more than five hundred years after the event to which it relates; 2) that on analysis the details of the stories resolve into absurdities; 3) that the principal actor in the story, ..John Philoponus, was dead long before the Saracens invaded Egypt; 4) that of the two great public Libraries to which the story could refer, a) the Museum Library perished in the conflagration caused by Julius Caesar, of, if not, then at a date not less than four hundred years anterior to the Arab conquest; while b) the Serapeum Library either was removed prior to the year 391, or was then dispersed or destroyed, so that in any case it disappeared two and a half centuries before the conquest; 5) that fifth, sixth, and early seventh century literature contains no mention of the existence of any such Library; 6) that if, nevertheless, it had existed when Cyrus set his hand to the treaty surrendering Alexandria, yet the books would almost certainly have been removed-under the clause permitting the removal of valuables-during the eleven months' armistice which intervened between the signature of the convention and the actual entry of the Arabs into the city; and 7) that if the Library had been removed, or if it had been destroyed, the almost contemporary historian and man of letters, John of Nikiou, could not have passed over its disappearance in total silence." | ||
1,340 YBN [660 CE] | 1380) The Hôtel-Dieu (Hospice of God), the oldest hospital in Paris, France is established. | Paris, France | ![]() [1] Main entrance of the Hôtel-Dieu, in 2007 GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Hotel_Dieu_Paris_P1200006.jpg |
1,320 YBN [680 CE] | 1018) Khalid Ibn Yazid Ibn Moawiyat, a distinguished member of the Omayyad family, orders a group of Greek philosophers living in Egypt to translate medical books from Greek and Coptic into Arabic, according to Ibn Al-Nadim in the 900s, who indicates that this is the 'beginning of translation in Islam'. | ||
1,315 YBN [685 CE] | 1019) Caliph Abdel-Malik Ibn Marwan makes a special department for translation. His son and successor, Hisham Ibn Abdel-Malik continues this work, the secretary of Hisham translates Aristotle's "Letter to Alexander", some 100 papers. These efforts will be forgotten, however until the early Abbassid Caliphs. | ||
1,300 YBN [700 CE] | 1121) Earliest mechanical clock in China. | China | |
1,296 YBN [704 CE] | 1073) Oldest wood block print, a Buddhist text on a Mulberry paper scroll, from Bulguksa, South Korea. Stamps used as seals, a form of block printing was invented before this in China. Initially, an entire page would be carved on the wood block, later movable wood blocks will be used. | Bulguksa, South Korea | |
1,249 YBN [01/01/751 CE] | 1253) Abu Musa Jabir ibn Hayyan (Arabic: جابر بن حيان) (c.721-c.815), with Latinised name Geber, is the first of the important Arab alchemists and introduces the experimental method into alchemy. Jabir is credited with being the first to prepare and identify sulfuric and other acids. Abu Musa Jabir ibn Hayyan (Arabic: جابر بن حيان) (c.721-c.815), known also by his Latinised name Geber, is the first of the important Arab alchemists and introduces the experimental method into alchemy. Jabir takes the science of chemistry farther than Zosimus had. Ibn Hayyan is widely credited with the invention of numerous important processes still used in modern chemistry today, such as the syntheses of hydrochloric and nitric acids, distillation, and crystallisation. Jabir gives accurate descriptions of valuable chemical experiments. Jabir describes ammonium chloride, shows how to prepare white lead, prepares weak nitric acid, and distills vinegar to get strong acetic acid. Jabir works with dyes and metals, and experiments with methods for refining metals. Jabir writes numerous works on alchemy, although many people will later use his name. | Kufa, (now Iraq) | ![]() [1] Portrait of Jabir ibn Hayyan http://histoirechimie.free.fr/Lien/Geber .jpg PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Geber.jpg ![]() [2] alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan, from a 15th c. European portrait of ''Geber'', Codici Ashburnhamiani 1166, Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, Florence, public domain PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Jabir_ibn_Hayyan.jpg |
1,240 YBN [760 CE] | 1020) Caliph Al-Mansur acquires various books of learning from Byzantium including Euclid's "Elements" according to Ibn Khaldun, a historian in the 14th century, who claims that "Elements" is the first Greek work to be translated into Arabic under Islam. | ||
1,239 YBN [761 CE] | 1122) Abu Musa Jabir ibn Hayyan (Arabic: جابر بن حیان) (c.721-c.815), known also by his Latinised name Geber, is a prominent Islamic alchemist, pharmacist, philosopher, astronomer, and physicist. | ![]() [1] Jabir ibn Hayyan Portrait of Jabir ibn Hayyan http://histoirechimie.free.fr/Lien/Geber .jpg PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Geber.jpg ![]() [2] 15th-century European portrait of ''Geber'', Codici Ashburnhamiani 1166, Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, Florence alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan, from a 15th c. European portrait of ''Geber'', Codici Ashburnhamiani 1166, Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, Florence, PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Jabir_ibn_Hayyan.jpg | |
1,219 YBN [01/01/781 CE] | 1254) Flaccus Albinus Alcuinus (Alcuin) (oLKWiN) (c.732-May 19, 804) a scholar, ecclesiastic, poet and teacher from York, England, accepts an invitation from Charlesmagne to be head of education for Charlemagne's kingdom which is most of Western Europe. In the Palace School of Charlemagne, Alcuin will revolutionize the educational standards of the Palace School, introducing Charlemagne to the liberal arts and creates an atmosphere of scholarship and learning. In Aachen, Alcuin designs a method of writing "Carolingian minuscule" to fit as much text on the expensive parchment. This symbol set is the ancestor of lower-case letters. All writing before this is done in capital (or majuscule) letters. In my opinion, lower case has complicated language, and people should use a one letter for one sound phonetic alphabet for all languages. Alciun's teacher was Egbert, a pupil of Bede, who with brother and king Eadbert, stimulates and reorganizes the English church with an emphasis on the tradition of learning Bede had begun. The Palace School of Charlemagne had been founded under the king"s ancestors as a place for educating the royal children, mostly in manners and the ways of the court. From 782 to 790, Alcuin will have as pupils Charlemagne himself, his sons Pepin and Louis, the young men sent for their education to the court, and the young clerics attached to the palace chapel. Alcuin brings with him from York his assistants Pyttel, Sigewulf and Joseph. Charlemagne gathers many scholars of every nation in his court such as Peter of Pisa, Paulinus, Rado, and Abbot Fulrad. | Aachen, in north-west Germany, or York, England | ![]() [1] Raban Maur (left), supported by Alcuin (middle), dedicates his work to Archbishop Otgar of Mainz (Right) Hrabanus Maurus, von Alcuin empfohlen, übergibt sein Werk dem Erzbischof von Mainz, Otgar Carolingian Manuscript manuscriptum Fuldense ca. 831/40, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek Wien PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Raban-Maur_Alcuin_Otgar.jpg ![]() [2] Page of text (folio 160v) from a Carolingian Gospel Book (British Library, MS Add. 11848), written in Carolingian minuscule. Taken from http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/illuminatedm anuscripts/record.asp?MSID=8614&CollID=2 7&NStart=11848 PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:BritLibAddMS11848Fol160rText.jpg |
1,211 YBN [01/01/789 CE] | 1256) Charlemagne (soRlemoN) (c742 - January 28, 814), as King of the Franks, establishes schools where math grammar and ecclesiastical subjects are taught. | Aachen, in north-west Germany | ![]() [1] No description from Charlemagne's lifetime exists.[2] Charlemagne and Pippin the Hunchback (Karl der Große und Pippin der Bucklige) 10th century copy of a lost original, which was made back between 829 and 836 in Fulda for Eberhard von Friaul PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Karl_der_Grosse_-_Pippin_der_Bucklige .jpg ![]() [2] A portrait of Charlemagne by Albrecht Dürer that was painted several centuries after Charlemagne's death. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Charlemagne-by-Durer.jpg |
1,204 YBN [01/01/796 CE] | 1255) Alcuin establishes a school in Tours where scribes are trained to carefully copy manuscripts. The new Carolingian miniscule alphabet letters created by Alcuin will spread from text copied here and ultimately develop into the miniscule (or lower case) letters used today (although I think a one letter one sound phonetic alphabet for all languages will ultimately be most popular if not completely replaced by recorded video and audio). | Tours, France | ![]() [1] Raban Maur (left), supported by Alcuin (middle), dedicates his work to Archbishop Otgar of Mainz (Right) Hrabanus Maurus, von Alcuin empfohlen, übergibt sein Werk dem Erzbischof von Mainz, Otgar Carolingian Manuscript manuscriptum Fuldense ca. 831/40, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek Wien PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Raban-Maur_Alcuin_Otgar.jpg ![]() [2] Page of text (folio 160v) from a Carolingian Gospel Book (British Library, MS Add. 11848), written in Carolingian minuscule. Taken from http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/illuminatedm anuscripts/record.asp?MSID=8614&CollID=2 7&NStart=11848 PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:BritLibAddMS11848Fol160rText.jpg |
1,185 YBN [815 CE] | 1021) Caliph al-Mamun founds the "Bayt al-Hikma" (House of Wisdom) in Baghdad, Iraq. (Some people argue that al-Mamun's father al-Rashid founded the Bayt al-Hikma). A library and observatory are joined to this house. In the House of Wisdom, many works will be translated from Greek, Persian and Indian into Arabic. Many original works will be created here too. The House of Wisdom recruits and supports the most talented scholars. There is some question about if al-Mamun or his father Harun al-Rashid founded the House of Wisdom. The House of Wisdom is a state funded school. Al-Ma'mun gathers scholars of many religions at Baghdad, whom he treats very well and with tolerance. He sends an emissary to the Byzantine Empire to collect the most famous manuscripts there, and has them translated into Arabic. It is said that, victorious over the Byzantine Emperor, Al-Ma'mun makes a condition of peace be that the emperor hand over of a copy of the Almagest. One famous translator, Hunayn Ibn Ishaq, a high ranking physician in Baghdad will be responsible for many translations, in particular health translations like those of Galen. The main focus of translation is on health, philosophy, mathematics, astronomy and sciences, and less on poetry, drama, religion, and history. | Baghdad | ![]() [1] Harun al-Rashid: (ca: 763-809) was the fifth and most famous Abbasid Caliph. Ruling from 786 until 809, his reign and the fabulous court over which he held sway are immortalized in The Book of One Thousand and One Nights PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Harun_Al-Rashid_and_the_World_of_the_ Thousand_and_One_Nights.jpg ![]() [2] Julius Köckert's painting of Harun al-Rashid receiving the delegation of Charlemagne demonstrates the latter's recognition of Hārūn ar-Rashīd as the most powerful man of his culture. The painting by Julius Köckert (Koeckert) (1827-1918), dated 1864, is located at Maximilianeum Foundation in Munich. It is Oil on Canvas. This Image of the painting was created and provided by Zereshk. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Harun-Charlemagne.jpg |
1,171 YBN [829 CE] | 1299) Khalif Al-Ma'mun repeats the experiment of Eratosthenes to measure the earth's arc by assembling a number of scientists in the plain of Sinjar in Mesopotamia, west of Mosul. Al-Ma-mun divides the scientists into two groups which move apart until they see a change of one degree in elevation of the pole (star). The distance travelled is then measured and found to be 228,000 "black cubits", a measure of length specially created for this experiment, and another measurement of 234,000 black cubits. 2,500 black cubits equals 1 km and 4,000 black cubits equals 1 mile, so these measurements, when multiplied by 360 degrees, since there are 360 degrees in a full circle, equal a circumference of around 33 km (the modern estimate is around 40,000 km), or 21,000 mi (the modern estimate is around 25,000 mi). This estimate is just a few thousand km or miles short of the actual circumference. | Sinjar in Mesopotamia, west of Mosul | |
1,170 YBN [830 CE] | 1257) Al-Khwārizmī (Arabic: محمد بن موسى الخوا 5;زمي) (oLKWoriZmE), as a scholar in the House of Wisdom in Baghdad, translates and extends the work of Diofantos in "Ilm al-jabr wa'l muqabalah" (the science of transposition and cancellation). "Al-jabr" translates into Latin as algebra. The symbols 1 through 9, the Indian numerals will be transmitted to Europe from Fibonacci's translation of this work. These numerals are easier to use than Roman numerals and will replace the Roman numerals. Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī (Arabic: محمد بن موسى الخوا 5;زمي) (oLKWoriZmE) translates and extends the work of Diofantos in a book titled "Ilm al-jabr wa'l muqabalah" (the science of transposition and cancellation). The word for transposition, "al-jabr" will be called "algebra" in Latin and will represent the science of solving equations by using methods such as transposition and cancellation started by Diofantos. The symbols 1 through 9, the Indian numerals will be transmitted to Europe from Fibonacci's translation of this work and will wrongly be called "arabic numerals" instead of "hindu numerals". These numerals are easier to use than Roman numerals (for example in division) and will replace the Roman numerals. Al-Khwarizmi's name will lead to the word "algorism" which will mean "the art of calculating" now called "arithmetic". Al-Khwarizmi uses a zero symbol. Al-Khwarizmi prepares a world geography (map?) based on Ptolemy, but overestimates the circumference of earth as 40,000 miles.(units) This work is the first extensive Arabic geography. Al-Khwarizmi revises much of the work of Ptolemy and draws new geographical and celestial maps. "Al-Jabr wa'l-muqabalah" is the first Arabic work on Algebra. | Bagdad, Iraq | ![]() [1] A page from Al-Khwārizmī's al-Kitāb al-mukhtaṣar fī ḥisāb al-jabr wa-l-muqābala. Source John L. Esposito. The Oxford History of Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195107993. Date c. 830 Author al-Khwarizmi PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Al-Kitab_al-mukhtasar_fi_hisab_al-jab r_wa-l-muqabala.jpg ![]() [2] Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Ḵwārizmī. (He is on a Soviet Union commemorative stamp, issued September 6, 1983. The stamp bears his name and says ''1200 years'', referring to the approximate anniversary of his birth). ПОЧТ 040; СССР 1983 POČTA SSSR 1983 Soviet Post 1983 4к 4k 4 kopeks 1200 ЛЕТ 1200 LET 1200 years Мухаl 4;мед аль·Хо 088;езми Muxammed al′·Xorezmi Muhammad al-Khwarizmi Source: http://jeff560.tripod.com/ specifically http://jeff560.tripod.com/khowar.jpg PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Abu_Abdullah_Muhammad_bin_Musa_al-Khw arizmi.jpg |
1,170 YBN [830 CE] | 1297) Al-Khwārizmī (Arabic: محمد بن موسى الخوا 5;زمي) (oLKWoriZmE) translates and extends the work of Diofantos in "Ilm al-jabr wa'l muqabalah" (the science of transposition and cancellation). "Al=jabr" translates into latin as algebra. The symbols 1 through 9, the hindu numerals will be transmitted to Europe from Fibonacci's translation of this work. These numerals are easier to use than Roman numerals and will replace the Roman numerals. Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī (Arabic: محمد بن موسى الخوا 5;زمي) (oLKWoriZmE) translates and extends the work of Diofantos in a book titled "Ilm al-jabr wa'l muqabalah" (the science of transposition and cancellation). The word for transposition, "al-jabr" will be called "algebra" in Latin and will represent the science of solving equations by using methods such as transposition and cancellation started by Diofantos. The symbols 1 through 9, the Hindu numerals will be transmitted to Europe from Fibonacci's translation of this work and will wrongly be called "arabic numerals" instead of "hindu numerals". These numerals are easier to use than Roman numerals (for example in division) and will replace the Roman numerals. Al-Khwarizmi's name will lead to the word "algorism" which will mean "the art of calculating" now called "arithmetic". Al-Khwarizmi uses a zero symbol. Al-Khwarizmi participates in measuring the degree of arc with other astronomers commissioned by alk-Ma'mun. Al-Khwarizmi is the first outstanding Arabic mathematician, and the beinning of the story of Arabic mathematics. Al-Khwarizmi writes the first Arabic work on geography revising much of Ptolemy and drawing new geographical and celestial maps. Al-Khwarizmi's astronomical tables are among the best in Arabic astronomy. | Bagdad, Iraq | ![]() [1] A page from Al-Khwārizmī's al-Kitāb al-mukhtaṣar fī ḥisāb al-jabr wa-l-muqābala. Source John L. Esposito. The Oxford History of Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195107993. Date c. 830 Author al-Khwarizmi PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Al-Kitab_al-mukhtasar_fi_hisab_al-jab r_wa-l-muqabala.jpg ![]() [2] Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Ḵwārizmī. (He is on a Soviet Union commemorative stamp, issued September 6, 1983. The stamp bears his name and says ''1200 years'', referring to the approximate anniversary of his birth). ПОЧТ 040; СССР 1983 POČTA SSSR 1983 Soviet Post 1983 4к 4k 4 kopeks 1200 ЛЕТ 1200 LET 1200 years Мухаl 4;мед аль·Хо 088;езми Muxammed al′·Xorezmi Muhammad al-Khwarizmi Source: http://jeff560.tripod.com/ specifically http://jeff560.tripod.com/khowar.jpg PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Abu_Abdullah_Muhammad_bin_Musa_al-Khw arizmi.jpg |
1,167 YBN [833 CE] | 1298) Al-Khwārizmī's third major work is his Kitāb ṣūrat al-Arḍ (Arabic: كتاب صورة الأرض "Book on the appearance of the Earth" or "The image of the Earth" translated as Geography), which is finished in this year, 833. It is a revised and completed version of Ptolemy's Geography, consisting of a list of 2402 coordinates of cities and other geographical features following a general introduction. There is only one surviving copy of Kitāb ṣūrat al-Arḍ, which is kept at the Strasbourg University Library. A Latin translation is kept at the Biblioteca Nacional de España in Madrid. The complete title translates as Book of the appearance of the Earth, with its cities, mountains, seas, all the islands and rivers, written by Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwārizmī, according to the geographical treatise written by Ptolemy the Claudian. The book opens with the list of latitudes and longitudes, in order of "weather zones", that is to say in blocks of latitudes and, in each weather zone, by order of longitude. This system allows many latitudes and longitudes to be deduced where they are illegible. Neither the Arabic copy nor the Latin translation include the map of the world itself, however the map has been reconstructed from the list of coordinates (by Hubert Daunicht). Al-Khwarizmi overestimates the circumference of earth as (40,000 miles, actual is 25,000 miles).(units) | Bagdad, Iraq | ![]() [1] Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Ḵwārizmī. (He is on a Soviet Union commemorative stamp, issued September 6, 1983. The stamp bears his name and says ''1200 years'', referring to the approximate anniversary of his birth). ПОЧТ 040; СССР 1983 POČTA SSSR 1983 Soviet Post 1983 4к 4k 4 kopeks 1200 ЛЕТ 1200 LET 1200 years Мухаl 4;мед аль·Хо 088;езми Muxammed al′·Xorezmi Muhammad al-Khwarizmi Source: http://jeff560.tripod.com/ specifically http://jeff560.tripod.com/khowar.jpg PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Abu_Abdullah_Muhammad_bin_Musa_al-Khw arizmi.jpg ![]() [2] Hubert Daunicht's reconstruction of al-Khwārizmī's planisphere COPYRIGHTED FAIR USE source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Al-Khwarizmi%27s_map.png |
1,159 YBN [841 CE] | 1304) Al-Kindi (long name: Yaʻqūb ibn Isḥāq al-Kindī) (Arabic: يعقوب بن اسحاق الكند¡ 0;) (Latinized Alkindus), working in the House of Wisdom in Baghdad, oversees the translation of many Greek texts into Arabic, and writes many original treatises on mathematics, phamacology, ethics, and others of non-scientific nature (such as metaphysics). Al-Kindi is the first of the Arab peripatetic philosophers, and is known for his efforts to introduce Greek philosophy to people in Arab lands. Al-Kindi writes that all terrestrial objects are attracted to the center of the earth, which is the earliest recorded form of a gravity law. | Baghdad, Iraq | ![]() [1] Al-Kindi depicted in a Syrian Post stamp. http://www.apprendre-en-ligne.ne t/crypto/stat/Al-Kindi.jpg PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Al-Kindi.jpg ![]() [2] Abū-Yūsuf Ya''qūb ibn Ishāq al-Kindī http://www.islamonline.co m/cgi-bin/news_service/profile_story.asp ?service_id=982 source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Al-kindi.jpeg |
1,150 YBN [850 CE] | 1144) Earliest record of gunpowder in China. The earliest Chinese records of gunpowder indicate that it was a byproduct of Taoist alchemical efforts to develop an elixir of immortality. A book dating from c. 850 AD called "Classified Essentials of the Mysterious Tao of the True Origin of Things" warns of one elixir: "Some have heated together sulfur, realgar and saltpeter with honey; smoke and flames result, so that their hands and faces have been burnt, and even the whole house where they were working burned down." Gun powder is generally a mixture of saltpeter (potassium nitrate or, less often, sodium nitrate), charcoal and sulfur with a ratio (by weight) of approximately 15:3:2 respectively. | China | |
1,150 YBN [850 CE] | 1332) Hunayn ibn Ishaq (Arabic: حنين بن إسحاق العبا 3;ي ) (Latin: Johannitius) (CE 810-877), an Arab Nestorian Christian physician and scholar is appointed head of the Bayt al Hikma (a college of scholars supported by the Abbasids for the purpose of translating Greek texts). Hunayn ibn Ishaq with his students, which include his son, make the most exact translations from Greek texts into Syriac and Arabic versions. These translations will play a major role in the rise of interest in Hellenistic science by Arabic people. Of particular value are Ibn Ishaq's translations of Galen, because most of the original Greek manuscripts will be lost. Ibn Ishaq translates many treatises of Galen and the Galenic school into Syriac, and thirty-nine into Arabic. Hunayn also translates Aristotle's "Categories", "Physics", and "Magna Moralia"; Plato"s "Republic", "Timaeus", and "Laws"; Hippocrates" "Aphorisms", Dioscorides" "Materia Medica", Ptolemy's "quadri-partition", and the Old Testament from the Septuagint Greek. In addition to Hunain's work of translation, he writes treatises on general health and medicine and various specific topics, including a series of works on the eye which will remain influential until 1400. | Baghdad, Iraq | |
1,150 YBN [850 CE] | 1333) Unlike his predecessors, the Abbasid Caliph, Al-Mutawakkil applies a discriminatory policy toward minority groups like the Assyrian Christians and Jews. In a decree of this year, the caliph orders that these "Ahlu dh-Dhimma" (أهل الذمة) or "Protected Peoples" be made to wear various specific identifying marks and honey-colored robes and even to make their slaves immediately identifiable in the marketplaces. These decrees also force the destruction of all churches and synagogues built since Islam was established and confiscate one out of every ten Christian or Jewish homes with the stipulation that, where suitable, mosques should occupy the sites or that the sites should be left open. The doors of remaining buildings are to be identified by wooden images of devils that are to be nailed to them. The decree also stipulates that Jewish and Christian graves should be flat against the ground, which would identify them as non-Muslim graves. Al-Mutawakkil bars Jews and Christians from ruling over Muslims, thus effectively removing them from government service, and limits their schooling to that which is taught by Jews and Christians, forbidding Muslims from teaching them. The aggregate of these rulings can very plausibly be interpreted as a means of identifying "infidels", their women and even their slaves, the doorways of their houses, and their graves, in order to expose them to the wrath of the mob. | Samarra (near Baghdad), Iraq | |
1,141 YBN [859 CE] | 1336) The University of Al Karaouine (Arabic: جامعة القرو¡ 0;ين) is founded by Fatima Al-Fihri, the daughter of a wealthy merchant, and currently is the oldest existing institution of higher learning (in Arabic "Madrasah") on earth. | Fes, Morocco | ![]() [1] Fes (Maroc) Mosquee_El_Qaraouiyyine (porte) Auteur : Fabos 1/4/05 Interior of the Al Karaouine Mosque and University PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Fes_Mosquee_El_Qaraouiyyine.jpg |
1,132 YBN [868 CE] | 1074) The earliest dated printed book, a Chinese "Diamond Sutra" text, which will be found sealed in a cave in China in the early 1900s, is created with woodblocks. This book displays such a maturity of design and layout that it is probable woodblock printing had already matured a great deal by that time. A copy of this book is in the British Library in London. | China | ![]() [1] A page from the Diamond Sutra, printed in the 9th year of Xiantong Era of the Tang Dynasty, i.e. 868 CE. Currently located in a museum in London. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Jingangjing.gif |
1,124 YBN [876 CE] | 1300) Thabit Ibn Qurra, (in full Al-Sabi' Thabit ibn Qurra al-Harrani) (arabic ثابت بن قرة بن مروان) (CE 836-901) an Arabian mathematician, astronomer, and physician, in the House of Wisdom in Bagdad, translates many works of Greek scientists into Arabic in addition to writing commentary on them. Thabit goes to Baghdad to work for three wealthy brothers, known as the Banu Musa, translating Greek mathematical texts. Among the major Greek mathematicians whose works Thabit translates (or whose translations he revises) are Euclid, Archimedes, Apollonius of Perga, and Ptolemy. Ibn Qurra also prepares summaries of the works of the physicians Galen of Pergamum and Hippocrates as well as the philosophy of Aristotle. Ibn Qurra then writes original works on geometry, statics, magic squares, the theory of numbers, music, astronomy, medicine, and philosophy. Thabit ibn Qurrah is a major translator, almost as important as Hunayn, for creating lasting works in health and philosophy. | Bagdad, Iraq | ![]() [1] None, COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.islam.org.br/Ibn_Qurr a.gif ![]() [2] None COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.renaissanceastrology. com/thabit.html |
1,122 YBN [878 CE] | 1301) Alfred the Great (849 - 10/28/900), an english monarch, establishes a court school after the example of Charlemagne. and orders the translation of Latin books into Old English, translating some books from Latin himself, for example, Boethius and Bede. | Wessex (871-899), a Saxon kingdom in southwestern England. | ![]() [1] Alfred the Great Corbis-Bettmann COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art -8295?articleTypeId=1 ![]() [2] Statue of Alfred the Great, Wantage, Oxfordshire GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:KingAlfredStatueWantage.jpg |
1,110 YBN [890 CE] | 1302) The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is created. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is a chronological account of events in Anglo-Saxon and Norman England, a compilation of seven surviving interrelated manuscript records that is the primary source for the early history of England. | Wessex (871-899), a Saxon kingdom in southwestern England. | ![]() [1] The initial page of the Peterborough Chronicle, marked secondarily by the librarian of the Laud collection. The manuscript is an autograph of the monastic scribes of Peterborough. The opening sections were likely scribed around 1150. The section displayed is prior to the First Continuation. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Peterborough.Chronicle.firstpage.jpg ![]() [2] A page from the C manuscript of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. It shows the entry for the year 871. British Library Cotton Tiberius B i. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:ASC_C_ms_871.jpg |
1,102 YBN [898 CE] | 1305) Al-Battani, an Arab astronomer, refines the length of the year to 365 days, 5 hours, 46 minutes and 24 seconds, the most accurate result for the length of the year up to this time, and this value will be used 700 years later in the Gregorian reform of the Julian Calendar. al-Battānī (Latinized as Albategnius) (oLBoTeGnEuS), Arab astronomer and mathematician, refines the existing values for the length of the year (to 365 days, 5 hours, 46 minutes and 24 seconds (from?)), of the seasons (give values), for the annual precession of the equinoxes (the way the equinoxes change position every year because of wobbling of the earth compared to its own axis)recording a value of 54.5" (arc-seconds) a year, the current estimate is 50.2 arc-seconds, and for the inclination of the ecliptic (the plane the earth rotates the sun in compared to the plane earth rotates itself in) of 23 degrees and 35' (state previous estimate). Al-Battani shows that the position of the Sun's apogee has changed since the time of Ptolemy. The Sun's apogee is the farthest point the Sun gets from the earth, which is also, more accurately, the aphelion, the farthest point the earth gets from the sun (as opposed to perihelion, the closest point the sun gets to the earth) since the earth goes around the sun and not the other way around. More generally, an apsis (plural: apsides) is the point of greatest or least distance of a mass around a center of attraction, generally found, like the sun for planets, at one focus of an ellipse, the apoapsis being the farthest point, the periapsis being the closest point. Al-Battani finds that this point, the aphelion, has changed since the time of Ptolemy and therefore is the first to identify the motion of the solar apsides. Al-Battani improves Ptolemy's astronomical calculations by replacing geometrical methods with trigonometry, and is the first to use a table of sines for astronomical calculation. Starting in 877 Al-Battani records many years of remarkably accurate observations at ar-Raqqah in Syria. Al-Battani is perhaps the greatest of the Arab astronomers and will be the best known Arab astronomer in Europe during the Middle Ages.. Al-Battani's primary written work, a compendium of astronomical tables, will be translated into Latin in about 1116 and into Spanish in the 13th century. A printed edition, under the title De motu stellarum ("On Stellar Motion"), will be published in 1537. In Al-Battani's refinement of the length of the year, he uses better instruments than the Greek astronomers had, and his result 365 days, 5 hours, 46 minutes and 24 seconds is the most accurate result for the length of the year up to this time, and this value will be used 700 years later in the Gregorian reform of the Julian Calendar. Al-Battani determines the time of equinox to within an hour or two. | Raqqa, Syria. Ar-Raqqah (الرقة, also spelled Rakka), is a city in north central Syria located on the north bank of the Euphrates River, about 160 km east of Aleppo. | |
1,100 YBN [900 CE] | 1379) Around this time, a health (medical) school, in Salerno, Italy, grows from the dispensary of a monastery founded in the 800s. (A dispensary is a charitable or public place where medicines are provided and free or inexpensive health advice is available.) Some people view this medieval physician school as the first university. On the Amalfi Coast in Salern, Italy, Christian, Islamic and Jewish health science flow together and create a health science renaissance. The first recorded female medical school faculty member named "trotula de ruggiero" or "trocta salernitana" learns in the school in Solerno. | Salerno, Italy | ![]() [1] A miniature depicting the Schola Medica Salernitana from a copy of Avicenna's Canons PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:ScuolaMedicaMiniatura.jpg ![]() [2] Hand colored wood cut illustration depicting the medical school at Salerno. De conservanda bona valetudine opusculum scholae Salernitanae, 1554. Galter Medical Rare Books 613 R26 1554 PD source: http://www.galter.northwestern.e du/library_notes/40/woodcut_full.jpg |
1,096 YBN [904 CE] | 1145) Gunpowder missile. | China | ![]() [1] A Mongol bomb thrown against a charging Japanese samurai during the Mongol Invasions of Japan, 1281. Suenaga facing Mongol arrows and bombs. From MokoShuraiEkotoba (è’™å¤è¥²æ¥çµµè©ž), circa 1293, 13th century. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Mooko-Suenaga.jpg |
1,095 YBN [905 CE] | 1303) Al-Razi (full name Abū Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakarīya al-Rāzi Latin: Rhazes), a Persian physician and chemist, is the first to prepare "plaster of paris" and describes how it can be used to hold broken bones in place, to identify and distinguish between smallpox and measles, is the first of record to divide all substances into animal, vegtable and mineral, accepts the atom theory, dismisses miracles and mysticism, thinks religion harmful and the cause of hatred and wars. Al-Razi (full name Abū Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakarīya al-Rāzi Rhazes), a Persian physician and chemist, is the first to prepare "plaster of paris" and describes how it can be used to hold broken bones in place, is the first of record to identify and distinguish between smallpox and measles in his book "al-Judari wa al-Hasbah", is the first of record to divide all substances into animal, vegtable and mineral, probably having access to the writings of Leukippos and or Demokritos, Al-Razi accepts the atom theory interpretation of the universe, dismisses miracles and mysticism, thinks religion harmful and the cause of hatred and wars. Al-Razi writes over 100 books on health science, and 33 books on natural science (not including alchemy), mathematics, and astronomy. Al-Razi uses dry distillation (the heating of solid materials to produce liquid or gaseous products, which may then condense into solids) to produce sulfuric acid. Al-Razi describes the purification of ethanol and the use of ethanol in the science of health. Al-Razi studies and describes metallic antimony. Al-Razi subclassifies minerals as metals, volatile liquids, stones, salts, etc. Al-Razi wrongly accepts Geber's belief in mercury and sulfur being primary elements and adds salt as a third primary element. The identification of sulfuric acid is credited to the 8th century alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan, but sulfuric acid is studied by Ibn Zakariya al-Razi (Rhases), who obtains the substance by dry distillation of minerals including iron(II) sulfate heptahydrate, FeSO4 • 7H2O, and copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate, CuSO4 • 5H2O. When heated, these compounds decompose to iron(II) oxide and copper(II) oxide, respectively, giving off water and sulfur trioxide, which combine to produce a dilute solution of sulfuric acid. This method will be popularized in Europe through translations of Arabic and Persian treatises and books by European alchemists, such as the 13th-century German Albertus Magnus. Al-Razi develops several chemical instruments that remain in use to this day. Al-Razi perfects methods of distillation and extraction, which lead to his identification of sulfuric acid (by dry distillation of vitriol, (al-zajat) and alcohol. These discoveries will pave the way for other Islamic alchemists, as did the synthesis of other mineral acids by Jabir Ibn Hayyam (known as Geber in Europe). Al-Razi offers harsh criticism concerning religions, in particular those religions that claim to have been revealed by prophetic experiences writing: "On what ground do you deem it necessary that God should single out certain individuals {by giving them prophecy}, that he should set them up above other people, that he should appoint them to be the people's guides, and make people dependent upon them?" Concernin g the link between violence and religion, Al-Razi expresses that God must have known, considering the many disagreements between different religions, that "there would be a universal disaster and they would perish in the mutual hostilities and fightings. Indeed, many people have perished in this way, as we can see." Al-Razi is also critical of the lack of interest among religious adherents in the rational analysis of their beliefs, and the violent reaction which takes its place: "If the people of this religion are asked about the proof for the soundness of their religion, they flare up, get angry and spill the blood of whoever confronts them with this question. They forbid rational speculation, and strive to kill their adversaries. This is why truth became thoroughly silenced and concealed." Al-Razi believes that common people had originally been duped into belief by religious authority figures and by the status quo. He believes that these authority figures were able to continually deceive the common people "as a result of {religious people} being long accustomed to their religious denomination, as days passed and it became a habit. Because they are deluded by the beards of the goats, who sit in ranks in their councils, straining their throats in recounting lies, senseless myths and "so-and-so told us in the name of so-and-so..." Al-Razi believes that the existence of a large variety of religions is, in itself, evidence that they were all man made, saying, "Jesus claimed that he is the son of God, while Moses claimed that He had no son, and Muhammad claimed that he {Jesus} was created like the rest of humanity." and also that "Mani and Zoroaster contradicted Moses, Jesus and Muhammad regarding the Eternal One, the coming into being of the world, and the reasons for the {existence} of good and evil." In relation to the Hebrew's God asking of sacrifices, al-Razi writes that "This sounds like the words of the needy rather than of the Laudable Self-sufficient One." On the Quran, al-Razi writes: "You claim that the evidentiary miracle is present and available, namely, the Koran. You say: 'Whoever denies it, let him produce a similar one.' Indeed, we shall produce a thousand similar, from the works of rhetoricians, eloquent speakers and valiant poets, which are more appropriately phrased and state the issues more succinctly. They convey the meaning better and their rhymed prose is in better meter. ... By God what you say astonishes us! You are talking about a work which recounts ancient myths, and which at the same time is full of contradictions and does not contain any useful information or explanation. Then you say: "Produce something like it"?! Of the health works by al-Razi, the most important one is "Continens" (al-Hawi), which is the longest single Arabic work on health. Al-Razi's work "The Treatise on Smallpox and Measles" (in Latin "De Pestilentia" or "De Peste") will be read in the West until the the modern period (more specific time). Al-Razi's alchemical "Secret of Secrets" will be well known. Al-Razi's philosophical and ethical works will not be known to the West (until modern times), and in the East meet with severe criticism from both the theologians and Peripatetic philosophers because of their "anti-prophetic" sentiment. In my own opinion, stories of a person known for criticism of religion is generally evidence of a human that is highly intelligent or with at least above average smartness. | Rayy (near Tehran, Iran) | ![]() [1] Al-Razi from a book cover COPYRIGHTED FAIR USE source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Rhazes.jpg ![]() [2] al-Razi AKA Abu Bakr Muhammad Ibn Zakariya al-Razi COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.nndb.com/people/594/0 00114252/ |
1,090 YBN [910 CE] | 1407) Abū Nasr al-Fārābi (full name: Abū Nasr Muhammad ibn al-Farakh al-Fārābi) (Persian: محمد فاراب® 0;) (Latin: Alpharabius) (CE c870-c950) writes many works on of mathematics, philosophy and music. Al-Farabi is the first Arab scholar to classify all the sciences as Aristotle did. Of the 70 works credited to al-Farabi, half are devoted to logic, including commentary on the "Organon" of Aristotle. Al-Farabi writes independent works on physics, mathematics, music, ethics, and political philosophy. | Baghdad, Iraq | ![]() [1] Al-Farabi's imagined face appears on the currency of the Republic of Kazakhstan COPYRIGHTED source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:200TengeNote.jpg |
1,064 YBN [936 CE] | 1408) Abu'l-Hasan al-Mas'udi (full name: Abu al-Hasan Ali ibn al-Husayn al-Masudi) (أبو الحسن ، علي بن الحسي 6; المسع 8;دي) (CE c896-956), writes a world history, "Akhbar az-zaman" ("The History of Time") in 30 volumes. | Baghdad, Iraq | |
1,036 YBN [964 CE] | 1502) 'Abd Al-Rahman Al Sufi (Persian: عبدال 5;حمان صوفی) (Latin: Azophi) (CE 903-986), Persian astronomer, publishes his "Book of Fixed Stars", which describes much of his work, both in textual descriptions and pictures. This work contains the first recorded description of the Large Magellanic Cloud, and the earliest recorded observation of the Andromeda Galaxy. | Isfahan (Eşfahān), Persia (modern Iran) | ![]() [1] Persian Astronomer Al Sufi PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Al_Sufi.jpg ![]() [2] The constellation Centaurus from The Depiction of Celestial Constellations. An image of Al Sufi from the 'Depiction of Celestial Constellations' PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Book_Al_Sufi.jpg |
1,031 YBN [969 CE] | 1338) Al-Azhar University (Arabic: الأزه 5; الشري 1;; al-Azhar al-Shareef, "the Noble Azhar"), currently the second oldest operating university on earth after the University of Al Karaouine in Fez, Morocco is founded. Al-Azhar University was built by the Shi'a Fatimid Caliphate (909-1171) who established Cairo as their capital. | Cairo, Egypt | ![]() [1] Al-Azhar Mosque in Cairo Egypt GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Al-Azhar_Mosque_.jpg |
1,025 YBN [975 CE] | 1022) The "Suda", one of the first encyclopedias is compiled, credited to a person named Suidas. In Latin, "Suda" means "fortress" or "stronghold". The Suda is an enecyclopedia lexicon with 30,000 entries, many drawing from ancient sources that have since been lost. Little is known about the compilation of this work, except that it must be before Eustathius in the 12th century, who frequently quotes it. under the heading "Adam" the author of the lexicon, described as "Suidas" in the preface, gives a brief chronology of the world, ending with the death of the emperor John Zimisces in 975; under "Constantinople" his successors Basil II and Constantine VIII are mentioned. So it then appears that the Suda is compiled in the latter part of the 10th century. Passages refering to Michael Psellus (end of 11th century) are considered later interpolations. The lexicon is arranged alphabetically with some slight deviations; letters and combinations of letters having the same sound being placed together. The Suda is both a dictionary and encyclopedia. The Suda includes numerous quotations from ancient writers; the scholiasts (commentary on the margin of a manuscript) on Aristophanes, Homer, Sophocles and Thucydides are also used often. The biographical notices, the author explains, are condensed from the "Onomatologion" or "Pinax" of Hesychius of Miletus; other sources were the excerpts of Constantine Porphyrogenitus, the chronicle of Georgius Monachus, the biographies of Diogenes Laertius and the works of Athenaeus and Philostratus. Most of the Suda was lost during the crusader sacking of Constantinople and the Ottoman pillage of the city in 1453. The lexicon is arranged, not quite alphabetically, but according to a system (formerly common in many lagnauges) called antistoichia; namely the letters follow phonetically, in order of sound (in the pronunciation of Suida's time, which is the same as modern Greek, and serves as a key to the authentic pronunciation of each letter, letter group and word). Most of the Alexandrian librarians are listed with more details in the Suda. | ||
1,025 YBN [975 CE] | 1839) The earliest explicit depiction of a triangle of binomial coefficients occurs in commentaries by Halayudha, on the "Chandas Shastra", an ancient Indian book on Sanskrit written by Pingala between 400-100 BCE. | ?, India (presumably) | |
1,024 YBN [976 CE] | 1308) Ibn al-Haytham (Full Name: Abu 'Ali al-Hasan ibn al-Haytham) (Arabic: and Persian: ابو علی، حسن بن حسن بن هيثم) (Latinized: Alhazen (oLHoZeN)) (CE c965-1039), builds the first recorded pin-hole camera (camera obscura), and is the first Arab astronomer of record to support a sun centered theory. Al-Haytham is the first of record to understand that light comes from the Sun and reflects off objects into the eyes contradicting the theory of Euclid and Ptolemy that rays of light emit from the eye. Al-Haytham constructs parabolic mirrors (now used in telescopes to better focus light than a spherical mirror). Al-Haytham studies the focusing of light. Al-Haytham writes at length about various physical phenomena such as shadows, eclipses, and rainbows, and speculates on the physical nature of light. Al-Haytham is the first to describe accurately the various parts of the eye and give a scientific explanation of the process of vision. Like Ptolemy, al-Haytham thinks that the atmosphere has a finite height, and estimates this height as 10 miles. (actual units) Al-Haytham's writings will be translated into Latin in the 1500s and influence Kepler, who after 600 years will be the first to improve on the science of optics. Specifically, Al-Haytham's "Kitab al-Manazir" (Book of Optics) and his book on the colors of the sunset will be translated into Latin. The Latin translation of his main work, Kitab al-Manazir, exerted a great influence upon Western science e.g. on the work of Roger Bacon who cites al-Haytham by name, Witelo, and Kepler. This will contribute to the method of experiment. Al-Haytham's research in catoptrics (Catoptrics deals with the phenomena of reflected light and image-forming optical systems using mirrors) centers on spherical and parabolic mirrors and spherical aberration. Al-Haytham makes the important observation that the ratio between the angle of incidence and refraction does not remain constant and investigates the magnifying power of a lens. In his book "Mizan al-Hikmah", Ibn al-Haytham discusses the density of the atmosphere and relates it to altitude. He also studies atmospheric refraction. Al-haytham identifies that the twilight (the time just before or after the total darkness of night) only ends or begins when the Sun is 19 degrees below the horizon and attempts to measure the height of the atmosphere on that basis. At least one scholar states that around this time Ibn al-Haytham has the size estimates of the Sun and Earth from Aristarchos available to him, and revives this theory, placing the Sun in the center and having the planets rotating the Sun in circular orbits. Perhaps Ibn al-Haytham supports the Sun-centered theory based on Aristarchos's estimate of the enormous size of the Sun compared to the earth. | Cairo, Egypt | ![]() [1] Portrait of Ibn Al-Haithem from an Iraqi 10000 Dinar note. COPYRIGHTED source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Ibn_haithem_portrait.jpg ![]() [2] 1572 C.E. Latin Frontpage of Ibn Haithem's book. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Latin_Ibn_Haithem%27s_book.jpg |
1,021 YBN [979 CE] | 1410) Maslama al-Majriti,(Full name: Abu'l Qasim Maslamah al-Majrifi) (Arabic: أبو القاسم مسلمة بن Ø£ØÂمد المجريطي) (CE 9?? - 1007), an Arab Muslim scholar in Spain, writes two important works on alchemy, "The Sage's Step" and "The Aim of the Wise" (in Latin: "Picatrix") and establishes a school in Cordova where the historian Ibn Kaldun and the physician al-Zahrawi will study. | Cordova, Spain | |
1,019 YBN [981 CE] | 1385) The Al-Adudi Hospital is founded in Baghdad. | Baghdad, Iraq | |
1,015 YBN [985 CE] | 1306) Gerbert d'Aurillac (ZARBAR) (c945 aurillac, auvergne - 5/12/1003 Rome, Italy) is a prolific scholar of the 10th century. Gerbert introduces Arab knowledge of arithmetic and astronomy/astrology to Europe. Gerbert picks up the use of Indian numerals (many times called arabic numerals) without zero perhaps from Alkwarizmior in Spain and is one of the first people to use Indian numerals in Europe. Gerber t reintroduces the use of the abacus in mathematical calculation. Gerbert builds clocks, organs, and astronomical instruments by consulting translated arab works. Gerbert writes a series of works dealing with matters of the quadrivium (the higher division of the liberal arts, which includes music, arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy). In Rheims, he constructs a hydraulic organ that excels all previously known instruments, where the air had to be pumped manually. According to Asimov, Gerbert is suspected of wizardry because of his great wisdom. | Auvergne, France | ![]() [1] Impression of Sylvester II. Artist unknown. immediate source: italycyberguide.com [1] [2], marked ''© Copyright 1999-2004 Riccardo Cigola'' PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Silvester_II.JPG ![]() [2] Pope Silvester II. and the Devil Illustration from Cod. Pal. germ. 137, Folio 216v Martinus Oppaviensis, Chronicon pontificum et imperatorum ~1460 PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Silvester_II._and_the_Devil_Cod._Pal. _germ._137_f216v.jpg |
990 YBN [1010 CE] | 1311) Ibn Sina (iBN SEno) (full name Abu 'Ali al-Husayn ibn 'Abd Allah ibn Sina) Persian: ابو علی الحسی 6; ابن عبدال 4;ه ابن سینا) (Latin: Avicenna oViSeNo) (CE 980-1037), a Persian physician writes "Canon of Medicine" a massive book of Arab health science. This book will be translated into Latin and be taught for centruies in European universities. Ibn Sina is also famous for an encyclopedia "The Book of Healing" (Kitab al-shifa) which is described as the high point of Peripatetic philosophy in Arabic science and contains chapters on logic, mathematics and natural sciences. Ibn Sina's works will have a large influence on both Arabic and Latin health science for centuries. Ibn Sina is credited with more than 250 books on a wide range of subjects, many of which concentrate on philosophy and health. His most famous works are "The Canon of Medicine", which will be for almost five centuries a standard medical text at many European universities and "The Book of Healing". Ibn Sina's theories are based on those of Hippocrates and Galen which he combines with Aristotelian metaphysics as well as traditional Persian and Arab lore. About 100 treatises are ascribed to Ibn Sina. Some of them are tracts of a few pages, others are works extending through several volumes. The best-known of these works, and that defines Ibn Sina's European reputation, is his 14-volume "The Canon of Medicine", which will be translated into Latin in the 1100s, and will be a standard medical text in Western Europe for almost five centuries until the time of Harvey. This work classifies and describes diseases, and outlines their assumed causes. Hygiene, simple and complex medicines, and functions of parts of the body are also covered. In this, Ibn Sina is credited as being the first to correctly document the anatomy of the human eye, along with descriptions of eye afflictions such as cataracts. It asserts that tuberculosis was contagious, which will be later disputed by Europeans, but will be found to be true. It also describes the symptoms and complications of diabetes. In addition, the workings of the heart as a valve are described.(needs citation) Almost half of Avicenna's works are versed as poetry. | Hamadan, Iran | ![]() [1] Source: http://www.cais-soas.com/CAIS/Science/ir an_sience.htm - Permission granted by CAIS. GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Avicenna_Persian_Physician.jpg ![]() [2] Ibn Sina - w:Avicenna, as appearing on a Polish stamp PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Avicenna2.jpg |
987 YBN [1013 CE] | 1409) Al-Biruni (full name: Abu Rayhan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni) (CE 973-c1051), a Persian scholar, writes that astronomic data can also be explained by supposing that the earth turns daily on its axis and annually around the sun, and notes "the attraction of all things towards the centre of the earth". Al-Biruni writes: "Rotation of the earth would in no way invalidate astronomical calculations, for all the astronomical data are as explainable in terms of the one theory as of the other. The problem is thus difficult of solution." In his "Kitab fi Tahqiq ma l'il-Hind" (Researches on India) (1030 CE) Biruni discusses the Indian heliocentric theories of Aryabhata, Brahmagupta and Varahamihira. Biruni notes that the question of heliocentricity is a philosophical rather than a mathematical problem. In al-Biruni's works on astronomy, he discusses with approval the theory of the Earth's rotation on its axis and makes accurate calculations of latitude and longitude on earth using celestial objects. In astronomy, Al-Biruni writes treatises on the astrolabe, the planisphere, the armillary sphere; and formulates astronomical tables for Sultan Masud. In Al-Biruni's al-Qanun al-Mas'udi (dedicated to the ruler Masud) (1031 CE), an extensive astronomical encyclopaedia, almost 1,500 pages, al-Biruni determines the motion of the solar apogee (the point where the sun apparently reaches its highest point in the sky) and is the first to write that the motion of the solar apogee is not identical to that of precession, but comes very close to it. Al-Biruni doubts Ptolemy's view that the distance of the Sun from the Earth is 286 times the Earth's circumference, arguing that Ptolemy based his claim on total eclipses but disregarded annular eclipses which imply a larger distance. An annular eclipse is when the moon is in front of the Sun but because of the Moon's variable distance from the Earth (and to a less extent the distance the Earth is from the Sun), the Moon appears smaller than the sun and results in a ring of light around the moon, as opposed to a total eclipse where the apparent size of the Moon matches closely the apparent size of the Sun, there are also partial eclipses where the earth Moon only blocks a portion of the Sun, and the very rare "hybrid eclipse" where part of the earth sees a total eclipse and other parts see an annular eclipse. In al-Baruni's works on geography, he theorizes that the valley of the Indus had once been a sea basin. In al-Biruni's works on physics, he determines with remarkable accuracy the relative density (specific gravity) of 18 precious stones and metals. Relative density is the ratio of the density of a substance to that of a standard substance. Relative density is to buoyancy. If a substance has relative density less than that of a fluid, it will float on that fluid. For example, helium-filled balloons rise in air, oil forms a layer on top of water, and lead floats on mercury. | Ghazna, Afghanistan | ![]() [1] Biruni on a 1973 post stamp commemorating his one thousandth anniversary PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Abu-Rayhan_Biruni_1973_Afghanistan_po st_stamp.jpg ![]() [2] An illustration from Beruni's Persian book. It shows different phases of the moon. Illustration by Al-Biruni (973-1048) of different phases of the moon, from Kitab al-tafhim (in Persian). Source Scanned from: Seyyed Hossein Nasr (1976). Islamic Science: An Illustrated Study, World of Islam Festival Publishing Company. ISBN 090503502X PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Lunar_eclipse_al-Biruni.jpg |
959 YBN [1041 CE] | 1124) "Movable type" printing, where individual blocks can be put together to form a text, is invented in China. The first movable type is invented by Bi Sheng in China. Sheng used clay type, which broke easily, but Wang Zhen later carved more durable type from wood. | China | |
936 YBN [1064 CE] | 1313) Omar Khayyam, (OmoR KoToM) (full name: Ghiyās ol-Dīn Ab'ol-Fath Omār ibn Ebrāhīm Khayyām Neyshābūrī) (Persian: غیاث الدین ابو الفتح عمر بن ابراه® 0;م خیام نیشاب 8;ری),(CE 1048-1131) a mathematician, astronomer and poet, in an early paper he writes regarding cubic equations, Khayyam discovers that a cubic equation (a polynomial equation of the third degree (in other words an equation where at least one variable is raised to the third power, and no other variables are raised to a higher power than 3)) can have more than one solution, that it cannot be solved using earlier compass and straightedge constructions, and finds a geometric solution (for the variable or "roots" of all cubic equations) (by intersecting a parabola with a circle(?)) which can be used to get a numerical answer by consulting trigonometric tables. Although Khayyam's approach at solving for the roots of cubic equations by intersecting a parabola with a cicle had earlier been attempted by Menaechmus and others, Khayyám provides a generalization extending it to all cubic equations. | Persia, Iran (presumably) | ![]() [1] Statue of Khayyam at his Mausoleum in Neyshabur Omar Chayyām aus: http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/hist ory/PictDisplay/Khayyam.html http://de. wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Omar_Chayyam.jpe g PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Omar_Chayyam.jpg ![]() [2] Omar Khayam's tomb, Neishapur, which is a city in Iran (Neishapur was a city of Eastern Seljuk Turkish Empire). This Photo by user zereshk. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Khayam.jpg |
932 YBN [1068 CE] | 1312) Al-Zarqali (In Arabic أبو أسحاق ابراه¡ 0;م بن يحيى الزرق 5;لي ),(full name: Abu Ishaq Ibrahim ibn Yahya Al-Zarqali) (Latin: Arzachel) (Spanish and Italian: Azarquiel), (1028-1087 CE), although debated, supports the sun-centered theory revived by al-Haytham and improves on this model by having the planets move in elliptical orbits around the Sun at one focus of the ellipse. Many people mistakenly credit Kepler for being the first to understand that an ellipse fits the motion of planets rotating the sun more accurately than a circle does. Al-Zarqali constructs a flat astrolabe (called sahifah in Latin: Saphaea Arzachelis) that can be used at any latitude and will be widely used by navigators until the 1500s. Al-Zarqali corrects Ptolemy's geographical data, specifically the length of the Mediterranean Sea. Al-Zarqali is the first to prove conclusively the motion of the aphelion (of the earth or apogee of the sun) relative to the fixed stars. Al-Zarqali measures this rate of motion as 12.04 arc-seconds per year, which is remarkably close to the modern calculation of 11.8 arc-seconds. Working in an observatory in Toledo, Al-Zarqali contributes to the famous "Tables of Toledo" (Toledan Zij) (ZEj?), a compilation of astronomical data of unprecedented accuracy. These tables are composed with the help of several other Arab and Jewish scientists and will be widely used by both Latin and Arabic speaking astronomers in later centuries. | Toledo (in Castile, now) Spain | ![]() [1] Spain 1986. Al-Zarqali (dead 1100). Astronomer. COPYRIGHTED source: http://worldheritage.heindorffhu s.dk/frame-SpainCordoba.htm ![]() [2] None, but next to text about al-Zarqali COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/ issue/200407/science.in.al-andalus-.comp ilation..htm |
930 YBN [1070 CE] | 1314) Omar Khayyam, (OmoR KoToM) (full name: Ghiyās ol-Dīn Ab'ol-Fath Omār ibn Ebrāhīm Khayyām Neyshābūrī) (Persian: غیاث الدین ابو الفتح عمر بن ابراه® 0;م خیام نیشاب 8;ری),(CE 05/18/1048 -12/04/1131) writes "Treatise on Demonstration of Problems of Algebra" (Risalah fi'l-barahin 'ala masa'il al-jabr wa'l-muqabalah), the best book on algebra of this time. In this book Khayyam catagorizes equations according to their degree, gives rules for solving quadratic equations (polynomial equations of the second degree (equations where the variable with the highest power is the power of 2), which are very similar to the ones in use today, and a geometric method for solving cubic equations with real (non integer) roots fonjud by means of intersecting conic sections. In this book Khayyam also extends Abu al-Wafa's results on the extraction of cube and fourth roots to the extraction of nth roots of numbers for arbitrary whole numbers n.(not clear, show work if possible) | ![]() [1] Statue of Khayyam at his Mausoleum in Neyshabur Omar Chayyām aus: http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/hist ory/PictDisplay/Khayyam.html http://de. wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Omar_Chayyam.jpe g PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Omar_Chayyam.jpg ![]() [2] Omar Khayam's tomb, Neishapur, which is a city in Iran (Neishapur was a city of Eastern Seljuk Turkish Empire). This Photo by user zereshk. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Khayam.jpg | |
927 YBN [1073 CE] | 1316) The Seljuk Sultan, MalikShah, calls Omar Khayyám, already a famous mathematician, to build and work with an observatory, along with various other distinguished scientists. Eventually, Khayyám very accurately (correct to six decimal places) measures the length of the solar year as 365.24219858156 days. This calendar measurement has only an 1 hour error in every 5,500 years, whereas the Gregorian Calendar used today, has a 1 day error in every 3,330 years. Khayyam also calculates how to correct the Persian calendar. On March 15, 1079, Sultan Jalal al-Din Malekshah Saljuqi (1072-92) will put this corrected calendar, the Jalali calendar, which Khayyam and other astronomers created into effect, as in Europe Julius Caesar had done in 46 B.C.E. with the corrections of Sosigenes, and as Pope Gregory XIII would do in February 1552 with Aloysius Lilius' corrected calendar (although Britain will not switch from the Julian to the Gregorian calendar until 1751, and Russia will not switch until 1918). In this observatory Khayyam prepares improved astronomical tables (describe fully). Kyammam built a star map (now lost).(original source?) Omar Khayyam also estimates and proves to an audience that includes the then-prestigious and most respected scholar Imam Ghazali, that the universe is not moving around earth as was believed by all at that time. By constructing a revolving platform and simple arrangement of the star charts lit by candles around the circular walls of the room, Khayyam demonstrates that earth revolves on its axis, bringing into view different constellations throughout the night and day (completing a one-day cycle). Khayyam also elaborates that stars are stationary objects in space which if moving around earth would have been burnt to cinders due to their large mass. | ![]() [1] Statue of Khayyam at his Mausoleum in Neyshabur Omar Chayyām aus: http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/hist ory/PictDisplay/Khayyam.html http://de. wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Omar_Chayyam.jpe g PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Omar_Chayyam.jpg ![]() [2] Omar Khayam's tomb, Neishapur, which is a city in Iran (Neishapur was a city of Eastern Seljuk Turkish Empire). This Photo by user zereshk. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Khayam.jpg | |
923 YBN [1077 CE] | 1315) Omar Khayyam, (OmoR KoToM) (full name: Ghiyās ol-Dīn Ab'ol-Fath Omār ibn Ebrāhīm Khayyām Neyshābūrī) (Persian: غیاث الدین ابو الفتح عمر بن ابراه® 0;م خیام نیشاب 8;ری),(CE 05/18/1048 -12/04/1131) writes "Explanations of the Difficulties in the Postulates of Euclid" ("Sharh ma ashkala min musadarat kitab Uqlidis"). An important part of this book is concerned with Euclid's famous parallel postulate, which had also attracted the interest of Thabit ibn Qurra. Al-Haytham had previously attempted a demonstation of the postulate; Omar's attempt is a distinct advance. Khayyam writes this book in Esfahan and these ideas will make their way to Europe, where they will influenced the English mathematician John Wallis (1616-1703), and the eventual development of non-Euclidean geometry. Also around this time Khayyám writes a geometry book (also in Esfahan) on the theory of proportions. In this book Khayyam argues for the important idea of enlarging the notion of number to include ratios of magnitudes (and therefore such irrational numbers as the square root of 2 and pi). | ![]() [1] Statue of Khayyam at his Mausoleum in Neyshabur Omar Chayyām aus: http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/hist ory/PictDisplay/Khayyam.html http://de. wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Omar_Chayyam.jpe g PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Omar_Chayyam.jpg ![]() [2] Omar Khayam's tomb, Neishapur, which is a city in Iran (Neishapur was a city of Eastern Seljuk Turkish Empire). This Photo by user zereshk. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Khayam.jpg | |
912 YBN [1088 CE] | 1163) Su Sung (蘇頌, style Zirong 子容) (1020 - 1101), a Chinese engineer, invents a water-driven astronomical clock, one of the first uses of an escapement mechanism (a device that stops a gear from continuously unwinding, such as a pendulum) and one of the first astronomical clocks. | China | ![]() [1] A scale model of Su Song's Astronomical Clock Tower, built in 11th century Kaifeng, China. It was driven by a large waterwheel, chain drive, and escapement mechanism. Su Song's Water Clock (蘇頌鐘). This picture is a scaled model of Su Song's water-powered clock tower. The original clock tower was 35 feet tall. It was a 3 story tower with an armillary sphere on the roof, and a celestial globe on the third floor. This picture was taken in July 2004 from an exhibition at Chabot Space & Science Center in Oakland, California. The quality of the picture is not ideal because flash photography was not allowed. GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:SuSongClock1.JPG |
912 YBN [1088 CE] | 1339) The University of Bologna (Italian: Alma Mater Studiorum Università di Bologna, UNIBO) if founded. The University of Bologna is the oldest degree-granting university on earth, third oldest university on earth, and the first university in the West. | Bologna, Italy | ![]() [1] Seal of the U of Bologna PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Bologna_University_seal.jpg ![]() [2] U of Bologna COPYRIGHTED EDU source: http://corpora.dslo.unibo.it/fra mes06/img/Bologna.jpg |
901 YBN [1099 CE] | 1382) The Knights Hospitalers of the Order of St. John establish a hospital in Jerusalem that can care for some 2,000 people. It is said to have been particularly concerned with eye disease, and be the first specialized hospital. The growth of hospitals accelerates during the Crusades, which began at the end of the 11th century. Military hospitals came into being along the well traveled routes. Disease kills more people than Saracens (Islamic soldiers). | Jerusalem | ![]() [1] grand master & senior knights hospitaller after 1307 move to rhodes PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Knights_hospitaller.JPG ![]() [2] Hospital of the Knights of St. John, Jerusalem, c. 1959. The hospital was founded in 1069 to care for pilgrims to the Holy Land and run by a small group of monks. After the capture of Jerusalem in 1099, the monks became a regular religious order called the Knights of St. John, or the Hospitallers. Major, ''The Knights of St. John of Jerusalem,'' Ralph Major vertical file. COPYRIGHTED EDU source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/rm /m_07p.jpg |
900 YBN [1100 CE] | 1023) From the 12th century on, Arab interest in the classic works of the past changes from direct translation to compilations and surveys of earlier efforts, for example translating Ibn Al-Quifti's "History of Wise Men", Ibn Abi Usaybia's "Main Sources of Medical Schools", and Al-Shahristani's "Creeds and Sects". | ||
894 YBN [1106 CE] | 1411) Al-Ghazzali (full: Abu Hamed Mohammad ibn Mohammad al-Ghazzali) (Persian: ابو Øامد Ù…Øمد ابن Ù…Øمد الغزالی or امام Ù…Øمد غزالی) (Latin: Algazel) (CE 1058-1111), a Persian Islamic Theologin, writes "Tahafut 'al-Falasifah" (Arabic:تهاÙت الÙلاسÙØ©) (The Incoherence of the Philosophers), which marks a turning point in Islamic philosophy in its vehement rejections of Aristotle and Plato. The book focuses on the falasifa, a loosely defined group of Islamic philosophers from the 8th through the 11th centuries (most notable among them Avicenna and Al-Farabi) who drew intellectually upon the Ancient Greeks. Ghazali bitterly denounces Aristotle, Socrates and other Greek writers as non-believers and labels those who employed their methods and ideas as corrupters of the Islamic faith. In the next century, Averroes will draft a lengthy rebuttal of Ghazali's Incoherence entitled "the Incoherence of the Incoherence", however the course of Islamic thought into an anti-science Dark Age of religious intolerance had already been set. | Nishapur, Iran | ![]() [1] Portrait of Ghazali in his late years by an Iraqi artist Name: Al-Ghazali (Algazel) Birth: 1058 CE (450 AH) Death: 1111 CE (505 AH) School/tradition: Sufism, Sunnite (Shafi'ite), Asharite Main interests: Sufism, Theology (Kalam), Philosophy, Logic, Islamic Jurisprudence Influenced: Fakhruddin Razi, Maimonides[1], Thomas Aquinas, Raymund Martin, Nicholas of Autrecourt, Shah Waliullah, Abdul-Qader Bedil PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Ghazali.gif ![]() [2] Haruniyah stucture in Tus, Iran, named after Harun al-Rashid, the mausoleum of Al-Ghazali is expected to be situated on the entrance of this monument Haruniyeh, Razavi Khorasan. Sufis used to hang out here during the Middle Ages. Iran GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Haruniyeh.JPG |
880 YBN [1120 CE] | 1318) Pierre Abélard (English: Peter Abelard) (oBALoR) (CE 1079-04/21/1142), a French scholar, writes "Sic et Non" (Yes and No), in Latin, a list of 158 philosophical and theological questions about which there are divided opinions and authorities conflict each other. There are eleven surviving full and partial manuscripts of the "Sic et non". Abilard is in constant danger of being charged with heresy, and will die while preparing his defense against a charge of heresy. Abelard also writes a book called "Theologia", which will be formally condemned as heretical and burned by a council held at Soissons in 1121. | (the royal abbey of Saint-Denis near) Paris, France | ![]() [1] Abélard and Héloïse depicted in a 14th century manuscript Abelard, with Heloise, miniature portrait by Jean de Meun, 14th century; in the Musee Conde, Chantilly, Fr.[3] PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Abelard_and_Heloise.jpeg ![]() [2] ''Abaelardus and Heloïse surprised by Master Fulbert'', by Romanticist painter Jean Vignaud (1819) PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Helo%C3%AFse_et_d%27Ab%C3%A9lard.jpg |
870 YBN [1130 CE] | 1140) Bernard of Clairvaux (Saint Bernard) (Fontaines, near Dijon, 1090 - August 21, 1153 Clairvaux), who helps to form and preaches on the Second Crusade (1145-46), is the prosecutor in the trial of Peter Abelard, the French scholar and author of "Sic et Non", for heresy. Bernard also describes the Jewish people, as "a degraded and perfidious people"{1 get source} (perfidious means "tending to betray, disloyal and or faithless"). However, after many Jewish people are murdered in Germany, according to Martin Bouquet (1685-1754) (Martin Bouquet, "Recueil des Historiens des Gaules et de la France," xv. 606) Bernard sends a letter to (specifically?) England, France and Germany expressing his view that Jewish people should not be disturbed or destroyed but that they should be punished as a race of people by dispersion for their crime against Jesus (who again, was a Jewish person with many Jewish disciples).(check) | France | ![]() [1] Bernard of Clairvaux, as shown in the church of Heiligenkreuz Abbey near Baden bei Wien, Lower Austria. Portrait (1700) with the true effigy of the Saint by Georg Andreas Wasshuber (1650-1732), (painted after a statue in Clairvaux with the true effigy of the saint) PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Heiligenkreuz.Bernard_of_Clervaux.jpg ![]() [2] Bernhard of Clairvaux Initial B from a 13th century illuminated illuminated manuscript PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Bernhard_von_Clairvaux_%28Initiale-B% 29.jpg |
870 YBN [1130 CE] | 1322) Adelard of Bath (CE c1090 - c1150), English scholar translates Euclid's "Elements" from Arabic to Latin. This is the first time the writings of Euclid will be available to Europe. Adelard translates al-Khwarizmi, and uses arabic numerals. Adelard writes "Quaestiones naturales"(Natural Questions) (76 discussions of human nature, meteorology, astronomy, botany, and zoology) which are based on all he has learned about Arabic science. His other writings include works on the abacus and the astrolabe and a translation of an Arabic astronomical table. | Bath, England | ![]() [1] Detail of a scene in the bowl of the letter 'P' with a woman with a set-square and dividers; using a compass to measure distances on a diagram. In her left hand she holds a square, an implement for testing or drawing right angles. She is watched by a group of students. In the Middle Ages, it is unusual to see women represented as teachers, in particular when the students appear to be monks. She may be the personification of Geometry. * Illustration at the beginning of Euclid's Elementa, in the translation attributed to Adelard of Bath. * Date: 1309 - 1316 * Location: France (Paris). Copyright: The British Library. * original from http://www.bl.uk/services/learning/curri culum/medrealms/t2womantask2.html * second version adapted from http://prodigi.bl.uk/illcat/ILLUMIN.ASP? Size=mid&IllID=2756 PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Woman_teaching_geometry.jpg |
868 YBN [1132 CE] | 1146) Gunpowder is first used as a propellant. This is done in China and is recorded in experiments with mortars made of bamboo tubes. This is the first cannon and gun. | China | ![]() [1] A Mongol bomb thrown against a charging Japanese samurai during the Mongol Invasions of Japan, 1281. Suenaga facing Mongol arrows and bombs. From MokoShuraiEkotoba (蒙古襲来絵 ;詞), circa 1293, 13th century. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Mooko-Suenaga.jpg |
850 YBN [1150 CE] | 1310) Bhaskara (1114-1185) expands on Aryabhata's heliocentric model in his astronomical treatise "Siddhanta-Shiromani". Bhaskara (1114-1185) expands on Aryabhata's heliocentric model in his astronomical treatise "Siddhanta-Shiromani", where he mentions the law of gravity, recorgnizes that the planets do not orbit the Sun at a uniform velocity, and accurately calculates many astronomical constants based on this model, such as the solar and lunar eclipses, and the velocities and instantaneous motions of the planets. | Ujjain, India | ![]() [1] Español: Estatua de Aryabhata en India This image of a public statue in IUCAA Pune was photographed in May 2006 by myself, and I release all rights. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:2064_aryabhata-crp.jpg |
846 YBN [1154 CE] | 1323) Gerard of Cremona (JeRoRD) (AD c1114 - 1187), and Italian scholar translates (or supervises the translation of) 92 Arabic works, including portions of Aristotle, the Almagest of Ptolemy, works of Hippocrates, Euclid and Galen. In Toledo, which had been a center for Arab learning, Gerard finds many Arab books and people that help with translation. Gerard moves to Toledo to learn Arabic in order to read the "Almagest", which is not available in Latin and remains there for the rest of his life. Some people speculate that Gerard is in charge of a school of translators that are responsible for some of the translations. Gerard will complete the translation of the Almagest in 1175. Gerard also translates original Arabic texts on health, mathematics, astronomy, astrology, and alchemy. Gerard is one of a small group of scholars who invigorates medieval Europe in the 1100s by transmitting Greek and Arab traditions in astronomy, medicine and other sciences, in the form of translations into Latin, which make them available to every literate person in the West. Gerard of Cremona's Latin translation of Ptolemy's "Almagest" from Arabic will be the only version of this book that is known in Western Europe for centuries, until George of Trebizond and then Johannes Regiomontanus translate it from the Greek originals in the 1400s. The "Almagest" forms the basis for a mathematical astronomy until being replaced by the sun-centered theory popularized by Copernicus. Gerard translates into Latin the "Tables if Toledo", the most accurate compilation of astronomical data ever seen in Europe at the time. These Tables are partly the work of Al-Zarqali, known to the West as Arzachel, a mathematician and astronomer who flourished in Cordoba in the eleventh century. Al-Farabi, the Islamic "second teacher" after Aristotle, wrote hundreds of treatises. His book on the sciences, "Kitab al-lhsa al Ulum", discusses classification and fundamental principles of science in a unique and useful manner. Gerard renders this book as "De scientiis" (On the Sciences). Gerard translates Euclid"s "Geometry" and Alfraganus's "Elements of Astronomy". Gerard also composes original treatises on algebra, arithmetic and astrology. In the astrology text, longitudes are reckoned both from Toledo and Cremona. | Toledo, Spain | ![]() [1] Ptolemy, Almagest In Latin Translated by Gerard of Cremona Parchment Thirteenth century The most important medieval Latin translation of the Almagest, which is found in many manuscripts, was made from the Arabic in Spain in 1175 by Gerard of Cremona, the most prolific of all medieval translators from Arabic into Latin. PD source: http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/vati can/images/math11a.jpg ![]() [2] w opisie obrazka było ''A midwife and an assistant stand by at the birth of twins. Miniature from Chururgia, by Gerard of Cremona, twelfth century, Codex Series Nova 2641, fol 41 r. Osterreichische Nationalbibliothek, Vienna.'' PD source: http://www.freha.pl/lofiversion/ index.php?t8228.html |
834 YBN [1166 CE] | 1330) Ibn Rushd, known as Averroes (oVROEZ) (full name: Abu-Al-Walid Muhammad Ibn Ahmad Ibn Rushd) (Arabic: أبو الولي 3; محمد بن احمد بن رشد) (CE 1126 - 12/10/1198), physician and philosopher, writes an encyclopedia of health science, commentaries on most of Aristotle's surviving works, Plato's "Republic", and original philosophical works. Among Ibn Rushd's health science works are his original medical encyclopedia called "Kulliyat" ("Generalities", i.e. general medicine), known in Latin translation as "Colliget", a compilation of the works of Galen, and a verse commentary on Ibn Sina's "Qanun fi 't-tibb" (Canon of Medicine). Ibn Rushd writes commentaries on Arabic versions of most of the surviving works of Aristotle. Because Ibn Rushd has no access to any text of Aristotle's "Politics", as a substitute he comments on Plato's "Republic". Ibn Rushd's most important original philosophical work is "The Incoherence of the Incoherence" (Tahafut al-tahafut), in which he defends Aristotelian philosophy against al-Ghazali's claims in "The Incoherence of the Philosophers" (Tahafut al-falasifa). Al-Ghazali argued that Aristotelianism, especially as presented in the writings of Ibn Sina (Avicenna), is self-contradictory and an affront to the teachings of Islam. Ibn Rushd's (Averroes') argues that al-Ghazali's arguments are mistaken and that, in any case, the system of Ibn Sina was a distortion of genuine Aristotelianism. However, this work will not have as much influence on Arabic people as al-Ghazzali's original attack on philosophers does. Although I have not seen this mentioned before, part of this unfortunate rejection of ancient Greek science, may very well be a racial prejudice against ideas from Greek history versus ideas from Arabic history, in particular those from Muhammad as recorded in the Quran. In Europe, however, Ibn Rushd will be viewed as the most influential Arabic thinker, and most of Ibn Rushd's works survive today only in Latin and Hebrew instead of the original Arabic. Other works by Ibn Rushd are "the Fasl al-Maqal", which argues for the legality of philosophical investigation under Islamic law, and the "Kitab al-Kashf". Asimov wrote that after Averroes the Islamic world will enter a Dark Age, where scientific inquiry will be lost, just as the Christian world is emerging from a Dark Age. | Cordova, Spain | ![]() [1] Averroes, detail of the fourteenth-century Florentine artist Andrea Bonaiuto's Triunfo de Santo Tomás. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:AverroesColor.jpg ![]() [2] Averroes, a closeup of The School of Athens, a fresco by Raffaello Sanzio, 1509. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Averroes_closeup.jpg |
833 YBN [1167 CE] | 1340) The University of Oxford, the oldest university of the English-speaking nations is founded. There is no clear date of foundation, but teaching existed at Oxford in some form in 1096 and developed rapidly in this year, when Henry II bans English students from attending the University of Paris. After a dispute between students and townsfolk breaks out in 1209, some of the academics at Oxford move north-east to the town of Cambridge, where the University of Cambridge will be founded. | Oxford, England | ![]() [1] All Souls College quad COPYRIGHTED source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Oxford_University_Colleges-All_Souls_ quad.jpg ![]() [2] Oxford's 'Dreaming Spires' at sunset View of All Souls College and the Radcliffe Camera, Oxford, England COPYRIGHTED source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Oxfordskylinedawn.jpg |
830 YBN [1170 CE] | 1319) The University of Paris is founded around this time. The medieval University of Paris grows out of the cathedral schools of Notre-Dame and, like most other medieval universities, is a kind of corporate company that includes both professors and students. With papal support, Paris will soon become a center of Christian orthodox theological teaching. At the end of the 1200s and during the 1300s, it will be the most celebrated teaching center of all Europe. Its famous professors will include Alexander of Hales, St. Bonaventure, Albertus Magnus, and Thomas Aquinas. The university is originally divided into four faculties: three "superior," theology, canon law, and medicine (health); and one "inferior," arts. In the faculty of arts, the trivium (grammar, rhetoric, and dialectic) and the quadrivium (arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music) are taught together with general scientific, literary, and general culture. Aristotelian philosophy is an especially important field of study in the arts faculty. Each faculty is headed by a dean, and the dean of the faculty of arts will by the 1300s become the head of the collective university under the title of rector. The Faculty of Arts is the lowest in rank, but also the largest as students have to graduate there to be admitted to one of the higher faculties. The students there are divided into four nations according to language or regional origin, those of France, Normandy, Picard, and England, this last nation will later be known as the Alemannian (German) nation. Recruitment to each nation is wider than the names might imply: the English-German nation includes students from Scandinavia and Eastern Europe. Like other early medieval universities (for example the University of Bologna, the University of Oxford), but unlike later ones (such as the University of Prague or the University of Heidelberg), the University of Paris is established through a specific foundation act by a royal charter or papal bull. This University grows up in the latter part of the 12th century around the Notre Dame Cathedral as a business similar to other medieval businesses, such as guilds of merchants or artisans. The medieval Latin term universitas actually has the more general meaning of a guild, and the university of Paris is known as a universitas magistrorum et scholarium (a guild of masters and scholars). The faculty and nation system of the University of Paris (along with that of the University of Bologna) will become the model for all later medieval universities. Three schools were especially famous at Paris, the palatine or palace school, the school of Notre-Dame, and that of Sainte-Geneviève. The decline of royalty will bring about the decline of the palatine school. The other two, which will grow very old, like those of the cathedrals and the abbeys, will be only faintly outlined during the early centuries of their existence. The glory of the palatine school doubtless eclipses theirs, until in the course of time when it will completely gave way to them. | Paris, France | ![]() [1] The Sorbonne, Paris, in a 17th century engraving PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Sorbonne_17thc.jpg |
825 YBN [1175 CE] | 1341) The University of Modena in Italy is founded. | Modena and Reggio Emilia, Emilia-Romagna, Italy | ![]() [1] The see in Reggio Emilia PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Reggio_emilia_foro_boario_uni.jpg |
824 YBN [1176 CE] | 1334) Moshe (Moses) ben Maimon (Hebrew: משה בן מימון) (Arabic name: Abu Imran Mussa bin Maimun ibn Abdallah al-Qurtubi al-Israili (أبو عمران موسى بن ميمون بن عبد الله القرط 6;ي الإسر 5;ئيلي)) (Greek: Moses Maimonides (Μωυσής Μαϊμον^ 3;δης)), a Jewish philosopher and physician to Saladin, completes his "Guide to the Perplexed" in Arabic, which calls for a more rational philosophy of Judaism. writes "Guide for the Perplexed", where he speaks against astrology and tries to reconcile the Old Testament with the teaching of Aristotle. | ![]() [1] Commonly used image indicating one artist's conception of Maimonides's appearance Moses Maimonides, portrait, 19th century. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Maimonides-2.jpg ![]() [2] Statue of Maimonides in Córdoba, Spain GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Maimonides-Statue.jpg | |
820 YBN [1180 CE] | 1335) Alexander Neckam (neKeM), an English scholar at the University of Paris writes a book "De utensilibus" ("On Instruments") that is the first mention of a mariner's compass in Europe. Chinese people have been using a (magnetic) compass for at least 200 years by this time. Neckam writes "De naturis rerum" ("On the Natures of Things"), a two-part introduction to a commentary on the Book of Ecclesiastes, which contains miscellaneous scientific information new to western Europe but already known to educated people in Greek and Arabic nations. | ||
816 YBN [11/??/1184 CE] | 1153) The Inquisition starts when Pope Lucius III holds a synod at Verona, Italy, creating the shockingly brutal law that burning is to be the official punishment for heresy. Pope Lucius III holds a synod at Verona, Italy which condemns the Cathars, Paterines, Waldensians and Arnoldists, and anathematizes all those declared as heretics and their abettors. In order to effectively persecute them, Lucius III formally starts the Inquisition creating the shockingly brutal law that burning is to be the official punishment for heresy. The Medieval Inquisition is a term historians use to describe the various inquisitions that started around 1184, including the Episcopal Inquisition (1184-1230s) and later the Papal Inquisition (1230s). It was in response to large popular movements throughout Europe considered apostate or heretical to Christianity, in particular Catharism and Waldensians in southern France and northern Italy. These were the first inquisition movements of many that would follow. | Verona, Italy | ![]() [1] St Dominic (1170-1221[3]) presiding over an auto de fe, Spanish, 1475 Representation of an Auto de fe, (1475). [t I think this is a dubious claim, that people didn't stay around...they quickly leave when time for the burning...I doubt it:] Many artistic representations depict torture and the burning at the stake as occurring during the auto da fe. Actually, burning at the stake usually occurred after, not during the ceremonies. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Inquisition2.jpg |
805 YBN [1195 CE] | 1331) Ibn Rushd (Averroës) is banished to Lucena, possibly to gain undivided loyalty from the people before a jihad (holy war) against Christian Spain, or as Arabic sources claim to protect Ibn Rushd from attacks by people at the request of religious leaders. | Lucena, Spain | ![]() [1] Averroes, detail of the fourteenth-century Florentine artist Andrea Bonaiuto's Triunfo de Santo Tomás. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:AverroesColor.jpg ![]() [2] Averroes, a closeup of The School of Athens, a fresco by Raffaello Sanzio, 1509. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Averroes_closeup.jpg |
798 YBN [1202 CE] | 1393) Leonardo Fibonacci (FEBOnoCE), and Italian mathematician, writes "Liber Abaci" ("Book of the Abacus") in Latin, which explains the use of Indian-Arabic numerals, how position affects the value (positional or place-value notation) and the use of the number zero. Adelard of Bath had used arabic numerals, but this book in particular will contribute to the end in a few centuries of the "Roman numerals" which the Greeks and Romans had used (although Roman numerals are still rarely used). Fibonacci's name is known in modern times mainly because of the Fibonacci sequence, a series of numbers where the next number is the sum of the last two numbers, which is derived from a problem in the Liber abaci. | Pisa, Italy (guess based on:) | ![]() [1] Leonardo Pisano Fibonacci [t nice to find source an date of image] PD source: http://www.mathekiste.de/fibonac ci/fibonacci.jpg ![]() [2] Leonardo da Pisa, detto Fibonacci (1170 -1250) PD source: http://alpha01.dm.unito.it/perso nalpages/cerruti/primi/primigrandi/fibon acci.html |
792 YBN [1208 CE] | 1392) Robert Grosseteste (GrOSTeST), (CE c1175-1253), English scholar and teacher of Roger Bacon, is the first person to write, in his scientific treatise "De Luce" (Concerning light), that light is the basis of all matter (although Grosseteste does not explicitly describe light as being made of particles he does mention atomic theory). This theory will still not be publicly recognized as true by the majority of people 750 years later today. Possibly this is just an unfounded guess, and/or an extension of the biblical text describing a god commanding "Let there by light". In "De Luce", Grosstest writes "Lux est ergo prima forma corporalis.", "Light is therefore the first corporeal (material) form". While "De Luce" is filled with complex mystical inaccurate beliefs (such as Grosseteste's conclusion that "ten is the perfect number in the universe"), there are many statements that reveal Grosseteste's smart views such as "light is not a form that comes after corporeity (the state of materialness), but it is corporeity itself.", . Grossetest brings in scholars from the Byzantine Empire to translate works from the original Greek. Interested in optics, Grosseteste performs experiments with mirrors and lenses using al-Haytham's (Alhazen's) writings as a guide. From about 1220 to 1235 Grosseteste writes a number of scientific treatises including: * De sphera. An introductory text on astronomy. * De luce. On the "metaphysics of light." * De accessione et recessione maris. On tides and tidal movements. * De lineis, angulis et figuris. Mathematical reasoning in the natural sciences. * De iride. On the rainbow. He also wrote a number of commentaries on Aristotle, including the first in the West of Posterior Analytics, and one on Aristotle's Physics. As bishop, Grosseteste will translate the Nicomachean Ethics, making this important work available to the West in its entirety for the first time. Grosseteste concludes that mathematics is the highest of all sciences, and the basis for all others, since every natural science ultimately depended on mathematics. Grossteste believes light to be the "first form" of all things, and the source of all generation and motion (approximately what we know as biology and physics today). In "De Iride" ("On the rainbow") Grosseteste writes: "This part of optics, when well understood, shows us how we may make things a very long distance off appear as if placed very close, and large near things appear very small, and how we may make small things placed at a distance appear any size we want, so that it may be possible for us to read the smallest letters at incredible distances, or to count sand, or seed, or any sort or minute objects." Gresseteste's work in optics will be continued by his student Roger Bacon. In "De Luce" Grosseteste reveals his awareness of atomic theory writing: "It is my opinion that this was the meaning of the theory of those philosophers who held that everything is composed of atoms, and said that bodies are composed of surfaces, and surfaces of lines, and lines of points." | Lincoln, England (where de luce is written) | ![]() [1] Portrait of Robert Grosseteste, Bishop of Lincoln, seated with mitre and crozier; his right hand raised in blessing. Produced in England - 13th century Record Number: c6400-05 Shelfmark: Harley 3860 Page Folio Number: f.48 Description: [Detail] Portrait of Robert Grosseteste, Bishop of Lincoln, seated with mitre and crozier; his right hand raised in blessing. The Articles of the Christian Faith according to Bishop Grosseteste, in French verse Title of Work: - Author: Grosseteste, Robert Illustrator: - Production: England; 13th century Language/Script: Latin and French / - [t notice the crossed eyes, perhaps reputation as insane for proscience views?] PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Grosseteste_bishop.jpg ![]() [2] Record Number: 19885 Shelfmark: Royal 6 E. V Page Folio Number: f.6 Description: [Miniature only] Initial 'A', portrait of Robert Grosseteste, Bishop of Lincoln. The beginning of one of the bishop's sermons Title of Work: Works of Robert Grosseteste, Bishop of Lincoln Author: Grosseteste, Robert Illustrator: - Production: England; 15th century Language/Script: Latin / - PD source: http://www.imagesonline.bl.uk/br itishlibrary/controller/textsearch?text= grosseteste&y=0&x=0&startid=31330&width= 4&height=2&idx=2 |
791 YBN [1209 CE] | 1342) The University of Cambridge in England is founded. Early records suggest, in this year scholars leave Oxford after a dispute with local townsfolk over a killing. | Cambridge, England | ![]() [1] The town centre of Cambridge with the University Church (Great St Mary's) on the right, the Senate House of Cambridge University on the left, and Gonville and Caius College in the middle at the back. CC source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:CambridgeTownCentre.jpg ![]() [2] Photograph of Cambridge colleges seen from St Johns College Chapel PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Cam_colls_from_johns.jpg |
788 YBN [1212 CE] | 1343) The University of Valladolid is founded. This is the earliest and oldest University in Spain. | Valladolid province of the autonomous region of Castile-Leon,in northern Spain. | ![]() [1] Statue of Cervantes in the University Square, opposite to the Faculty of Law. GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Cervantes_Valladolid_lou.jpg |
785 YBN [06/15/1215 CE] | 1520) The Magna Carta is signed, limiting the power of the King of England. | Runnymede, England | ![]() [1] # Magna Carta. This is not the original charter signed by John of England, which has been lost (though four copies survive), but the version issued in 1225 by Henry III of England and preserved in the UK's National Archives. # Quelle: http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathw ays/citizenship/images/citizen_subject/m agna_carta.jpg PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Magna_Carta.jpg ![]() [2] John of England signs Magna Carta Image from Cassell's History of England - Century Edition - published circa 1902 PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:King_John_of_England_signs_the_Magna_ Carta_-_Illustration_from_Cassell%27s_Hi story_of_England_-_Century_Edition_-_pub lished_circa_1902.jpg |
782 YBN [1218 CE] | 1344) The University of Salamanca is founded. | Salamanca, west of Madrid, Spain | ![]() [1] Plateresque facade of the University GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:University_of_Salamanca.jpg |
780 YBN [1220 CE] | 1345) The University of Montpelier is founded. | Montpellier in the Languedoc-Roussillon région of the south of France. | ![]() [1] The University of Montpellier is one of the oldest in France, having been granted a charter in 1220 by Cardinal Conrad von Urach and confirmed by Pope Nicholas IV in a papal bull of 1289. COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.bbc.co.uk/herefordand worcester/content/image_galleries/montpe llier_photo_gallery.shtml?17 |
778 YBN [1222 CE] | 1346) The University of Padua (Italian Università degli Studi di Padova, UNIPD) is founded. Padua is the second oldest University in Italy after the University of Bologna. The university is founded in 1222 when a large group of students and professors leave the University of Bologna in search of more academic freedom. | Padua, Italy | ![]() [1] Ornate ceiling in the conference auditorium. University of Padua, Padua, Italy, January 31, 2003 COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.big6.com/showarticle. php?id=342 ![]() [2] University of Padua, anatomical theater, from Jacob Tomasini''s Gymnasium Patavinum, 1654. Major, 327, 347 PD source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/rm /major_17th.htm |
776 YBN [06/05/1224 CE] | 1347) The University of Naples Federico II is founded by the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire Frederick II. | Naples, Italy | ![]() [1] Main building, university of Naples, Federico II PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Uninap.JPG |
773 YBN [1227 CE] | 1400) Michael Scot, in Frederick II's court, translates from Arabic to Latin many of the Arabic translations and commentaries of Aristotle's works by people such as Ibn Rushd (Averroes) and Ibn Sina (Avicenna). Frederick II urges Scot to spread his translations to the universities of Europe. | Sicily | |
771 YBN [1229 CE] | 1348) The University of Toulouse (TUlUS) is founded. The formation of the University of Toulouse is imposed on Count Raymond VII as a part of the Treaty of Paris in 1229 ending the crusade against the Albigensians. Suspected of sympathizing with the heretics, Raymond VII has to finance the teaching of theology. | Toulouse, France | ![]() [1] Toulouse, le Capitole COPYRIGHTED FRANCE source: http://w3.univ-tlse2.fr/pac/iclc e.toulouse/photos/index.1.jpg |
767 YBN [1233 CE] | 1396) Albertus Magnus (Albert the great) (1193-1280), German scholar and teacher of Thomas Aquinas, recognizes that the Milky Way is composed of many stars, compiles a list of a hundred minerals, and recognizes the existence of fossils. | Paris, France | ![]() [1] Albertus Magnus (fresco, 1352, Treviso, Italy) by Tommaso da Modena (1326-1379) 1352 PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:AlbertusMagnus.jpg ![]() [2] Painting by Joos (Justus) van Gent, Urbino, ~ 1475 PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Albertus_Magnus_Painting_by_Joos_van_ Gent.jpeg |
766 YBN [1234 CE] | 1125) The movable type metal printing press is invented in Korea. | Korea | |
766 YBN [1234 CE] | 1399) Frederick II, the German Holy Roman Emperor, (1194-1250), expreses antireligious views, funds and corresponds with many scholars. Frederick II keeps company with people of any race and religion. Frederick II keeps a traveling zoo that includes monkeys, camels, a giraffe and an elephant. Frederick writes "De arte venandi cum avibus", a standard work on falconry based entirely on his own experimental research. In this book Frederick describes hundreds of kinds of birds, their anatomy, physiology, and behavior. The book also includes illustrations. Asimov describes Frederick II as atheist and makes no distinctions between religions, although in 1220 issues laws against heretics. Frederick is supposed to have joked that Moses, Christ, and Muhammad were three impostors who had themselves been fooled. Frederick is in his own time as "Stupor mundi" ("wonder of the world"), and is said to speak nine languages and be literate in seven at a time when some monarchs and nobles cannot read or write. Frederick is a ruler very much ahead of his time, being an avid patron of science and the arts. | Sicily | ![]() [1] * Frederick II and his falcon. * From his book De arte venandi cum avibus (''The art of hunting with birds). From a manuscript in Biblioteca Vaticana, Pal. lat 1071), late 13th century PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Frederick_II_and_eagle.jpg ![]() [2] L'Islam in Italia, DeAgostini - Rizzoli periodici An image from an old copy of De arte venandi cum avibus PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:De_Venandi_com_Avibus.jpg |
760 YBN [1240 CE] | 1349) The University of Sienna is founded. | Siena, Tuscany, Italy | ![]() [1] University of Siena COPYRIGHTED ITALY source: http://www.elet.polimi.it/confer ences/siena2003/home2.html |
758 YBN [1242 CE] | 1403) Roger Bacon (c1220-1292), is the first person in Europe to give exact directions for making gunpowder, in a letter "De nullitate magiæ" at Oxford. Bacon may have learned about gunpowder from an Arab trader. Bacon writes that if confined, gunpowder would have great power and might be useful in war, but fails to speculate further. The use of gunpowder in guns in Europe happens early in the next century. | Oxford, England | ![]() [1] Roger Bacon Library of Congress PD source: http://www.answers.com/roger%20b acon ![]() [2] Statue of Roger Bacon in the Oxford University Museum of Natural History. 2004 GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Roger-bacon-statue.jpg |
748 YBN [1252 CE] | 1416) Alfonso X of Castille (1221-1284), a Spanish monarch, founds schools, and encourages learning. Alfonso orders the creation of the Alfonsine Tables, astronomical tables based on the Toledo tables but revised for more accuracy. These astronomical tables will be used for more than 300 years. Alfonso sponsors the writing of the first history of Spain and translations of the Koran and Talmud. | Castile, Spain | ![]() [1] Español: Alfonso X el Sabio Alfonso X el Sabio (Toledo 1221-Sevilla 1284), rey de Castilla y de León (en la actual España) (1252-1284). From en.wiki: * Alfonso X of Castile from the Libro des Juegas. Scanned from Four Gothic Kings, Elizabeth Hallam ed. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:LibroDesJuegasAlfonXAndCourt.jpg ![]() [2] Statue of Alfonso X of Castile (1221â€''1284) at the entrance staircase of the National Library of Spain, in Madrid. Sculpted by José Alcoverro y Amorós (1835â€''1910) in 1892. 2006 CC source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Alfonso_X_el_Sabio_%28Jos%C3%A9_Alcov erro%29_01.jpg |
741 YBN [1259 CE] | 1412) Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (full: Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn al-Hasan al-Tusi) (CE 1201-1274), as scientific adviser to Hülegü Khan (c. 1217-1265), grandson of Genghis Khan, al-Tusi convinces Khan to construct an observatory in Maragheh (now in Azerbaijan). | in Maragheh (now in Azerbaijan) | ![]() [1] Stamp issued in 1956 by Iran picturing Nasir al-Din Tusi, astronomer Source scan of stamp 30 May 2006 Date issued 1956 Author Iran PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Nasir_al-Din_Tusi.jpg ![]() [2] Tusi couple - 13th century CE sketch by Nasir al-Din Tusi. Generates a linear motion as a sum of two circular motions. Invented for Tusi's planetary model. Online source: Pearson Prentice Hall Companion Website for Astronomy Today Original source: Library of Congress Vatican Exhibit (Vat. Arabic ms 319, fol. 28 verso) PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Tusi_couple.jpg |
737 YBN [1263 CE] | 1417) Taddeo Alderotti (CE 1223-c1295), an Italian physician, writes "Consilia", which describes clinical case studies, and writes one of the first health works in the vernacular Italian language "Sulla conservazione della salute" a family health encyclopedia. | Bologna, Italy | ![]() [1] Taddeo Alderotti PD source: http://www3.unibo.it/avl/english /biogr/bio2.htm ![]() [2] Biografie di medici medievali [t Biography of medieval medicine, it looks just like a contemporary image of some physicians, maybe at a health school?] PD source: http://www.accademiajr.it/medweb /biografie.html |
735 YBN [01/20/1265 CE] | 1525) The first Parliament where members are required to be elected, formed by Simon de Montfort (c1208-1265) without royal approval, meets in England. | Rome, Italy | ![]() [1] Relief of Simon de Montfort, by Gaetano Cecere (1950), in United States House of Representatives Chamber. Agency: Architect of the Capitol PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Demontfort.jpg |
735 YBN [1265 CE] | 1418) Thomas Aquinas (uKWInuS) (c1225-1274), an Italian theologian, with others promote the idea first identified by Ibn Rushd (Averroes) that reason and faith can coexist and each operate according to their own laws. This is a step forward in the eventual complete replacement of religion with science, faith with logic. | Paris, France | ![]() [1] Depiction of St. Thomas Aquinas from the Demidoff Altarpiece by Carlo Crivelli. [t bald head is shaved or naturally like this?] Depiction of St. Thomas Aquinas from The Demidoff Altarpiece by Carlo Crivelli Name: Thomas Aquinas Birth: ca. 1225 (Castle of Roccasecca, near Aquino, Italy) Death: 7 March 1274 (Fossanova Abbey, Lazio, Italy) School/tradition: Scholasticism, Founder of Thomism Main interests: Metaphysics (incl. Theology), Logic, Mind, Epistemology, Ethics, Politics Notable ideas: Five Proofs for God's Existence, Principle of double effect Influences: Aristotle, Albertus Magnus, Boethius, Eriugena, Anselm, Averroes, Maimonides, St. Augustine,Al-Ghazzali Influenced: Giles of Rome, Godfrey of Fontaines, Jacques Maritain, G. E. M. Anscombe, John Locke, Dante PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:St-thomas-aquinas.jpg ![]() [2] St. Thomas Aquinas, by Fra Angelico Title: ''Saint Thomas Aquinas'' Artist: Fra Angelico (1395 â€'' 1455) Description: During the 13th century, Saint Thomas Aquinas sought to reconcile Aristotelian philosophy with Augustinian theology. Aquinas employed both reason and faith in the study of metaphysics, moral philosophy, and religion. While Aquinas accepted the existence of God on faith, he offered five proofs of God’s existence to support such a belief. Source: http://www.cptryon.org/prayer/special/gu idaquin.html PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Saint_Thomas_Aquinas.jpg |
733 YBN [1267 CE] | 1401) Roger Bacon (c1220-1292), English scholar, writes "Opus Majus", an 840 page book in Latin, an encylopedia of all aspects of natural science, from grammar and logic to mathematics, physics, and philosophy. "Opus Majus" is the first work that proposes mechanically propelled ships and carriages. "Opus Majus" also mentions the use of spectacles which soon come into use (although magnifying glasses for reading are already in use in China and Europe at this time), and describes the principles of reflection, refraction, and spherical aberration. "Opus Majus" contains what may be the first description of a telescope. Bacon suggests that a balloon of thin copper sheet filled with "liquid fire" would float in the air as many light objects do in water and seriously studies the problem of flying in a machine with flapping wings. Bacon denounces magic, but believes in astrology and alchemy. Bacon suggests that the earth can be circumnavigated. Ancient Greek people such as the Pythagoreans viewed the earth as a sphere and Eratosthenes was the first to accurately calculate the size of the spherical earth. Columbus will quote this suggestion from Bacon in a letter to Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. In 300 years Magellan will be the first to circumnavigate the earth. Bacon estimates that the outermost heavenly sphere, the sphere with the stars is 130 million miles (units) from earth, far short of the actual distance to any star other than the sun, but such a guess is rare, and probably inspires other people to wonder. Following Grosseteste, Bacon constructs magnifying glasses. Bacon writes that lenses can correct the vision of those who are farsighted (cannot see close objects). In Europe eyeglasses first appeared in Italy, their introduction being attributed to Alessandro di Spina of Florence. Bacon recognizes the flaw in the Julian calendar. Between 1777 and 1779 Bacon will be imprisoned and his works ordered supressed. His greatest book "Opus Majus" will not be printed until 1733. | Oxford, England | ![]() [1] Roger Bacon Library of Congress PD source: http://www.answers.com/roger%20b acon ![]() [2] Statue of Roger Bacon in the Oxford University Museum of Natural History. 2004 GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Roger-bacon-statue.jpg |
732 YBN [1268 CE] | 1147) Mortars with metal tubes (made of iron or bronze) first appeared in the wars between the Mongols and the Song Dynasty (1268-1279). | China | ![]() [1] A Mongol bomb thrown against a charging Japanese samurai during the Mongol Invasions of Japan, 1281. Suenaga facing Mongol arrows and bombs. From MokoShuraiEkotoba (蒙古襲来絵 ;詞), circa 1293, 13th century. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Mooko-Suenaga.jpg |
731 YBN [08/08/1269 CE] | 1420) French: Pierre Pèlerin de Maricourt, (Latin: Petrus Peregrinus de Maharncuria) ("Peter the Pilgrim from Maricourt") (PruGrINuS) (c1240-?), a French scholar, writes the first known treatise describing the properties of magnets. Pelerin tries to build a motor to keep a planetarium designed by Archimedes moving for a period of time by using magnetic force (in my opinion the magnetic force is actually the electric force). This is the first recorded suggestion that magnetic force might be used as a source of power like water, and air. Peregrinus attempts to prove that magnets can be used to realize perpetual motion. I think some time in the future, if not already, permanent magnets, arranged perhaps in a circle, may constantly turn another magnet or piece of metal, as a virutal perpetual motion machine, because the source of magnetic force in a permanent magnet appears to last for a very long time and may be able to even overpower the friction of turning. The force of gravity is another force that appears to last for many millions of years. Peregrinus writes his treatise to a friend while serving as an engineer in the army of Charles I of Anjou during a siege of Lucera (in Italy) in a "crusade" sanctioned by the Pope. In this treatise Peregrinus describes how to determine the north and south pole of a bar magnet (explain how), that like poles repel each other and opposite poles attract each other, and that a pole cannot be isolated by breaking a magnet, because each half is then a complete magnet with both a north and south pole. Peregrinus improves the compass by placing the magnetic needle on a pivot instead of allowing the needle to float on a piece of cork, and surrounding the pivot point with a circular scale to allow direction to be read more accurately. This improvement will help those navigating and exploring. Peregrinus is one of few medeival scholars to practice experiment. My feeling is that a permanent magnet has a current running through it creating an electric field which may be the actual explanation for the so-called magnetic field of a permanent magnet. | Lucera, Italy | ![]() [1] Pivoting compass needle in a 14th century handcopy of Peter's Epistola de magnete (1269) PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Epistola-de-magnete.jpg |
730 YBN [12/??/1270 CE] | 1405) The Condemnation of 1270 is enacted by Bishop Étienne (Stephen) Tempier, which lists thirteen doctrines held by "radical Aristotelians" as heretical and that anybody that practices or teaches them would be faced with the punishment of the Inquisition. The banned propositions are related to Ibn Rushd's (Latin Averroes') theory of the soul and the doctrine of monopsychism (that all humans share one eternal soul, mind, or intellect). Other propositions banned included Aristotle's theory of God as a passive Unmoved Mover. Conservative forces in the Church attempted to use the Condemnation for political purposes to stop, or at least control and contain, supposed threats to questions of theology posed by Aristotelian reason. In particular the Condemnation targeted such radical scholars as Siger of Brabant, a teacher at the University of Paris that is one of the inventors and major proponents of Averroism, Averrois' interpretation of Aristotle. In 7 years Tempier will enact a second list of condemnations, the Condemnation of 1277. | Paris, France | |
725 YBN [1275 CE] | 1419) Arnold of Villanova (CE 1235-1311), Spanish alchemist and physician, is the first to recognize that wood burning with poor ventilation gives rise to poisonous fumes, so Villanova is the first to describe carbon monoxide. Some claim that Villanova is the first to prepare (distill?) pure alcohol. | Paris, France | ![]() [1] Arnaldus de Villanova PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Arnaldus_de_Villanova.jpeg |
723 YBN [1277 CE] | 1404) Some time from 1277 and 1279 Roger Bacon (c1220-1292), Bacon is placed under house arrest by Jerome of Ascoli, the Minister-General of the Franciscan Order (later to be Pope Nicholas IV), and Bacon's works are ordered supressed. His greatest book "Opus Majus" will not be printed until 1733. | Oxford, England | ![]() [1] Roger Bacon Library of Congress PD source: http://www.answers.com/roger%20b acon ![]() [2] Statue of Roger Bacon in the Oxford University Museum of Natural History. 2004 GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Roger-bacon-statue.jpg |
723 YBN [1277 CE] | 1406) The Condemnation of 1277 is enacted by Bishop Tempier of Paris. These Condemnations list 219 banned propositions. Propositions banned included statements on Aristotle's "Physics": that God could not make several worlds or universes; that God could not move a spherical heavens with a rectilinear motion; that God could not make two bodies exist in the same place at once. 12 of these propositions are theses of Aquinas and these condemnations will eventually lead to a direct attack on the works of Thomas Aquinas. | Paris, France | |
719 YBN [1281 CE] | 1413) Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi (CE 1236-1311), student of Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, writes a commentary on Ibn Sin'a "Canon", and composes numerous works on optics, geometry, astronomy, geography and philosophy. In "The Limit of Accomplishment concerning Knowledge of the Heavens", Qutb al-Din also discusses the possibility of heliocentrism. | Maragha, Iran | ![]() [1] Photo taken from medieval manuscript by Qotbeddin Shirazi. The image depicts an epicyclic planetary model. Name: Title: Birth: 1236CE death: 1311CE Maddhab: Sufi Main interests: Mathematics, Astronomy, medicine, science and philosophy works: Almagest, The Royal Present ,Pearly Crown, etc Influences: Nasir al-Din Tusi, Ibn al-Haytham and Suhrawardi Picture taken by Zereshk from old manuscript of Qotbeddin Shirazi's treatise. GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Ghotb2.jpg |
710 YBN [1290 CE] | 1350) The University of Coimbra (Portuguese: Universidade de Coimbra) is founded. | Coimbra, Portugal | ![]() [1] The tower of the University of Coimbra (left) PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Coimbra_University_Tower_2.jpg |
703 YBN [1297 CE] | 1422) Pietro D'Abano (DoBoNO) (1257-c1315), an Italian physician, writes "Conciliator", in which he describes the brain as the source of nerves, and the heart as the source of the blood vessels. D'Abano recognizes that air has weight, and makes a very accurate estimate of the length of a year. D'Abano will be brought twice before the Inquisition for heresy, magic, and atheism because he rejects the miraculous aspects of the gospel tales. D'Abano is acquitted the first time and dies in prison during the course of the second trial. | Padua, Italy | ![]() [1] Pietro d'Abano PD source: http://www.filosofico.net/pietro abano.htm ![]() [2] Pietro D'Abano A Rural Dalliance Illustration from an illuminated manuscript of his Commentary on Aristotle's Problems, 1315 PD source: http://www.androphile.org/previe w/Museum/Europe/pietro_abano-dalliance.h tml |
702 YBN [1298 CE] | 1421) Marco Polo (c1254-1324), Italian explorer, writes a book "Il milione" ("the Millions"), known in English as "the Travels of Marco Polo", describing the use of coal, paper money and asbestos while in prison. Columbus will be inspired by Polo's book into seeking the riches of the Indies. Marco Polo is one of the few people from Europe to visit China. | Genoa, Italy | ![]() [1] Marco Polo in Tatar attire. The Granger Collection, New York PD source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art -13534?articleTypeId=1 ![]() [2] Marco Polo leaving Venice on his way to China (Platt 97) PD source: http://www.susqu.edu/history/med trav/MarcoPolo/images.htm |
697 YBN [1303 CE] | 1351) The University of Rome "La Sapienza" (Italian: Università degli Studi di Roma "La Sapienza") is founded. The University of Rome La Sapienza is the largest European university and the most ancient of Rome's three public universities. In Italian, Sapienza means "wisdom" or "knowledge". La Sapienza is founded in 1303 by Pope Boniface VIII, as a Studium for ecclesiastical studies more under his control than the universities of Bologna and Padua. | Coimbra, Portugal | ![]() [1] Church of Sant'Ivo alla Sapienza, by Borromini, originally a chapel of the La Sapienza see. GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Borromini_SantIvo.jpg ![]() [2] The statue of Minerva in la Sapienza University, Rome PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:MinervaSapienza.JPG |
692 YBN [09/08/1308 CE] | 1352) The University of Perugia (Italian: Università degli Studi di Perugia) is founded. One of the "free" universities of Italy, the University of Perugia is erected into a studium generale on September 8, 1308, by the Bull "Super specula" of Clement V. | Perugia, Italy | ![]() [1] Logo for U of Perudia COPYRIGHTED EDU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Unipg.gif ![]() [2] ''Perugia is a poetic, university city, one of the beautiful, learned cities of old Italy.'' George Sand, 1855. COPYRIGHTED EDU source: http://www.sbu.edu/images/pics_g allery_2.jpg |
690 YBN [1310 CE] | 1424) False Geber (c1270-?), an unknown alchemist writing under the name of Jabir (Ibn Haiyan), is the first to describe sulfuric acid and other strong acids. Before this viniger is the strongest acid known. | Spain | |
684 YBN [1316 CE] | 1428) Mondino De' Luzzi (MoNDEnO DA lUTSE) (c1275-1326), an Italian anatomist, does his own dissections (unlike previous physicians who lectured from a high platform while an assistant conducted the actual autopsy, which continues after Mondino for 200 years until Vesalius), and in 1316 writes "Anathomia Mundini", the first book devoted entirely to anatomy. Mondino De' Luzzi makes advances in describing the anatomy of the organs in the reproductive system. | Bologna, Italy | ![]() [1] Mondino da Luzzi supervising an autopsy Johannes de Ketham Fasciculo di Medicina, Venice, 1493, engraving National Library of Medicine, USA PD source: http://www.afip.org/Departments/ HepGastr_dept/sobin/chap2.htm ![]() [2] Autopsy with prosector and physician Anathomia, Mondino da Luzzi, 1495 engraving National Library of Medicine, USA PD source: http://www.afip.org/Departments/ HepGastr_dept/sobin/chap3.htm |
683 YBN [1317 CE] | 1427) William of Ockham (oKuM) (CE c1285-1349), English scholar, correctly rejects Plato's view that observed objects are only imperfect copies of reality, opting for the view that objects we observe are real, and that Plato's philosophy is abstraction. Ockham (skeptical of the constant adding of more items required to make theories work) writes that "Entities must not needlessly be multiplied", which will come to be called "Okham's razor", basically meaning that of two arguments the simplest is probably the more accurate. | Oxford, England | ![]() [1] William of Ockham (also Occam or any of several other spellings) (ca. 1285â€''1349) was an English Franciscan friar and philosopher, from Ockham, a small village in Surrey, near East Horsley. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Occam.jpg ![]() [2] Sketch labelled 'frater Occham iste', from a manuscipt of Ockham's 'Summa Logicae', 1341 PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:William_of_Ockham_-_Logica_-_1341.jpg |
673 YBN [1327 CE] | 1353) Sankoré Madrasah, The University of Sankoré is founded. The Mali Empire gained direct control over the city of Timbuktu in 1324 during the reign of Mansa Kankan Musa. A royal lady financed Musa'a plans to turn Sankoré into a world class learning institution with professors on par with any outside of Africa. Upon returning from his famous Hajj, Musa brought the Granada architect Abu Ishaq es Saheli from Egypt to build mosques and palaces throughout the empire. | Timbuktu, Mali, West Africa | ![]() [1] Doors of the Sankore Madrash WIKI COMMONS (GNU) source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Medersa_Sankore.jpg |
665 YBN [1335 CE] | 1354) The University of Zaragosa is founded. | Zaragosa, Spain | ![]() [1] The building of the Ancient Faculty of Medicine and Sciences in Zaragoza, now called Paraninfo. GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Zaragoza_-_Antigua_Facultad_de_Medici na_-_Fachada.JPG ![]() [2] Coat of arms of the University of Zaragoza COPYRIGHTED EDU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Unizar.gif |
665 YBN [1335 CE] | 1425) Jean Buridan (BYUrEDoN) (c1295-c1358), French philosopher, revises Aristotle's theory of motion, which states that an object needs a continuous force to keep the object moving, arguing instead that an initial force on an object is all that is needed and that the motion then continues indefinitely. John Philoponus (6th c. CE) had reached a similar conclusion in his commentary on Aristotle's "Physics", as had Hipparchos (2nd c. BCE) and Synesios (4th c. CE) before him. Buridan then applies this concept to the so-called spheres of heaven, saying once put into motion by a god, the motion of the spheres would continue forever, and do not need angels to keep them moving (as, shockingly, is the common belief, among those who care). | Paris, France | ![]() [1] The Index Librorum Prohibitorum (''List of Prohibited Books'') is a list of publications which the Catholic Church censored for being a danger to itself and its members. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Index_Librorum_Prohibitorum_1.jpg ![]() [2] Jean Buridan (1300-1358) “O dinheiro, portanto, é um bem do mercado, e o valor desse dinheiro, como nos outros casos de bens do mercado, deve ser mensurado pela necessidade humana. Os valores dos bens de troca são proporcionados pela necessidade humanaâ€Â. PD source: http://www.cieep.org.br/images/b uridanbio.jpg |
664 YBN [1336 CE] | 1355) The University of Camerino is founded. | Camerino, Italy | ![]() [1] aerial image of U of Camerino COPYRIGHTED EDU source: http://www.unicam.it/discichi/cr istalliteam/camerino-01.bmp ![]() [2] U of Camerino COPYRIGHTED EDU source: http://www.unicam.it/discichi/cr istalliteam/dove.htm |
657 YBN [09/03/1343 CE] | 1356) The University of Pisa is founded. The University of Pisa is founded by an edict of Pope Clement VI on this day, although there had been lectures on law in Pisa since the 11th century. | Pisa, Italy | ![]() [1] The Tower of Pisa. GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lea ning_Tower_of_Pisa ![]() [2] Miracoli? COPYRIGHTED EDU source: http://krasnow.gmu.edu/L-Neuron/ ascoli/miracoli.jpg |
652 YBN [04/07/1348 CE] | 1357) The Charles University in Prague is founded. Charles University (Czech: Univerzita Karlova; Latin: Universitas Carolina) is the oldest university in the Czech Republic. On April 7 of 1348, Charles I, the King of Bohemia (later known as Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor) issues a Golden Bull (transcription of the Latin original) granting the University of Prague its privileges. A minority however sees the papal bull of Pope Clement VI on January 26 of 1347 as primary. Charles University is based on the model of the University of Paris. | Prague, Czech Republic (EU) | ![]() [1] Seal of the Charles University of Prague. Source: http://www.evropa.wz.cz/Czech_rep/pages/ mesta/imagescr/pecet.u.karlovy.jpg COPY RIGHTED EDU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Seal_of_Charles_University_of_Prague. png ![]() [2] Monument to the founder of the university, Emperor Charles IV GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Charles_IV._2003-12-24.jpg |
640 YBN [1360 CE] | 1977) Nicholas Oresme (OrAM) (CE c1320-1382), French Roman Catholic bishop and scholar understands the movement of uniformly accelerated motion. | Paris, France (presumably) | ![]() [1] Nicole Oresme Miniature of Nicole Oresmes Traité de l''espere, Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, France, fonds français 565, fol. 1r. from: http://www.math.uqam.ca/_charbonneau/GRM S04/RepresentBasMA.htm Portrait of Nicole Oresme: Miniature of Nicole Oresme's Traité de l''espere, Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, France, fonds français 565, fol. 1r. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Oresme-Nicole.jpg ![]() [2] Nicole Oresme Miniature of Nicole Oresmes Traité de l''espere, Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, France, fonds français 565, fol. 1r. PD source: http://www.nicole-oresme.com/sei ten/chronology.html |
639 YBN [1361 CE] | 1358) The University of Pavia (Italian: Università degli Studi di Pavia, UNIPV) is founded. An edict issued by King Lotarius quotes a higher education institution in Pavia as already established 825 CE. This institution, mainly devoted to ecclesiastical and civil law as well as to divinity studies. The University of Pavia is officially established as a studium generale by Emperor Charles IV in 1361. | Pavia, Itlay | ![]() [1] Box 1 source: http://www.nature.com/nrm/journa l/v2/n10/slideshow/nrm1001-776a_bx1.html |
636 YBN [1364 CE] | 1359) Jagiellonian University (Polish: Uniwersytet Jagielloński) is founded. Jagiellonian University is the first university in Poland and is the second oldest university in Central Europe behind The University of Prague. For much of its history, this university is known as the Cracow Academy, but in the 1800s the university is renamed to commemorate the Jagiellonian dynasty of Polish kings. Jagiellonian University is founded by Casimir III the Great as Akademia Krakowska. | ![]() [1] Monument to Nicolaus Copernicus next to the Jagiellonian University's Collegium Novum (New College) in Kraków CC source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Kopernikus_nikolaus_krakau.jpg ![]() [2] The Jagiellonian University in the south of Poland is a modern university. The city of Crakow attracts many young people, especially the main square is a popular meeting place COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.phlinz.at/typo3/filea dmin/paedak_upload/technik/Crakow.jpg | |
635 YBN [03/12/1365 CE] | 1360) The University of Vienna (German: Universität Wien) is founded. The University is founded March 12, 1365 by Duke Rudolph IV and his brothers Albert III and Leopold III. The University of Vienna is the oldest University in the German-speaking world. | Vienna, Austria | ![]() [1] The University of Vienna main building at the Ringstraße in Vienna CC source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Universit%C3%A4t_Vienna_June_2006_164 .jpg ![]() [2] Interior view of the main library reading hall (Hauptlesesaal) of the University of Vienna PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Uni_Wien_Bibliothek%2C_Vienna_2.jpg |
633 YBN [03/12/1367 CE] | 1361) The University of Pécs in Hungary is founded. The University of Pécs is the oldest university in Hungary. The Anjou king Louis the Great establishes it in 1367. | Pécs, Hungary | ![]() [1] Humanities building at University of P�cs COPYRIGHTED EDU source: http://www.fredonia.edu/departme nt/communication/schwalbe/hungary.htm |
632 YBN [1368 CE] | 1167) The earliest evidence {what it is I don't yet know} of the bamboo gun being replaced with bronze, which makes this the first metal gun and cannon, known as the Huochong, more reliable and powerful than the bamboo gun. During wartime, the Chinese used the metal cannons heavily in defence against the Mongols. Afterward, the Mongols will further improve the qualities of the Huochong, making it more deadly. | China | |
621 YBN [1379 CE] | 1414) Ibn KhaldÅ«n (full name: Wali al-Din 'Abd al-Rahman ibn Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr Muhammad ibn al-Hasan Ibn Khaldun) (Arabic: ابو زيد عبد الرØمن بن Ù…Øمد بن خلدون) (CE 1332-1406), writes "Muqaddimah" ("Introduction") an introductory to the philsophy of history, and starts a very large history, "Kitab al-'Ibar", the best single source on the history of Islamic North Africa. | the castle Qal'at ibn Salamah, near what is now the town of Frenda, Algeria | ![]() [1] Ibn Khaldun on a Tunisian postage stamp Name: Ibn Khaldun Birth: 27 May, 1332/732 AH Death: 19 March 1406/808 AH School/tradition: Main interests: History, Historiography, Demography, Economics, Philosophy of History, Sociology Notable ideas: Asabiyah Influences: Influenced: Al-Maqrizi PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Khaldun.jpg ![]() [2] Statue of Ibn Khaldoun in Tunis 2004 PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Ibn_Khaldoun.jpg |
614 YBN [1386 CE] | 1362) The Ruprecht Karl University of Heidelberg (German Ruprecht-Karls-Universität Heidelberg) is founded. The University of Heidelberg is founded by Rupert I, Count Palatine of the Rhine, in order to provide faculties for the study of philosophy, theology, jurisprudence, and medicine. | Heidelberg, Germany | ![]() [1] University of Heidelberg Institute for Physics COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/rai nerebert/523892158/in/set-72157600292990 475/ ![]() [2] University of Heidelberg University Library COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/rai nerebert/523890448/in/set-72157600292990 475/ |
609 YBN [03/04/1391 CE] | 1363) The University of Ferrara (Italian: Università degli Studi di Ferrara) in Italy is founded. | Ferrara, Italy | ![]() [1] COPYRIGHTED EDU source: http://www.unife.it/ateneo/unife _si_presenta |
602 YBN [03/04/1398 CE] | 1364) Seonggyungwan University is established in 1398 to offer prayers and memorials to Confucius and his disciples, and to promote the study of the Confucian canon. Seonggyungwan is located in the capital Hanseong, modern-day Seoul. It follows the example of the Goryeo-period Gukjagam, which in its later years is also known by the name "Seonggyungwan." The Sungkyunkwan will be Korea's foremost institution of the highest learning under the Joseon dynasty education system. | (Myeongnyun-dong, Jongno-gu in central) Seoul and Suwon, South Korea | ![]() [1] Sign for the 600th Anniversary Hall on Sungkyunkwan University's Seoul campus. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Sungkyunkwan_600.jpg ![]() [2] Official logo of Sungkyunkwan University, South Korea. Retrieved Oct 12, 2005 from university website. Background transparent version. COPYRIGHTED EDU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Skku_logo.png |
600 YBN [1400 CE] | 1024) From the 1400s to the 1800s Arab interest in the classics becomes less. Mostafa El-Abbadi sites the Arab adoption of a popular problem solving technique of posing problems and solutions initiated by Aristotle, instead of exploring other techniques including explaining observational phenomena as being a major reason for this failure for Arab science to progress, although I think the brutal intolerance for science by a religious majority may have contributed to this failure too. The Arab people accept Ptolomy's earth centered universe and progress no further. | ||
590 YBN [1410 CE] | 1365) The University of St Andrews (Scottish Gaelic: Oilthigh Chill Rìmhinn), the oldest university in Scotland is founded. | St. Andrews, Scotland | ![]() [1] St Salvator's Chapel, by Malcolm McFadyen GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:St_Salvator%27s_Chapel.JPG |
580 YBN [1420 CE] | 1429) Henry the Navigator (1394-1460), a Portuguese prince, establishes an observatory, and tries unsuccessfully to circumnavigate Africa as Hanno did 2000 years before. | Lagos, Portugal | ![]() [1] Prince Henry the Navigator PD source: http://www.etsu.edu/cas/history/ resources/Private/Faculty/Fac_To1877Chap terDocFiles/ChapterImages/Ch2PrinceHenry theNavigator.jpg ![]() [2] Henry the Navigator PD source: http://www.nndb.com/people/995/0 00094713/ |
580 YBN [1420 CE] | 1430) Ulugh Beg (UloNG BeG) (actual name: Muhammad Taragay) (1394-1449), a Mongol astronomer, founds a university (madrasa) in Samarkand. | Samarkand, Uzbekistan | ![]() [1] Ulugh Beg PD source: http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/ ~history/BigPictures/Ulugh_Beg.jpeg ![]() [2] Mirzo Ulubek (Ulugh Beg), Statue in Riga, Latvia. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Ulugbek.statue.riga.jpg |
576 YBN [1424 CE] | 1431) Ulugh Beg (UloNG BeG) (actual name: Muhammad Taragay) (1394-1449), a Mongol astronomer, builds an astronomic observatory in Samarkand. | Samarkand, Uzbekistan | ![]() [1] Ulugh Beg PD source: http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/ ~history/BigPictures/Ulugh_Beg.jpeg ![]() [2] Mirzo Ulubek (Ulugh Beg), Statue in Riga, Latvia. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Ulugbek.statue.riga.jpg |
575 YBN [1425 CE] | 1366) The Catholic University of Leuven, the first university in Belgium is founded. | Leuven, Belgium | ![]() [1] Castle Arenberg, part of the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium. 2004 GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Castle_Arenberg%2C_Katholieke_Univers iteit_Leuven_adj.jpg |
565 YBN [1435 CE] | 1435) Johannes Gutenberg (GUTeNBRG) (c1398-c1468), German inventor, introduces the movable type printing press in Europe. | Strassburg (now Strasbourg, France) | ![]() [1] Johannes Gutenberg, engraving, 1584. Science Source/Photo Researchers, Inc. PD source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art -15524?articleTypeId=1 ![]() [2] Johannes Gensfleisch zur Laden zum Gutenberg made after his death http://www.sru.edu/depts/cisba/co mpsci/dailey/217students/sgm8660/Final/ PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Gutenberg.jpg |
565 YBN [1435 CE] | 1440) Leon Battista Alberti (oLBRTE) (CE 1404-1472), Italian artist and achitect, writes "On Painting" the first book to describe the laws of perspective (how to draw a picture of a three-dimensional scene on a two-dimensional plane). Poncelet will develop this 400 years later, and Leonardo da Vinci will make use of perspective in painting. This book will result in more real looking paintings. This book is the first modern treatise on painting. In 1452 Alberti writes "De re aedificatoria" (Ten Books on Architecture), a monumental theoretical result of his long study of Vitruvius. This work, not a restored text of Vitruvius but a wholly new work, gives hima a reputation as the "Florentine Vitruvius" and becomes a bible of Renaissance architecture, because it incorporates and makes advances on the engineering knowledge of antiquity. This treatise on architecture will remain the best for centuries. Alberti writes small treatise on geography, the first work of its kind since antiquity. It sets forth the rules for surveying and mapping a land area, in this case the city of Rome, and it is probably as influential as his earlier treatise on painting. Although it is difficult to trace the historical connections, the methods of surveying and mapping and the instruments described by Alberti are precisely those that were responsible for the new scientific accuracy of the depictions of towns and land areas that date from the late 1400s and early 1500s. | Florence, Italy | ![]() [1] Late statue of Leon Battista Alberti. Courtyard of the Uffizi Gallery, Florence GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Leon_Battista_Alberti.jpg ![]() [2] Leon Battista Alberti, self-portrait plaque, bronze, c. 1435; in the National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. Courtesy of the National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C., Samuel H. Kress Collection COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art -8247?articleTypeId=1 |
563 YBN [1437 CE] | 1432) Ulugh Beg (UloNG BeG) (actual name: Muhammad Taragay) (1394-1449), a Mongol astronomer, Beg publishes an astronomical table and star catalogue "Zij-i-Sultani", that contains a star map of 994 stars and is the product of the work of a group of astronomers working under the funding of Ulugh Beg. | Samarkand, Uzbekistan | ![]() [1] Ulugh Beg PD source: http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/ ~history/BigPictures/Ulugh_Beg.jpeg ![]() [2] Mirzo Ulubek (Ulugh Beg), Statue in Riga, Latvia. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Ulugbek.statue.riga.jpg |
560 YBN [02/12/1440 CE] | 1437) Nicholas of Cusa (Nicholas Krebs) (1401-1464), German scholar, writes "De docta ignorantia" ("On Learned Ignorance"), in which Krebs correctly describes space as infinite, is the first of record to correctly identify that stars are other suns and is the first to describe that other stars have inhabited worlds. Krebs writes that the earth and other planets (which he refers to as stars) move around a central pole which is a diety. I find no explicit text by Krebs that describes the earth turning on its own axis as some historians claim. Krebs correctly supposes that plants draw nourishment (their food) from the air. This is the first modern formal experiment in biology and the first proof that air has weight. Krebs advocates the counting of pulse as a diagnostic aid in healing. Instead of Krebs getting in trouble, he is appointed cardinal in 1448, Giordano Bruno will be murdered for sharing many of these same views in only 152 years. Krebs builds spectacles (glasses) with concave lenses where earlier glasses used the easier to make convex lenses that served only the far-sighted (those who cannot see close objects), these glasses serve the near-sighted (who cannot see far objects). | Cusa, Germany | ![]() [1] Picture of Nicholas of Cusa English: Nicholas of Cusa Source from a painting by Meister des Marienlebens, located in the hospital at Kues (Germany) Date ca. 1480 PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Nicholas_of_Cusa.jpg ![]() [2] Nicholas of Cusa (Nicholas Krebs) Library of Congress PD source: http://www.answers.com/topic/nic holas-of-cusa?cat=technology |
557 YBN [1443 CE] | 1438) John Bessarion (BeSoREoN) (CE 1403-1472), a Greek scholar, accumulates many manuscripts of great Greek books. | Rome, Italy | ![]() [1] Basilius Bessarion Source http://www.telemachos.hu-berlin.de/bi lder/gudeman/gudeman.html PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Basilius_Bessarion.JPG |
550 YBN [1450 CE] | 1171) Spring driven clocks are invented. | ? | |
550 YBN [1450 CE] | 1798) Clockmakers working probably in southern Germany or northern Italy began to make small clocks driven by a spring. These are the first portable timepieces. | southern Germany, or northern Italy | |
548 YBN [1452 CE] | 1441) Leon Alberti (oLBRTE) (CE 1404-1472), writes "De re aedificatoria" (Ten Books on Architecture), a monumental theoretical result of his long study of Vitruvius. This treatise on architecture will remain the best for centuries. | Florence, Italy | ![]() [1] Late statue of Leon Battista Alberti. Courtyard of the Uffizi Gallery, Florence GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Leon_Battista_Alberti.jpg ![]() [2] Leon Battista Alberti, self-portrait plaque, bronze, c. 1435; in the National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. Courtesy of the National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C., Samuel H. Kress Collection COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art -8247?articleTypeId=1 |
546 YBN [1454 CE] | 1436) Johannes Gutenberg (GUTeNBRG) (CE c1398-c1468) produces 300 copies of the Bible, in double columns with forty-two lines in Latin on each page. This is the first printed book in Europe. Gutenberg goes into debt to produce the books and is sued for the money. Infact the winners of the lawsuit take his presses and supplies and are the first to actually sell the books. | Mainz, Germany | ![]() [1] Johannes Gutenberg, engraving, 1584. Science Source/Photo Researchers, Inc. PD source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art -15524?articleTypeId=1 ![]() [2] Johannes Gensfleisch zur Laden zum Gutenberg made after his death http://www.sru.edu/depts/cisba/co mpsci/dailey/217students/sgm8660/Final/ PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Gutenberg.jpg |
540 YBN [1460 CE] | 1367) The University of Basel (German: Universität Basel), the oldest university in Switzerland is founded. | Basel, Switzerland | ![]() [1] The Astronomical Institute of the University of Basel was founded in 1894. Since 1995 it is part of the Department of Physics and Astronomy, together with the Institute of Physics of the University of Basel COPYRIGHTED EDU source: http://www.astro.unibas.ch/infos /AIUB_semifront_small.jpg ![]() [2] Opening Pageant of the University of Basel, Basel Minster, 4 April 1460. Title miniature of the Rector''s register, Basel University Library. PD source: http://www.unibas.ch/index.cfm?u uid=911241CC0F0BC853812D75DEECDB0824&&IR ACER_AUTOLINK&&&o_lang_id=2 |
538 YBN [1462 CE] | 1443) Regiomontanus (rEJEOmoNTAnuS) (Johnann Muller) (1436-1476), German astronomer, publishes a revised and corrected version of "Almagest" using Greek copies brought from Cardinal Bessarion from Constantinople. In this work Regiomontanus completes Peuerbach's half-finished "Epitome" on Ptolemy's "Almagest" around 1462 (first printed in 1496 as EpytomaÂ…in Almagestum Ptolomei). prepares new table of planetary motions bringing those under Alfonso X up to date. These tables are used by many people including Columbus. Introduces Indian (Arabic) numerals to Germany, reproducing his tables with a printing press and is one of the first printers. 1472 observes a comet (later called Halley's comet), this is the first time comets are the objects of scientific study instead of merely stirring up superstitious terror. | Rome, Italy | ![]() [1] Regiomontanus (1436-1476) German mathematician, astronomer and astrologer. Quelle: * http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections /hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Johannes_Regiomontanus.jpg |
528 YBN [1472 CE] | 1442) Georg von Peurbach (POERBoK) (CE 1423-1461), Austrian mathematician and astronomer, uses arabic numerals to prepare the most accurate table of sines. | Vienna, Austria | ![]() [1] Georg von Peuerbach: Theoricarum novarum planetarum testus, Paris 1515 PD source: http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bil d:Peuerbach-Theoricarum-1515.png ![]() [2] Georg von Peuerbach PD source: http://www.astronomie.at/burgenl and/archiv/peuerbach/start.htm |
528 YBN [1472 CE] | 1461) Leonardo da Vinci (VENcE) (CE 1452-1519), Italian painter, sculpture and inventor, draws designs for tanks, airplanes, uses elaborate gears, chains, ratchets an other devices in his designs, designs a parachute, designs an elevator for the Milan cathedral, among other engineering feats. | Florence, Italy | ![]() [1] # Self-portrait of Leonardo da Vinci, circa 1512-1515 # Location: Royal Library, Turin # Technique: Red chalk # Dimensions: 13 x 8.5'' (33 x 21.6 cm) Source: http://www.vivoscuola.it/us/ic-villalaga rina/Ipertesti/caritro/images/Leonardo_a utorutratto.jpg PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Leonardo_self.jpg ![]() [2] Verrocchio, Florence, 15thC, ''David'' bronze statue. The model is thought to have been Leonardo da Vinci Source WGA Date 1467 Author Verrocchio PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Verrocchio_David.jpg |
526 YBN [1474 CE] | 1433) Paolo Toscanelli (ToSKuneLE) (1397-1482), an Italian physician and mapmaker, creates a map with Europe on the right hand side and Asia on the left hand side, separated by the Atlantic Ocean which Toscanelli estimates is 3000 miles (actual units?) wide which is too small). Toscanelli sends a letter and the map to the court of Lisbon, detailing a plan for sailing westwards to reach the Spice Islands. A copy of this letter and map is sent to Christopher Columbus, which excites and inspires Columbus. Columbus carries the map with him during his first voyage to the new world. Toscanelli's miscalculation of the size of the earth will result in Columbus never realizing he has found a new continent. | Florence, Italy | ![]() [1] Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli (1397-10 May,1482) From: H.F. Helmolt (ed.): History of the World. New York, 1901. Copied from University of Texas Portrait Gallery http://www.lib.utexas.edu/photo draw/portraits/ PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Hw-columbus.jpg ![]() [2] La carte de Toscanelli et, ci-dessous, son tracé superposé avec celui d'une carte actuelle. PD source: http://www.stephan-selle.de/Lese fruchte/Kolumbus/kolumbus.html |
523 YBN [1477 CE] | 1368) Uppsala University (Swedish Uppsala universitet), a public university in Uppsala, Sweden is founded. Uppsala university is the oldest university in Scandinavia, outdating the University of Copenhagen by two years. | Uppsala, Sweden | ![]() [1] 18th century engraving of Riddartorget in Uppsala, with the later demolished Academia Carolina (the old chapter house) to the left (by the Cathedral which is just outside the picture). To the right is the Oxenstierna Palace, the former residence of w:Bengt Gabrielsson Oxenstierna. The latter was then used for the ''Royal Academy [=University] Hospital'' (''Kgl Academi Sjukhus''), and is now the main building for the Faculty of Law. In the middle one can see a part of the Skytteanum, where the Professor Skytteanus has his residence and office and parts of the Department of Government are still located. Engraving by F. Akrelius in: J. B. Busser, Beskrifning om Upsala (1769). PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Academia_Carolina_Uppsala.jpg ![]() [2] Engraving by Fredrik Akrel (Akrelius). Source: From: Johan Benedict Busser, Utkast till beskrifning om Upsala. Upsala, tryckt hos Joh. Edman, kongl. acad. boktr. 1-2. 1769-73. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Exercise_yard_-_from_Busser%2C_Om_Ups ala_Stad_etc.jpg |
521 YBN [1479 CE] | 1369) The University of Copenhagen (Danish: Københavns Universitet), the oldest and largest university in Denmark is formed. | Copenhagen, Denmark | ![]() [1] The University of Copenhagen old building in the inner city. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:KU_inner_city_1.jpg ![]() [2] The Rundetårn (round tower) was used in the 17th century as an observatory by Ole Rømer CC source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Copenhagen_Rundet%C3%A5rn_street_left .jpg |
520 YBN [1480 CE] | 1463) Leonardo da Vinci (VENcE) (CE 1452-1519), draws a machine for storming walls. | Florence, Italy | ![]() [1] Machine for Storming Walls a 1480 drawing by Leonardo da Vinci for a ware machine PD source: http://inventors.about.com/od/ds tartinventors/ig/Inventions-of-Leonardo- DaVinci/Machine-for-Storming-Walls.htm |
516 YBN [05/01/1484 CE] | 1449) Christopher Columbus (CE 1451-1506), Italian explorer, seeks support for crossing the Atlantic to Asia from King John II of Portugal but is denied. | Portugal | ![]() [1] Portrait of Christopher Columbus from the painting Virgen de los Navegantes (in the Sala de los Almirantes, Royal Alcazar, Seville). A painting by Alejo Fernández between 1505 and 1536. It is the only state sponsored portrait of the First Admiral of the Indias. Photo by a Columbus historian, Manuel Rosa. More info http://www.UnmaskingColumbus.com PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Christopher_Columbus_Face.jpg ![]() [2] Christopher Columbus, conjectural image by Sebastiano del Piombo in the Gallery of Illustrious Men (Corridoio Vasariano), Uffizi, Florence but yet: Christophorus Columbus/Cristobal Colon, pictue by Sebastiano del Piombo from the XVI (15th century) PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:CristobalColon.jpg |
515 YBN [1485 CE] | 1464) Leonardo da Vinci (VENcE) (CE 1452-1519), draws designs for a boat, a giant crossbow, an eight-barrelled machine gun, and an automatic igniting device for firearms. | Milan, Italy | ![]() [1] Designs for a Boat is part of a series of (1485 - 1487) drawings by Leonardo da Vinci. PD source: http://inventors.about.com/od/ds tartinventors/ig/Inventions-of-Leonardo- DaVinci/Designs-for-a-Boat-.htm ![]() [2] Drawing of giant crossbow by Leonardo da Vinci circa 1485 to 1487. PD source: http://inventors.about.com/od/ds tartinventors/ig/Inventions-of-Leonardo- DaVinci/Giant-Crossbow.htm |
513 YBN [1487 CE] | 1465) Leonardo da Vinci (VENcE) (CE 1452-1519), draws the first known design for a tank (armored car) (metal?). | Milan, Italy | ![]() [1] Armoured Car a pen drawing dated 1487 by Leonardo Da Vinci PD source: http://inventors.about.com/od/ds tartinventors/ig/Inventions-of-Leonardo- DaVinci/Armoured-Car.htm |
513 YBN [1487 CE] | 1468) Leonardo da Vinci (VENcE) (CE 1452-1519), draws a design of a helicopter or aerial screw. | Milan, Italy | ![]() [1] The Ornithopter Flying Machine Designed and Drawn by Leonardo da Vinci The ornithopter flying machine was never actually created. It was a design that Leonardo DaVinci made to show how man could fly. Some experts say that the modern day helicopter was inspired by this design. [t this is not an ornithopter because it has no flapping wings] PD source: http://inventors.about.com/od/ds tartinventors/ig/Inventions-of-Leonardo- DaVinci/Ornithopter-Flying-Machine.htm |
512 YBN [1488 CE] | 1467) Leonardo da Vinci (VENcE) (CE 1452-1519), draws a design for an "ornithopher" a flying machine with flapping wings. | Milan, Italy | ![]() [1] Design for a Flying Machine is a 1488 drawing by Leonardo da Vinci. PD source: http://inventors.about.com/od/ds tartinventors/ig/Inventions-of-Leonardo- DaVinci/Design-for-a-Flying-Machine-2.ht m ![]() [2] Design for a Flying Machine (c. 1488) is a drawing by Leonardo da Vinci. Source: http://www.visi.com/~reuteler/leonardo.h tml PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Design_for_a_Flying_Machine.jpg |
508 YBN [01/??/1492 CE] | 1451) King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella fund Columbus with 3 small ships and 120 men (most are from prison). | ![]() [1] Portrait of Christopher Columbus from the painting Virgen de los Navegantes (in the Sala de los Almirantes, Royal Alcazar, Seville). A painting by Alejo Fernández between 1505 and 1536. It is the only state sponsored portrait of the First Admiral of the Indias. Photo by a Columbus historian, Manuel Rosa. More info http://www.UnmaskingColumbus.com PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Christopher_Columbus_Face.jpg ![]() [2] Christopher Columbus, conjectural image by Sebastiano del Piombo in the Gallery of Illustrious Men (Corridoio Vasariano), Uffizi, Florence but yet: Christophorus Columbus/Cristobal Colon, pictue by Sebastiano del Piombo from the XVI (15th century) PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:CristobalColon.jpg | |
508 YBN [08/03/1492 CE] | 1452) Columbus sets sail west in search of Asia. | Palos, Spain | ![]() [1] Portrait of Christopher Columbus from the painting Virgen de los Navegantes (in the Sala de los Almirantes, Royal Alcazar, Seville). A painting by Alejo Fernández between 1505 and 1536. It is the only state sponsored portrait of the First Admiral of the Indias. Photo by a Columbus historian, Manuel Rosa. More info http://www.UnmaskingColumbus.com PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Christopher_Columbus_Face.jpg ![]() [2] Christopher Columbus, conjectural image by Sebastiano del Piombo in the Gallery of Illustrious Men (Corridoio Vasariano), Uffizi, Florence but yet: Christophorus Columbus/Cristobal Colon, pictue by Sebastiano del Piombo from the XVI (15th century) PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:CristobalColon.jpg |
508 YBN [09/13/1492 CE] | 1453) Columbus is first to note the shifting of direction of the compass needle as a person moves over large areas of the earth. He keeps this a secret from his crew because they might fear that they were moving into areas were the laws of nature are no longer observed. | Atlantic Ocean | ![]() [1] Portrait of Christopher Columbus from the painting Virgen de los Navegantes (in the Sala de los Almirantes, Royal Alcazar, Seville). A painting by Alejo Fernández between 1505 and 1536. It is the only state sponsored portrait of the First Admiral of the Indias. Photo by a Columbus historian, Manuel Rosa. More info http://www.UnmaskingColumbus.com PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Christopher_Columbus_Face.jpg ![]() [2] Christopher Columbus, conjectural image by Sebastiano del Piombo in the Gallery of Illustrious Men (Corridoio Vasariano), Uffizi, Florence but yet: Christophorus Columbus/Cristobal Colon, pictue by Sebastiano del Piombo from the XVI (15th century) PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:CristobalColon.jpg |
508 YBN [10/12/1492 CE] | 1450) Christopher Columbus (CE 1451-1506) lands on a small island (probably San Salvador) in America. In America Columbus explores, finds a new race of people, new plants, and many other new phenomena. Vikings such as Leif Eriksson had visited North America five centuries earlier. In the next 10 years Columbus will makes 3 journeys to the "Indies". Because of this mistaken belief that Columbus had reached India, the Carribean will be called the West Indies even up to the present time. It is still shocking that native american people are commonly refered to as "Indians", as if this mistaken view of America being India was still uncorrected. Beyond planting the royal banner, Columbus spends little time on San Salvador, being anxious to press on to what he thinks will be Cipango (Japan). Land is sighted at 2 a.m. on October 12, 1492, by a sailor named Rodrigo de Triana on the Pinta, however Columbus, on the Nina, will claim the prize. The indigenous people Columbus encounters, the Lucayan, TaÃno or Arawak, are peaceful and friendly. In his journal he writes of them, "It appears to me, that the people are ingenious, and would be good servants and I am of opinion that they would very readily become Christians, as they appear to have no religion.", which expresses the ominous and arrogant view of the native American humans as slaves, servants, and subhumans. Sadly, this mistaken and prejudice view will prevail for many years. | ![]() [1] Portrait of Christopher Columbus from the painting Virgen de los Navegantes (in the Sala de los Almirantes, Royal Alcazar, Seville). A painting by Alejo Fernández between 1505 and 1536. It is the only state sponsored portrait of the First Admiral of the Indias. Photo by a Columbus historian, Manuel Rosa. More info http://www.UnmaskingColumbus.com PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Christopher_Columbus_Face.jpg ![]() [2] Christopher Columbus, conjectural image by Sebastiano del Piombo in the Gallery of Illustrious Men (Corridoio Vasariano), Uffizi, Florence but yet: Christophorus Columbus/Cristobal Colon, pictue by Sebastiano del Piombo from the XVI (15th century) PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:CristobalColon.jpg | |
508 YBN [12/05/1492 CE] | 1455) Christopher Columbus (CE 1451-1506) reaches Haiti. Columbus renames it La Isla Española, or Hispaniola. He seems to have thought that Hispaniola might be Cipango or, if not Cipango, then perhaps one of the legendarily rich isles from which King Solomon's triennial fleet brought back gold, gems, and spices to Jerusalem (1 Kings 10:11, 22); alternatively, he reasons that the island could be related to the biblical kingdom of Sheba (Saba'). There Columbus finds at least enough gold and other products to save him from ridicule on his return to Spain. With the help of a Taino cacique, or Indian chief, named GuacanagarÃ, Columbus has a stockade built on the northern coast of the island, names it "La Navidad", and posts 39 men to guard it until his return. The accidental running aground of the Santa MarÃa provids additional planks and provisions for the garrison. This is the first European settlement in America. In the future many millions of European people will move to and live in America. | Haiti | ![]() [1] Portrait of Christopher Columbus from the painting Virgen de los Navegantes (in the Sala de los Almirantes, Royal Alcazar, Seville). A painting by Alejo Fernández between 1505 and 1536. It is the only state sponsored portrait of the First Admiral of the Indias. Photo by a Columbus historian, Manuel Rosa. More info http://www.UnmaskingColumbus.com PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Christopher_Columbus_Face.jpg ![]() [2] Christopher Columbus, conjectural image by Sebastiano del Piombo in the Gallery of Illustrious Men (Corridoio Vasariano), Uffizi, Florence but yet: Christophorus Columbus/Cristobal Colon, pictue by Sebastiano del Piombo from the XVI (15th century) PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:CristobalColon.jpg |
507 YBN [01/16/1493 CE] | 1456) Christopher Columbus (CE 1451-1506) leaves America (Hispaniola) with his remaining two ships, the Nina and Pinta, for Spain. Columbus takes some of the native people back with him. As Columbus had predicted the westerly winds do indeed direct them homeward. | Haiti | ![]() [1] Portrait of Christopher Columbus from the painting Virgen de los Navegantes (in the Sala de los Almirantes, Royal Alcazar, Seville). A painting by Alejo Fernández between 1505 and 1536. It is the only state sponsored portrait of the First Admiral of the Indias. Photo by a Columbus historian, Manuel Rosa. More info http://www.UnmaskingColumbus.com PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Christopher_Columbus_Face.jpg ![]() [2] Christopher Columbus, conjectural image by Sebastiano del Piombo in the Gallery of Illustrious Men (Corridoio Vasariano), Uffizi, Florence but yet: Christophorus Columbus/Cristobal Colon, pictue by Sebastiano del Piombo from the XVI (15th century) PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:CristobalColon.jpg |
507 YBN [03/15/1493 CE] | 1459) Christopher Columbus (CE 1451-1506) arrives at his home port of Palos March 15. Pinzón arrives at Palos in the Pinta a few hours later but dies within days. Columbus presents Isabella with "Indian" human captives, parrots and other unknown animals, spices, and some gold. | Palos, Spain | ![]() [1] Portrait of Christopher Columbus from the painting Virgen de los Navegantes (in the Sala de los Almirantes, Royal Alcazar, Seville). A painting by Alejo Fernández between 1505 and 1536. It is the only state sponsored portrait of the First Admiral of the Indias. Photo by a Columbus historian, Manuel Rosa. More info http://www.UnmaskingColumbus.com PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Christopher_Columbus_Face.jpg ![]() [2] Christopher Columbus, conjectural image by Sebastiano del Piombo in the Gallery of Illustrious Men (Corridoio Vasariano), Uffizi, Florence but yet: Christophorus Columbus/Cristobal Colon, pictue by Sebastiano del Piombo from the XVI (15th century) PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:CristobalColon.jpg |
506 YBN [06/07/1494 CE] | 1460) The Treaty of Tordesillas between Portugal and Spain. According to this treaty Spain is allowed to take all land west of a line drawn from pole to pole 370 leagues (about 1,185 miles/1,910 km) west of the Cape Verde Islands, and Portugal is allowed to claim all land to the east of the line. | Tordesillas (now in Valladolid province, Spain) | ![]() [1] Cantino planisphere of 1502 depicting the meridian designated by the treaty. Cantino planisphere. Image found at http://www.ac-creteil.fr/portugais/PPCAN TINO2.jpg. In public domain due to the image's age. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Cantino_Planisphere.jpg |
506 YBN [1494 CE] | 1445) Luca Pacioli (PoKOlE or PocOlE) (CE c1445-1517), Italian mathematician, publishes his major work on arithmetic and geometry "Summa de arithmetica, geometrica, proportioni et proportionalita", the first printed description of method of double-entry bookkeeping. | Venice, Italy | ![]() [1] Ritratto di Frà Luca Pacioli (1495). Luca Pacioli (1445 - 1517) is the central figure in this painting exhibited in the Museo e Gallerie di Capodimonte in Napoli (Italy). The painter is unknown, although some people are convinced the painter is Jacopo de' Barbari (1440-1515). Table is filled with geomerical tools: slate, chalk, compas, a dodecahedron model and a rhombicuboctahedron half-filed with water is hanging in the air. Pacioli is demonstrating a theorem by Euclid. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Pacioli.jpg ![]() [2] The first ever printed version of the Rhombicuboctahedron was by Leonardo da Vinci, as appeared in the Divina Proportione by Luca Pacioli 1509, Venise PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Leonardo_polyhedra.png |
496 YBN [1504 CE] | 1474) Amerigo Vespucci (VeSPYUCI) (Latin: Americus Vespucius) (VeSPYUsuS) (CE 1454-1512), Italian navigator, recognizes that the new lands extend too far to the South to be Asia, and that the new lands are not Asia but represent a new continent unknown to ancient people, and that between that continent and Asia there must be a second ocean. The new continent will be named "America" after Amerigo Vespucius. | ![]() [1] Amerigo Vespucci From Amerigo Vespucci by Frederick A. Ober - Project Gutenberg eText 19997 http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/19 997 PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Amerigo_Vespucci_-_Project_Gutenberg_ etext_19997.jpg ![]() [2] Statue at the Uffizi, Florence. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Amerigo_Vespucci01.jpg | |
493 YBN [1507 CE] | 1476) Martin Waldseemuller (VoLTZAmYULR) (c1470-c1518), German cartographer, prints 1000 copies of the first map to show America which he names after Amerigo Vespucius for recognizing that America is infact a new landmass. | Saint-Dié, Lorraine, France | ![]() [1] Le cartographe allemand Martin Waldseemüller (portrait peint par Gaston Save pour décorer l'ancien théâtre de Saint-Dié-des-Vosges, aujourd'hui disparu) Source Catalogue de l'exposition ''America, L'Amérique est née à Saint-Dié-des Vosges en 1507'' (1992) Date 19ème siècle Author Gaston Save (1844-1901) PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:MartinWaldseem%C3%BCller.jpg ![]() [2] Gerlinde Brandenburger-Eisele holds the oldest map showing ''America'' in the Ritterhausmuseum (Museum of the Knight) in Offenburg, southern Germany. The map was drawn in 1507 by cartographer Martin Waldseemueller. COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.usatoday.com/news/nat ion/2007-04-24-america-turns-500_N.htm?c sp=34 |
489 YBN [1511 CE] | 1513) Desiderius Erasmus (CE 1469-1536), Dutch humanist, publishes "Moriae encomium" ("Praise of Folly"), which contains satirical criticisms of church and state. Humanism is a broad category of ethical philosophies that affirm the dignity and worth of all humans, based on their ability to determine right and wrong by appeal to universal human qualities, particularly logic (reason). | written: London, Netherlands | ![]() [1] The Dutch philosopher Desiderius Erasmus. By Hans Holbein the younger. Source: http://www.wga.hu/art/h/holbein/hans_y/1 525/08erasmu.jpg Creator/Artist Name Holbein d. J., Hans Date of birth/death 1497/98 1543-11-29 Location of birth/death Deutsch: Augsburg Deutsch: London Work location Deutsch: Basel, London PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Holbein-erasmus.jpg ![]() [2] Deutsch: Porträt des Erasmus von Rotterdam am Schreibpult Artist Holbein d. J., Hans Year 1523 Technique Deutsch: Tempera auf Holz Dimensions Deutsch: 43 × 33 cm Current location Deutsch: Musée du Louvre Deutsch: Paris Source The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Hans_Holbein_d._J._047.jpg |
488 YBN [1512 CE] | 1481) Around this time Nicolas Copernicus (KOPRniKuS) (Polish:Mikolaj Kopernik) (1473-1543), Polish astronomer, distributes "Commentariolus" ("Little Commentary"), a short handwritten paper describing his ideas about the sun centered theory. | Frombork, Poland | ![]() [1] Nicolaus Copernicus (portrait from Toruń - beginning of the 16th century), from http://www.frombork.art.pl/Ang10.htm PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Nikolaus_Kopernikus.jpg ![]() [2] Nicolaus Copernicus PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Copernicus.jpg |
487 YBN [09/25/1513 CE] | 1485) Vasco Nunez de Balboa (BoLBOo) (1475-1519), Spanish explorer, is the first European to see and describe the Pacific Ocean. Balboa names the Pacific Ocean the "South Sea". | a peak in Darién, Panama | ![]() [1] Vasco Núñez de Balboa PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Vascon%C3%BA%C3%B1ezdebalboa.jpeg ![]() [2] Vasco Núñez de Balboa executing Native Americans for same-sex love. New York Public Library, Rare Book Room, De Bry Collection, New York http://www.androphile.org/preview/ Museum/New_World/Panama_Two-SpiritA.html Théodore De Bry (1528-1598) Balboa setting his dogs upon Indian practitioners of male love (1594) The Spanish invader Vasco Núñez de Balboa (1475-1519) shown in Central America with his troops, presiding over the execution of Indians, whom he ordered eaten alive by the war dogs for having practiced male love. New York Public Library, Rare Book Room, De Bry Collection, New York. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Balboamurder.jpg |
485 YBN [1515 CE] | 1486) Johannes Schöner (sOEnR) (1477-1547), German geographer, constructs the first globe (a manuscript) with the new lands discovered by Columbus, and with the name "America" as Waldseemüller suggested. | Bamberg, Bavaria, Germany | ![]() [1] Johannes Schöner, (1477-1547) Astronomer. Original Picture was obtained from this (http://www.uni-mannheim.de/mateo/desbil lons/aport/seite181.html) site, PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Johannes_Sch%C3%B6ner_Astronomer_01.j pg ![]() [2] Cranach, Lucas Portrait des Magdeburger Theologen Dr. Johannes Schoener Renaissance Diese Bilder-Vorlage Portrait des Magdeburger Theologen Dr. Johannes Schoener Von Cranach, Lucas als hochwertiges, handgemaltes Gem�lde. Wir malen Ihr �lgem�lde nach Ihrer Vorlage. PD source: http://www.oel-bild.de/bilder/67 92M.jpg |
483 YBN [10/31/1517 CE] | 1389) Martin Luther posts Ninety-five Theses on the door of the Castle Church, Wittenberg, Germany, on October 31, 1517, the eve of All Saints' Day, the traditional date for the beginning of the Protestant Reformation. In 1521 Luther will be excommunicated and what began as an internal reform movement will become a major fracture in western Christendom. As a result of the Protestant Reformation, although Protestant people will persecute and murder atheists and scientists just as Catholic people will, the Protestant Reformation does represent a challange to the traditional religious Christian belief, the massive group of followers of Jesus of Nazareth. Before this there are other reformers within the medieval church such as St. Francis of Assisi, Valdes (founder of the Waldensians), Jan Hus, and John Wycliffe. | Wittenberg, Germany | ![]() [1] Luther in 1529 by Lucas Cranach Painting by Lucas Cranach the Elder. Uffizi gallery. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Luther46c.jpg |
481 YBN [09/20/1519 CE] | 1491) Ferdinand Magellan (moJeLoN) (c1480-1521), sets sail from Spain to circumnavigate the earth. Ferdinand Magellan (moJeLoN) (c1480-1521), Portuguese explorer, sets sail to circumnavigate the earth. Magellan leaves for America with 5 ships in order to find a way to the Spice Islands of Indonesia. This is the voyage to circumnavigate the earth that Columbus had intended. | Sanlúcar de Barrameda, Spain | ![]() [1] An anonymous portrait of Ferdinand Magellan, 16th or 17th century (The Mariner's Museum Collection, Newport News, VA) PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Ferdinand_Magellan.jpg ![]() [2] Map of Ferdinand Magellans voyage around the world GFDL source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Magellan%27s_voyage_EN.svg |
480 YBN [10/21/1520 CE] | 1496) Magellan's ships find the passage through the southern tip of South America that connects the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Magellan will name the waters the "Mar Pacifico" (Pacific Ocean) because of the calmness of the Pacific Ocean after the storms of the strait. | Straight of Magellan | ![]() [1] An anonymous portrait of Ferdinand Magellan, 16th or 17th century (The Mariner's Museum Collection, Newport News, VA) PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Ferdinand_Magellan.jpg ![]() [2] Map of Ferdinand Magellans voyage around the world GFDL source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Magellan%27s_voyage_EN.svg |
480 YBN [1520 CE] | 1487) Johannes Schöner (sOEnR) (1477-1547), German geographer, constructs a globe with the new lands discovered by Columbus. | Bamberg, Bavaria, Germany | ![]() [1] Johannes Schöner, (1477-1547) Astronomer. Original Picture was obtained from this (http://www.uni-mannheim.de/mateo/desbil lons/aport/seite181.html) site, PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Johannes_Sch%C3%B6ner_Astronomer_01.j pg ![]() [2] Johannes Schöner globe, made in 1520. Shows the Americas, Antarctica before (european) official discovery. Based on other older maps and globes. Original picture was obtained from this site, then it was scaled down to a lower resolution. Globe maker died more than 200 hundred years ago. This image is to be used in Johannes Schöner globe article under fair use as : This photo is only being used for informational purposes. This photo helps only to show the globe. As this picture is also (commonly) used in other sites, it helps to recognize the globe quickly. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Johannes_Sch%C3%B6ner_globe_1520_m01. jpg |
478 YBN [09/08/1522 CE] | 1475) Magellen's crew is the first to circumnavigate the earth. Magellen's crew is the first to circumnavigate the earth.. Juan Sebastian del Cano (KonO) (c1460-1525), Spanish Navigator, returns in a single remaining ship originally lead by Magellan to Seville, Spain with a crew that is the first to circumnavigate the earth. This voyage lasted 3 years and cost 4 ships, but the spices and other merchandice brought back more than compensate for the loss. This voyage proves that Eratosthenes estimate of the size of the earth is correct, and that of Poseidoinius and Ptolemy wrong, and that a single ocean covers the earth. This is the first time that the people of Europe know for sure that the earth is in fact a sphere. In addition, they must have a new feeling of confidence, knowing that the size of earth is finite. Once the earth is completely explored, new adventurers will plan voyages to the other planets and when those planets are fully explored, voyages to other stars. | Seville, Spain | ![]() [1] Juan Sebastián Elcano LitografÃa de J. Donon en Historia de la Marina Real Española. Madrid, 1854 http://marenostrum.org/bibliotecad elmar/historia/pacifico/ PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Elcano.jpg ![]() [2] Juan Sebastián Elcano in Guetaria CC source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Elcano-estatua.JPG |
477 YBN [1523 CE] | 1488) Johannes Schöner (sOEnR) (1477-1547) 1523 map of earth. | Bamberg, Bavaria, Germany(presumably) | ![]() [1] Johannes Schöner, (1477-1547) Astronomer. Original Picture was obtained from this (http://www.uni-mannheim.de/mateo/desbil lons/aport/seite181.html) site, PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Johannes_Sch%C3%B6ner_Astronomer_01.j pg ![]() [2] Facsimile globe gores of Johannes Schöner's Globe of 1523 [t is not actual map?] PD source: http://www.henry-davis.com/MAPS/ Ren/Ren1/348.html |
476 YBN [1524 CE] | 1386) The first hospital in the Western Hemisphere is built by the conquistador Hernán Cortés to care for poor Spanish soldiers and the native inhabitants. The original name is "Hospital de la PurÃsima Concepción de Nuestra Señora" (Hospital of Our Lady of the Purest Conception). | Mexico City, Mexico | ![]() [1] This is the first and longest serving hospital constructed on the American continent, which has been serving the needs of the sick and ailing since 1524. Originally called the Hospital de la PurÃsima Concepción de Nuestra Señora (Hospital of Our Lady of the Purest Conception), it was built with the economic support of conquistador Hernan Cortes, so as to serve the needs of poor Spanish soldiers and Native Americans. New installations were added in the mid-twentieth century, of a different architectural appearance, but using the same materials as the original construction. It is worth visiting for its sixteenth century stone arches and the mural by Orozco that depicts the encounter between the Spaniards and Native Americans. Information by Wcities COPYRIGHTED source: http://travel.yahoo.com/p-travel guide-2739035-hospital_de_jesus_nazareno _hershey-i |
476 YBN [1524 CE] | 1510) Peter Apian (oPEoN) (1495-1552), publishes "Cosmographia", which contains some of the earliest maps of America. | Landshut, Bavaria, Germany | ![]() [1] Petrus Apianus. From Icones sive imagines virorum literis illustrium, Frankfurt 1719. Image source: http://www.math.uni-hamburg.de/math/ig n/xyz/ca00-v5.htm#tth_sEc3 PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Peter_Apian.png ![]() [2] A page from Petrus Apianus' Astronomicum Caesareum (1540). Img src: Library of Congress. http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/w orld/world-object.html PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Astronomicum_Caesareum.jpg |
475 YBN [1525 CE] | 1477) Albrect Dürer (DYvrR) (CE 1471-1528), German artist, invents the art of etching and publishes "Vier Bücher von menschlicher Proportion" ("The Painter's Manual", more literally, "the Instructions on Measurement"), a book on geometrical constructions for use by artists which helps the popular trend of naturalism (realism) in painting at this time. | Nürnberg, Germany | ![]() [1] Autorretrato (1500) Albrecht Durer - Self-Portrait at 28 * Image copiée sur le site WebMuseum * http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/ Self-Portrai t (1500) by Albrecht Dürer, oil on board, Alte PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Durer_self_portarit_28.jpg ![]() [2] The earliest painted Self-Portrait (1493) by Albrecht Dürer, oil, originally on vellum Louvre, Paris La bildo estas kopiita de wikipedia:lt. La originala priskribo estas: Albrech Dürer, Selbstportät mit Blume, 1493 Autoportretas su gėlėmis, tapyta apiejumi ant drobės, 57 x 45 cm, laikoma Luvre, Paryžiuje. Šaltinis: http://www.louvre.fr/img/photos/collec/p eint/grande/rf2382.jpg PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Albrecht-self.jpg |
470 YBN [1530 CE] | 1503) Paracelsus (PoRoKeLSuS) (real name: Phillip von Hohenheim) (1493-1541), Swiss physician and alchemist, publishes a clinical description of syphilis. Paracelsus will establish the use of chemistry in health. | Basel?, Switzerland? | ![]() [1] Presumed portrait of Paracelsus, attributed to the school of Quentin Matsys source : http://euromin.w3sites.net/Nouveau_site/ mineralogiste/biographies/pic/paracelse. htm PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Paracelsus.jpg ![]() [2] Monument for Paracelsus in Beratzhausen, Bavaria. GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:300704_beratzhausen-oberpfalz-paracel sus-denkmal_1-480x640.jpg |
467 YBN [1533 CE] | 1489) Johannes Schöner (sOEnR) (1477-1547) 1533 map of earth. | Bamberg, Bavaria, Germany(presumably) | ![]() [1] Johannes Schöner, (1477-1547) Astronomer. Original Picture was obtained from this (http://www.uni-mannheim.de/mateo/desbil lons/aport/seite181.html) site, PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Johannes_Sch%C3%B6ner_Astronomer_01.j pg ![]() [2] Johannes Schöner Weimer Globe (1533). Made in 1533. Who died more than 200 years ago. This modified picture is used here for informational purposes only, thus constitute a fair use also. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Johannes_Sch%C3%B6ner_globe_1533_f_m0 2.png |
466 YBN [1534 CE] | 1514) Parliament in England creates a series of acts which transfers authority over all churches in England to the King, removing Papal authority and ownership of church property from Rome and creating the Church of England. | London (presumably), England | ![]() [1] Portrait of Henry VIII by Hans Holbein the Younger. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Henry-VIII-kingofengland_1491-1547.jp g ![]() [2] An official portrait of Catherine of Aragon whilst Queen consort, painted from life around 1525 PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Catherine_aragon.jpg |
464 YBN [1536 CE] | 1504) Paracelsus (PoRoKeLSuS) (real name: Phillip von Hohenheim) (1493-1541), publishes "Der grossen Wundartzney" ("Great Surgery Book"). | Basel?, Switzerland? | ![]() [1] Presumed portrait of Paracelsus, attributed to the school of Quentin Matsys source : http://euromin.w3sites.net/Nouveau_site/ mineralogiste/biographies/pic/paracelse. htm PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Paracelsus.jpg ![]() [2] Monument for Paracelsus in Beratzhausen, Bavaria. GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:300704_beratzhausen-oberpfalz-paracel sus-denkmal_1-480x640.jpg |
463 YBN [1537 CE] | 1536) Niccolò Fontana Tartaglia (ToRToLYo) (CE 1499-1557) publishes "Nova Scientia" ("A New Science"), the first book on the theory of projectiles (Leonardo da Vinci had written one earlier, but Da Vinci's writings were not published). | Venice, Italy (presumably) | ![]() [1] Niccolò Fontana Tartaglia PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Niccol%C3%B2_Tartaglia.jpg ![]() [2] (Tartaglia's formula) for the volume of a tetrahedron (incl. any irregular tetrahedra) presumed GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nic col%C3%B2_Fontana_Tartaglia |
462 YBN [10/28/1538 CE] | 1371) The Autonomous University of Santo Domingo (Spanish: Universidad Autónoma de Santo Domingo (UASD)), a public university in the Dominican Republic, the oldest university in the western hemisphere, is established. The Autonomous University of Santa Domingo is founded during the reign of Charles I of Spain. | Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic | ![]() [1] La Universidad de Santo Domingo fue creada mediante la Bula In Apostolatus Culmine, expedida el 28 de octubre de 1538, por el Papa Paulo III, la cual elevó a esa categorÃa el Estudio General que los dominicos regenteaban desde el 1518, en Santo Domingo, sede virreinal de la colonización y el más viejo establecimiento colonial del Nuevo Mundo. COPYRIGHTED EDU source: http://www.uasd.edu.do/principal es/general.html |
460 YBN [1540 CE] | 1509) Peter Apian (oPEoN) (1495-1552), German astronomer, publishes "Astronomicum Caesareum", a book describing his observations of comets, describing the appearance of 5 different comets (including what will become named Halley's comet). Apian mentions that comets always have their tails pointing away from the sun. | Ingolstadt, Bavaria, Germany | ![]() [1] Petrus Apianus. From Icones sive imagines virorum literis illustrium, Frankfurt 1719. Image source: http://www.math.uni-hamburg.de/math/ig n/xyz/ca00-v5.htm#tth_sEc3 PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Peter_Apian.png ![]() [2] A page from Petrus Apianus' Astronomicum Caesareum (1540). Img src: Library of Congress. http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/w orld/world-object.html PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Astronomicum_Caesareum.jpg |
459 YBN [1541 CE] | 1557) Konrad von Gesner (GeSnR) (CE 1516-1565), Swiss naturalist, completes "Historia plantarum", a dictionary of plants. | Zurich, Swizerland (presumably) | ![]() [1] Conrad Gessner (1516-1565), Swiss naturalist. Source Galerie des naturalistes de J. Pizzetta, Ed. Hennuyer, 1893 PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Gessner_Conrad_1516-1565.jpg ![]() [2] Conrad Gesner. Historiae Animalium. (Zurich, 1551ff). http://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/histor icalanatomies/Images/1200_pixels/porcupi ne_33.jpg PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Porcupine_33.jpg |
458 YBN [1542 CE] | 1511) Jean François Fernel (FRneL) (1497-1558), French physician, publishes "Medicina", in which Fernel is the first to use the words "physiology" and "pathology". Fernel is the first to make human dissection an important part of his clinical duties. "Medicina" corrects some of Galen's errors. Fernel is the first to describe an appendicitis. Ferne l describes the central canal of the spinal cord. | ![]() [1] Scientist: Fernel, Jean François (1497 - 1558) Discipline(s): Medicine Print Artist: Nicolas de Larmessin Medium: Woodcut Original Dimensions: Graphic: 16.9 x 13.3 cm / Sheet: 19 x 14.2 cm PD source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D iscipline_1=Medicine | |
458 YBN [1542 CE] | 1540) Leonhard Fuchs (FYUKS), (CE 1501-1566), German botanist, writes "Historia Stirpium", "History of Plants", in which numerous plant species are described in detail. "Historia Stirpium" is a landmark in the development of natural history because of its organized presentation, the accuracy of its drawings and descriptions of plants, and its glossary. Prepares the first important glossary of botanical terms. This will define botany, the study of plants, as a specific branch of science. | Basel, Switzerland | ![]() [1] Leonhart Fuchs, German botanist and author, 16th century Portrait, unbekannter Künstler, o.D. source: http://www.tu-darmstadt.de/fb/bio/bot/fu chsien/ PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Leonhart.fuchs.farbig.jpg ![]() [2] Description Leonard Fuchs Source L C Miall. The History of Biology. Watts and Co. Date 1911 Author L C Miall PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:LeonardFuchsMiall.png |
457 YBN [1543 CE] | 1025) Copernicus writes to Pope Paul III stating that the earliest suggestion he had seen that the earth is in motion, was a statement that he quoted from Cicero's "Academica". | ||
457 YBN [1543 CE] | 1482) Copernicus' (1473-1543) book supporting a sun centered theory is published. A few hundred copies of Nicolaus Copernicus' (1473-1543) book, "De revolutionibus orbium coelestium libri vi" ("Six Books Concerning the Revolutions of the Heavenly Orbs"), are printed (200 copies still exist). The original hand written draft exists and shows that Copernicus crossed out an original reference to Aristarchos (some people suppose the motive for this is so his ideas do not appear to be unoriginal). | written in Frombork, Poland; (printed in)Nuremberg, Germany | ![]() [1] Nicolaus Copernicus (portrait from Toruń - beginning of the 16th century), from http://www.frombork.art.pl/Ang10.htm PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Nikolaus_Kopernikus.jpg ![]() [2] Nicolaus Copernicus PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Copernicus.jpg |
457 YBN [1543 CE] | 1553) Andreas Vesalius (VeSALEuS) (CE 1514-1564), Flemish anatomist, publishes "De Corporis Humani Fabrica" ("On the Structure of the Human Body"), the first accurate book on human anatomy, and the first with illustrations. | Basel, Switzerland | ![]() [1] Portrait of Vesalius from his De humani corporis fabrica (1543). PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Vesalius_Fabrica_portrait.jpg ![]() [2] Image from Andreas Vesalius's De humani corporis fabrica (1543), page 190. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Vesalius_Fabrica_p190.jpg |
455 YBN [1545 CE] | 1537) Girolamo (or Geronimo) Cardano (KoRDoNO) (CE 1501-1576), Italian mathematician, publishes "Ars Magna" (Great Work), the first book to publish a solution for equations of the third degree (or cubic equations). "Ars Magna" also contains the solution of the quartic equation found by Cardano's former servant, Lodovico Ferrari. Cardano is the first to recognize the value of negative and to understand imaginary numbers. Cardano is the first to write a clinical description of Typhus fever. Cardano is the first to understand the water cycle (how water evaporates from the seas into vapor (or gas) and the vapor turns to rain and falls back to the ground and into the oceans from rivers. Cardano writes 200 works. | ?, Italy (presumably) | ![]() [1] Girolamo Cardano, coloured woodcut on the cover of his Practica arithmetica (1539). The Granger Collection, New York PD source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art -15447/Girolamo-Cardano-coloured-woodcut -on-the-cover-of-his-Practica?articleTyp eId=1 ![]() [2] wikipedia contributor typed: I found this picture at the library the other day and haven't ever seen it online before and thought it would make a great addition to the Cardano page. The author was marked as unknown. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:CardanoPortrait.jpg |
455 YBN [1545 CE] | 1543) Ambroise Paré (PorA) (CE 1510-1590), a French surgeon considered by many to be the founder of modern surgery, writes "La Méthod de traicter les playes faites par les arquebuses et aultres bastons à feu", ("The Method of Treating Wounds Made by Harquebuses and Other Guns"), which is ridiculed because it is written in French instead of Latin. Wisely decides to not use boiling oil to treat gunshots Pare ties off arteries to stop bleeding. Summarizes the books of Vesalius into French (so other barber-surgeons can learn anatomy). Pare builds artificial limbs. Pare improves obstetrical (care of a woman during pregnancy) methods. | Paris, France | ![]() [1] Ambroise Paré (ca. 1510-1590), famous French surgeon Posthumous (fantasy) portrait by William Holl (1807-1871) Source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections /hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_name_disp lay_results.cfm?scientist=Par%C3%A9,%20A mbroise PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Ambroise_Par%C3%A9.jpg ![]() [2] Paré, detail of an engraving, 1582 PD source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art -13373/Pare-detail-of-an-engraving-1582? articleTypeId=1 |
454 YBN [1546 CE] | 1507) Georgius Agricola (oGriKOlo) (George Bauer) (1494-1555), German mineralogist, publishes "De natura fossilium", considered the first mineralogy textbook. This book presents the first scientific classification of minerals (based on their physical properties) and describes many new minerals, their occurrence and mutual relationships. | written: Chemnitz, Saxony, Germany| published: Basel, Switzerland | ![]() [1] The ''Father of Mineralogy'', Georgius Agricola. URL: http://kanitz.onlinehome.de/agricolagymn asium/agrigale.htm PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Georgius_Agricola.jpg ![]() [2] Georgius Agricola, portrait from Icones veterum aliquot ac recentium medicorum philosophorumque (1574) by Joannes Sambucus, printed in Antwerp. Courtesy of the Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris[2] PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Georg_Agricola.jpg |
454 YBN [1546 CE] | 1508) Georgius Agricola (1494-1555) publishes "De ortu et causis subterraneorum" and "De natura eorum quae effluunt ex terra". In these books Agricola correctly attributes the origin of ore deposits to deposition from aqueous solution, describes the erosive action of rivers and how erosion shapes mountains. Agricola readily discards the mistakes of ancient authorities such as Aristotle and Pliny. | written: Chemnitz, Saxony, Germany | published: Basel, Switzerland | ![]() [1] The ''Father of Mineralogy'', Georgius Agricola. URL: http://kanitz.onlinehome.de/agricolagymn asium/agrigale.htm PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Georgius_Agricola.jpg ![]() [2] Georgius Agricola, portrait from Icones veterum aliquot ac recentium medicorum philosophorumque (1574) by Joannes Sambucus, printed in Antwerp. Courtesy of the Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris[2] PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Georg_Agricola.jpg |
450 YBN [1550 CE] | 1506) Georgius Agricola (oGriKOlo) (George Bauer) (1494-1555), German mineralogist, writes "De Re Metallica" which will be published a year after his death in 1556. This book summarizes all the knowledge gained by the Saxon miners including drawings of mining machines. | Chemnitz, Saxony, Germany | ![]() [1] The ''Father of Mineralogy'', Georgius Agricola. URL: http://kanitz.onlinehome.de/agricolagymn asium/agrigale.htm PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Georgius_Agricola.jpg ![]() [2] Georgius Agricola, portrait from Icones veterum aliquot ac recentium medicorum philosophorumque (1574) by Joannes Sambucus, printed in Antwerp. Courtesy of the Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris[2] PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Georg_Agricola.jpg |
449 YBN [1551 CE] | 1549) Erasmus Reinhold (rINHOLD) (CE 1511-1553), German mathematician, publishes "Tabulae Prutenicae" (Prussian Tables), the first set of planetary tables based on the sun-centered theory revived by Copernicus. | ![]() [1] Reinhold, Prutenic Tables (1585), title page. [t must be later edition] PD source: http://hsci.cas.ou.edu/images/jp g-100dpi-5in/16thCentury/Reinhold/1585/R einhold-1585-000tp.jpg ![]() [2] Reinhold, Prutenic Tables (1585), 133v. PD source: http://hsci.cas.ou.edu/exhibits/ exhibit.php?exbgrp=9&exbid=52&exbpg=25 | |
448 YBN [1552 CE] | 1545) Bartolomeo Eustachio (YUSToKEO?) (CE c1510-1574), Italian anatomist, completes his book "Tabulae anatomicae". Because Eustachio fears ex-communication by the Catholic Church, he does not publish his work and it will not be published until 1714. In "Anatomical Engravings" Eustachio is the first to describe the adrenal gland. The Eustachian tube is named after Eustachio, although first described by Alcmaeon 2000 years before. Eustachio does a detailed study of teeth. 1552 Eustachio writes a book but will not be published until 1714, with anatomical illustrations (worked on the sympathetic nervous system, kidney and ear) | Rome, Italy | ![]() [1] Description Portrait of Bartolomeus Eustachius, the anatomist. Source Plate from A History of dentistry from the most ancient times until the end of the eighteenth century, by Vincenzo Guerini. Scanned by Google Book Search. Date Plate published 1909; possibly much earlier. Author Unknown (not specified); possibly from one of Eustachius' books. Permission Public domain due to age. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Bartolomeus_Eustachius.jpg ![]() [2] Portrait of Eustachius Eustachi, Bartholomeo (d. 1574) - Tabulae anatomicae. Tabulae anatomicae (Rome, 1783) Title page PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Eustachi01.jpg |
447 YBN [10/27/1553 CE] | 1548) Michael Servetus (SRVETuS) (Spanish: Miguel Servet) (CE 1511-1553), Spanish physician, is burned alive on a stake for heresy in Champel, Geneva, Switzerland. | Geneva, Switzerland | ![]() [1] Miguel Servet, (Villanueva de Sigena 1511- Genevra 1553) Spanish scientist and theologist of the Renaissance. Artist : Christian Fritzsch (author) born in about 1660, Mittweida, Bautzen, Sachsen, Germany. Source: http://mcgovern.library.tmc.edu/data/www /html/people/osler/MS/P000d.htm PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Michael_Servetus.jpg ![]() [2] Servetus, detail from an engraving by Carl Sichem Courtesy of the National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, Md. PD source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art -14212/Servetus-detail-from-an-engraving -by-Carl-Sichem?articleTypeId=1 |
447 YBN [1553 CE] | 1541) Reiner Gemma Frisius (1508-1555), Dutch cartographer, explains that longitude can be measured by using an accurate timepiece, but no accurate timepieces exist at this time. | Friesland (present day Netherlands) | ![]() [1] English: Gemma Frisius, 1508-1555, cartographer and mathematician Source http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollection s/hst/scientific-identity/fullsize/SIL14 -G002-05a.jpg Date 17th century Author Esme de Boulonois PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Gemma_frisius_dockumensis.jpg |
447 YBN [1553 CE] | 1547) Michael Servetus (SRVETuS) (Spanish: Miguel Servet) (CE 1511-1553), Spanish physician, publishes "Christianismi Restitutio" which contains a description of the function of pulmonary circulation. | Toulouse, France (presumably) | ![]() [1] Miguel Servet, (Villanueva de Sigena 1511- Genevra 1553) Spanish scientist and theologist of the Renaissance. Artist : Christian Fritzsch (author) born in about 1660, Mittweida, Bautzen, Sachsen, Germany. Source: http://mcgovern.library.tmc.edu/data/www /html/people/osler/MS/P000d.htm PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Michael_Servetus.jpg ![]() [2] Servetus, detail from an engraving by Carl Sichem Courtesy of the National Library of Medicine, Bethesda, Md. PD source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art -14212/Servetus-detail-from-an-engraving -by-Carl-Sichem?articleTypeId=1 |
445 YBN [1555 CE] | 1561) Pierre Belon (BeLoN) (CE 1517-1564), French Naturalist, publishes "L'histoire de la nature des oyseaux" (1555; "Natural History of Birds"), illustrating, classifying, and describing about 200 species of birds. | France? | ![]() [1] Subject : Pierre Belon (1517-1564) French zoologist PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Belon_Pierre_1517-1564.jpg ![]() [2] Birds and Humans skeleton comparison from 1555 Source History of Biology Date 1911 PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:BelonBirdSkel.jpg |
442 YBN [1558 CE] | 1556) Konrad von Gesner (GeSnR) (CE 1516-1565), Swiss naturalist, completes "Historia animalium" (1551-8), an exhaustive effort to describe all known animals. | Zurich, Swizerland (presumably) | ![]() [1] Conrad Gessner (1516-1565), Swiss naturalist. Source Galerie des naturalistes de J. Pizzetta, Ed. Hennuyer, 1893 PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Gessner_Conrad_1516-1565.jpg ![]() [2] Conrad Gesner. Historiae Animalium. (Zurich, 1551ff). http://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/histor icalanatomies/Images/1200_pixels/porcupi ne_33.jpg PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Porcupine_33.jpg |
441 YBN [1559 CE] | 1544) Realdo Colombo (KOlOMBO) (CE c1510-1559), Italian anatomist, writes "De re anatomica" (1559; "On Things Anatomical"), which clearly describes the passage of blood between the heart and lungs (pulmonary circulation). | Rome, Italy (presumably) | ![]() [1] Matteo colombo, anatomista del s.XVI. Óleo de autor anónimo. Matteo Realdo Colombo. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Matteocolombo.jpg |
440 YBN [1560 CE] | 1538) Girolamo (or Geronimo) Cardano (KoRDoNO) (CE 1501-1576), Italian mathematician, writes "Liber de ludo aleae" (The Book on Games of Chance), which presents the first systematic computations of probabilities, a century before Blaise Pascal and Pierre de Fermat. | Italy | ![]() [1] Girolamo Cardano, coloured woodcut on the cover of his Practica arithmetica (1539). The Granger Collection, New York PD source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art -15447/Girolamo-Cardano-coloured-woodcut -on-the-cover-of-his-Practica?articleTyp eId=1 ![]() [2] wikipedia contributor typed: I found this picture at the library the other day and haven't ever seen it online before and thought it would make a great addition to the Cardano page. The author was marked as unknown. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:CardanoPortrait.jpg |
440 YBN [1560 CE] | 1563) Giambattista della Porta (PoURTo) (1535-1615), Italian physicist, forms the first scientific society (associations for scholars to communicate), named "Accademia Secretorus Naturae". | ![]() [1] Giambattista della Porta PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Dellaporta.jpg | |
439 YBN [1561 CE] | 1562) Gabriel Fallopius (FoLOPEuS) (CE 1523-1562), Italian anatomist, publishes "Observationes anatomicae", in which he identifies the tubes that connect the ovaries to the uterus (now known as fallopian tubes) and several major nerves of the head and face. Fallopius describes the semicircular canals of the inner ear (responsible for maintaining body (balance)). Fallopius names the "vagina", "placenta", "clitoris", "palate", and "cochlea" (the snail-shaped organ of hearing in the inner ear). The actual function of the Fallopian tubes, where sperm fertilizes the ovum, will not be known for 200 years. | Venice, Italy | ![]() [1] 16th century portrait by unknown artist Retrieved from http://www.peoples.ru/science/professor/ gabriello/ PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Gabriele_Falloppio.jpg ![]() [2] Gabriel Fallopius, coloured copper engraving, 17th century. The Granger Collection, New York PD source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art -15449/Gabriel-Fallopius-coloured-copper -engraving-17th-century?articleTypeId=1 |
433 YBN [1567 CE] | 1512) Jean François Fernel's (FRneL) (1497-1558) most comprehensive work, "Universa medicina", is published posthumously. In this book Frenel describes peristalsis (the rhythmic contraction of smooth muscles to propel contents through the digestive tract.), and the heart's systole (the contraction of the chambers of the heart, driving blood out of the chambers.) and diastole (the period of time when the heart relaxes after contraction). | ![]() [1] Scientist: Fernel, Jean François (1497 - 1558) Discipline(s): Medicine Print Artist: Nicolas de Larmessin Medium: Woodcut Original Dimensions: Graphic: 16.9 x 13.3 cm / Sheet: 19 x 14.2 cm PD source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D iscipline_1=Medicine | |
431 YBN [1569 CE] | 1550) Gerardus Mercator mRKATR (CE 1512-1594), publishes a world map with the Mercator projection, which allows lines of latitude and longitude to be straight instead of curved. | Duchy of Cleves, Germany (presumably) | ![]() [1] Portrait of en:Gerardus Mercator Source Originally from en.wikipedia; description page is/was here. (Original text : http://www.nmm.ac.uk/collections/prints/ viewRepro.cfm?reproID=PU2381) PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Mercator.jpg ![]() [2] Gerardus Mercator, Atlas sive Cosmographicae Meditationes de Fabrica Mundi et Fabricati Figura, Duisburg, 1595. from http://octavo.com/collections/projects/m crats/index.html PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Mercator_World_Map.jpg |
431 YBN [1569 CE] | 1551) Gerardus Mercator mRKATR (CE 1512-1594), publishes a chronology of the world from the Creation to 1568. | Duchy of Cleves, Germany (presumably) | ![]() [1] Portrait of en:Gerardus Mercator Source Originally from en.wikipedia; description page is/was here. (Original text : http://www.nmm.ac.uk/collections/prints/ viewRepro.cfm?reproID=PU2381) PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Mercator.jpg ![]() [2] Gerardus Mercator, Atlas sive Cosmographicae Meditationes de Fabrica Mundi et Fabricati Figura, Duisburg, 1595. from http://octavo.com/collections/projects/m crats/index.html PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Mercator_World_Map.jpg |
431 YBN [1569 CE] | 1992) Rafael Bombelli (CE 1526-1572) is the first to use the symbol "i" for the square root of -1. | Bologna, Italy | ![]() [1] Rafael Bombelli Source unknown contemporary? PD? COPYRIGHTED? source: http://www-history.mcs.st-andrew s.ac.uk/PictDisplay/Bombelli.html |
428 YBN [11/11/1572 CE] | 1573) Tycho Brahe (TIKO BroHA) (CE 1546-1601), Danish Astronomer observes an exploded star (now called SN 1572) in the constellation Cassiopeia, as bright as Venus. | Scania, Denmark (now Sweden) | ![]() [1] The astronomer Tycho Brahe Source http://measure.igpp.ucla.edu/solar-terr estrial-luminaries/brahe.JPG PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Tycho_Brahe.JPG ![]() [2] Tycho Brahe, engraving by Hendrik Goltzius of a drawing by an unknown artist, c. 1586. Courtesy of Det Nationalhistoriske Museum på Frederiksborg, Den. PD source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art -9034/Tycho-Brahe-engraving-by-Hendrik-G oltzius-of-a-drawing-by?articleTypeId=1 |
427 YBN [1573 CE] | 1574) Tycho Brahe (TIKO BroHA) (CE 1546-1601), Danish Astronomer, publishes "De nova stella" ("Concerning the new star"), which records his observation of an apparently new star (now named SN 1572). | Herrevad Abbey, an abbey near Ljungbyhed, Scania, Denmark (now Sweden) | ![]() [1] The astronomer Tycho Brahe Source http://measure.igpp.ucla.edu/solar-terr estrial-luminaries/brahe.JPG PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Tycho_Brahe.JPG ![]() [2] Tycho Brahe, engraving by Hendrik Goltzius of a drawing by an unknown artist, c. 1586. Courtesy of Det Nationalhistoriske Museum på Frederiksborg, Den. PD source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art -9034/Tycho-Brahe-engraving-by-Hendrik-G oltzius-of-a-drawing-by?articleTypeId=1 |
427 YBN [1573 CE] | 1575) Tycho Brahe (TIKO BroHA) (CE 1546-1601), Danish Astronomer, publishes "De mundi aetherei recentioribus phenomenis" ("?"), in which Tycho proves that the great comet of 1577 had to be at least six times farther than the moon, and this provides another criticism of the claim recorded by Aristotle that no change can occur above the orbit of the moon. | Island of Hven (now Ven, Sweden) | ![]() [1] The astronomer Tycho Brahe Source http://measure.igpp.ucla.edu/solar-terr estrial-luminaries/brahe.JPG PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Tycho_Brahe.JPG ![]() [2] Tycho Brahe, engraving by Hendrik Goltzius of a drawing by an unknown artist, c. 1586. Courtesy of Det Nationalhistoriske Museum på Frederiksborg, Den. PD source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art -9034/Tycho-Brahe-engraving-by-Hendrik-G oltzius-of-a-drawing-by?articleTypeId=1 |
419 YBN [1581 CE] | 1588) Robert Norman (CE 1560-?) , English navigator, publishes "The Newe Attractive", which shows that a compass needle allowed to swing up and down points down below the horizon. Gilbert also recognizes this. | London, England | |
418 YBN [1582 CE] | 1566) The proposal to reform the Julian calendar by the German astronomer, Christoph Clavius (KloVEUS) (CE 1537-1612), is accepted at an astronomical conference in Rome. Pope Gregory XII approves this change, and so the calendar is called the Gregorian calendar. Eleven days are dropped so that October 15,1582 is the day after October 4, 1582. With the Gregorian calendar, February 29th is omitted in century years which are not divisible by 400. | Rome, Italy | ![]() [1] Christopher Clavius (1538-1612), German mathematician and astronomer. Immediate source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections /hst/scientific-identity/fullsize/SIL14- C4-02a.jpg Ultimate source: A 16th century engraving after a painting by Francisco Villamena. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Christopher_Clavius.jpg |
417 YBN [1583 CE] | 1569) Joseph Justus Scaliger (SkoLiJR) (CE 1540-1609), French historian and astronomer, publishes "Opus de emendatione tempore" (1583; "Study on the Improvement of Time"), a study of earlier calendars. In this book Scaliger compares the computations of time made by the various civilizations of the past, corrects their errors, and is the first to places chronology on a solidly scientific basis. Scaliger founds the "Julian Day" system, where January 1, 4713 BCE is set to day 1. This system forms a standard for astronomers through periods of various diverse calendars, and is still used today. | ?, France | ![]() [1] Joseph Justus Scaliger source: http://www.telemachos.hu-berlin.de/bilde r/gudeman/gudeman.html PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Joseph_Justus_Scaliger.JPG ![]() [2] Joseph Justus Scaliger, oil painting by an unknown French artist, 17th century; in the Musée de Versailles Cliche Musees Nationaux PD source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art -14115/Joseph-Justus-Scaliger-oil-painti ng-by-an-unknown-French-artist?articleTy peId=1 |
416 YBN [1584 CE] | 1576) Giordano Bruno (CE 1548-1600), Italian philosopher, writes 6 Italian Dialogs in which he explains his belief in the infinity of space, that the earth goes around the sun (heliocentric theory), and the atom theory. | Oxford, England | ![]() [1] Giordano Bruno PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Giordano_Bruno.jpg ![]() [2] Statue of Giordano Bruno in Campo de Fiori, Rome, Italy. This monument was erected in 1889, by Italian Masonic circles, in the site where he was burned alive for opposing the Catholic church authority. GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Brunostatue.jpg |
415 YBN [1585 CE] | 1581) Simon Stevin (STEVen) (CE 1548-1620) , publishes a small pamphlet in Dutch, "La Thiende" ("The Tenth"), which contains the introduction of a decimal system of notating fractions. | Netherlands (presumably) | ![]() [1] Simon Stevin, from English wikipedia. Older than 100 years, so it's Public Domain for countries with a copyright term of life of the author plus 100 years from en: Portrait by an unknown artist, library of University of Leiden. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Simon-stevin.jpeg ![]() [2] Image made by user:Branko. GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Stevin-decimal_notation.png |
414 YBN [1586 CE] | 1415) Baha' al-Din Muhammad ibn Husayn al-'Amili (CE 1546-1622), writes works in mathematics and astronomy summarizing earlier scientists and is causes a revival in mathematics in Iran which was neglected for more than 100 years. | Isfahan, Iran | |
414 YBN [1586 CE] | 1582) Simon Stevin (STEVen) (CE 1548-1620) , publishes "De Beghinselen der Weeghconst" (1586; "Statics and Hydrostatics") which explains Stevin's discovery that the downward pressure of a liquid is independent of the shape of its vessel and depends only on its height and area of the surface. | (possibly Antwerp or Nassau), Netherlands | ![]() [1] Simon Stevin, from English wikipedia. Older than 100 years, so it's Public Domain for countries with a copyright term of life of the author plus 100 years from en: Portrait by an unknown artist, library of University of Leiden. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Simon-stevin.jpeg |
414 YBN [1586 CE] | 1583) Simon Stevin (STEVen) (CE 1548-1620) , publishes a report on his experiment in which two lead spheres, one 10 times as heavy as the other, fall a distance of 30 feet in the same time. The first to do this experiment is usually wrongly credited to Galileo. | Netherlands (presumably) | ![]() [1] Simon Stevin, from English wikipedia. Older than 100 years, so it's Public Domain for countries with a copyright term of life of the author plus 100 years from en: Portrait by an unknown artist, library of University of Leiden. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Simon-stevin.jpeg |
411 YBN [1589 CE] | 1182) John Harrington (1561 - November 20, 1612) invents the first modern flush toilet. | Somerset, England | ![]() [1] Portrait of Sir John Harrington PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Sirjharrington.gif ![]() [2] Diagram of Harrington's toilet. [t: says Cummings Closet..is really Harington's?] source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:CummingsCloset.gif |
410 YBN [1590 CE] | 1580) Giordano Bruno (CE 1548-1600), Italian philosopher, writes "De immenso, innumerabilibus et infigurabilibus" ("On the Immeasurable and Innumerable"), describe the concept of an atomic basis of matter and being. | Frankfurt am Main, Germany | ![]() [1] Giordano Bruno PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Giordano_Bruno.jpg ![]() [2] Statue of Giordano Bruno in Campo de Fiori, Rome, Italy. This monument was erected in 1889, by Italian Masonic circles, in the site where he was burned alive for opposing the Catholic church authority. GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Brunostatue.jpg |
409 YBN [1591 CE] | 1568) Franciscus Vieta (VYATu) (CE 1540-1609), French mathematician, publishes "In artem analyticem isagoge" (1591; "Introduction to the Analytical Arts"), which closely resembles a modern elementary algebra text. Vieta is first to use letters to symbolize constant and unknown numbers, using consonents for constants and vowels for unknowns. Uses Archimedes method of using polygons to estimate pi. using 393,216 sides in his calculation he gets the value of pi accurate to 10 decimal places, the most accurate value up to this time. | ?, France | ![]() [1] François Viète. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Francois_Viete.jpg |
408 YBN [1592 CE] | 1587) Prospero Alpini (oLPEnE) (CE 1553-1616) , Italian botanist, prints "De plantis Aegypti liber" (1592; "Book of Egyptian Plants") which includes the first European botanical accounts of coffee, banana, and a genus of the ginger family. Alpini is the first to recognize that plants have gender. | Venice, Italy | ![]() [1] Prospero Alpini PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Prospero_Alpini.jpg ![]() [2] Alpini, engraving Courtesy of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford PD source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art -8320/Alpini-engraving?articleTypeId=1 |
407 YBN [1593 CE] | 1613) Galileo Galilei's (CE 1564-1642) constructs a thermometer (he calls a thermoscope, using the expansion and contraction of air in a bulb to move water in an attached tube. | Padua, Italy | ![]() [1] Galileo's Letter to Prince of Venice PD source: http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo /ganymede/manuscript1.jpg ![]() [2] Galileo's illustrations of the Moon, from his Sidereus Nuncius (1610; The Sidereal Messenger). Courtesy of the Joseph Regenstein Library, The University of Chicago PD source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art -2914/Galileos-illustrations-of-the-Moon -from-his-Sidereus-Nuncius?articleTypeId =1 |
405 YBN [1595 CE] | 1586) John Napier (nAPER) (CE 1550-1617), Scottish mathematician, writes a manuscript which describes four weapons: two kinds of mirrors that burn opponents using light, a piece of artillery, and a battle vehicle covered with metal plates having small holes for emission of offensive firepower and moved and directed by men inside, although none are ever built. | Scotland (presumably) | ![]() [1] Painting of John Napier PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:John_Napier_%28Painting%29.jpeg ![]() [2] John Napier PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:John_Napier.JPG |
404 YBN [08/??/1596 CE] | 1616) David Fabricius (FoBrisEuS) (CE 1564-1617) , German astronomer, finds the first variable star, a star that shows periodic changes in brightness. Fabricius finds this star (what will be called Omicron Ceti, and later "Mira") before the use of the telescope, but is one of the first after Galileo to start using a telescope for astronomical observations. | Esens, Frisia (now northwest Germany and northeast Netherlands) (guess) | ![]() [1] David Fabricius (1564-1617) UNKNOWN source: http://www.tayabeixo.org/biograf ias/mar_1q.htm |
404 YBN [1596 CE] | 1621) Johannes Kepler (CE 1571-1630) publishes his first major astronomical work, "Mysterium Cosmographicum" ("The Sacred Mystery of the Cosmos"), the first published defense of the Copernican system. | Graz, Austria | ![]() [1] model of the Solar system from Mysterium Cosmographicum (1596). from http://phoenixandturtle.net/images/keple r.jpg PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Kepler-solar-system-1.png ![]() [2] Kepler's Platonic solid model of the Solar system from Mysterium Cosmographicum (1596). From: http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhe dra/figs/kepler-spheres-2.jpg included in the page: http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhe dra/kepler.html (scroll to the bottom) PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Kepler-solar-system-2.png |
400 YBN [02/17/1600 CE] | 1578) Giordano Bruno (CE 1548-1600), Italian philosopher, is burned alive at the stake. | Rome, Italy | ![]() [1] Giordano Bruno PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Giordano_Bruno.jpg ![]() [2] Statue of Giordano Bruno in Campo de Fiori, Rome, Italy. This monument was erected in 1889, by Italian Masonic circles, in the site where he was burned alive for opposing the Catholic church authority. GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Brunostatue.jpg |
400 YBN [1600 CE] | 1564) Hieronymus Fabricius ab Aquapendente (FoBrEsEuS) (CE 1537-1619), Italian physician, publishes "De Formato Foetu" (1600; "On the Formation of the Fetus"), which summarizes his investigations of the fetal development of many animals, including human, contains the first detailed description of the placenta and opens the field of comparative embryology. In this book, Fabricius gives the first full account of the larynx as a vocal organ and is the first to demonstrate that the pupil of the eye changes its size. Corrects Vesalius who puts eye lens in middle of eye, by correctly describing the lens as near the forward (front) rim. | Padua, Italy (presumably) | ![]() [1] Girolamo Fabrizi d'Acquapendente (1537-1619) PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Girolamo_Fabrizi_d%27Acquapendente.jp g ![]() [2] Fabricius ab Aquapendente, oil painting by an unknown artist Alinari-Art Resource/EB Inc. PD source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art -10511/Fabricius-ab-Aquapendente-oil-pai nting-by-an-unknown-artist?articleTypeId =1 |
400 YBN [1600 CE] | 1571) William Gilbert (CE 1544-1603), English physician and physicist, publishes "De Magnete, Magneticisque Corporibus, et de Magno Magnete Tellure" (1600; "On the Magnet, Magnetic Bodies, and the Great Magnet of the Earth"), which describes his research on magnetic bodies and electrical attractions. From experiments involving a spherical lodestone, the most powerful magnet then available, Gilbert concludes that the earth is a spherical magnet and recognizes that the compass points to magnetic poles not up to the stars (or heavens) as wrongly thought. Gilbert works with amber which is known to attract light objects after being rubbed with a cloth, Gilbert extends this knowledge by finding other substances including rock crystal, and a variety of gems that show the same property. Gilbert labels these objects "electrics" from the Greek word for Amber "Elektron". Gilbert is the first to use the terms electric attraction, electric force, and magnetic pole and is often considered the father of electrical studies. Gilbert invents the first known electroscope, a device to measure the quantity of static electricity. This is the versorium or electrical needle, which consists simply of a light metallic needle balanced on a pivot like a compass needle. | London, England (presumably) | ![]() [1] Paiting of William Gilbert (1544 - 1603) Source http://physics.ship.edu/~mrc/pfs/110/in side_out/vu1/Galileo/Images/Port/gilbert .gif Date Author Unknown, after title page of De Magnete (1600) PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:William_Gilbert.jpg ![]() [2] Drawing in Gilbert's book showing the downward slant of the magnetic force. PD source: http://istp.gsfc.nasa.gov/earthm ag/upto1600.htm |
398 YBN [1602 CE] | 1594) Sanctorius Sanctorius (SANKTOrEuS) (CE 1561-1636) , Italian physician, invents a pulse clock, a "pulsilogium". | Padua, Italy (presumably) | ![]() [1] Engraving of Sanctorius of Padua PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Sanctorius.jpg ![]() [2] Santorio, marble portrait bust Alinari/Art Resource, New York PD source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art -14072/Santorio-marble-portrait-bust?art icleTypeId=1 |
397 YBN [1603 CE] | 1565) Hieronymus Fabricius ab Aquapendente (FoBrEsEuS) (CE 1537-1619), Italian physician, publishes "De Venarum Ostiolis" (1603; "On the Valves of the Veins"), which contains the first clear description of the semilunar (one-way) valves of the veins, which will later provided Harvey with a crucial point in his argument for circulation of the blood. | Padua, Italy (presumably) | ![]() [1] Girolamo Fabrizi d'Acquapendente (1537-1619) PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Girolamo_Fabrizi_d%27Acquapendente.jp g ![]() [2] Fabricius ab Aquapendente, oil painting by an unknown artist Alinari-Art Resource/EB Inc. PD source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art -10511/Fabricius-ab-Aquapendente-oil-pai nting-by-an-unknown-artist?articleTypeId =1 |
397 YBN [1603 CE] | 1636) Johann Bayer (BIR) (CE 1572-1625), German astronomer, publishes "Uranometria", the first star catalog to show the entire celestial sphere, and invents an ordered star naming system of listing each star in a constellation in order of brightness. | Augsburg, Germany | ![]() [1] The constellation of Hydrus was first published in Johann Bayer's Uranometria atlas. Bayer's Uranometria opened a new age in the history of celestial cartography, and was praised for the careful placement of star positions and brightnesses and for its attractive plates. Click on the above image for an enlarged view. Image credit: U.S. Naval Observatory Library PD source: http://www.aavso.org/images/baye r.jpg ![]() [2] A print of the copperplate engraving for Johann Bayer's Uranometria showing the constellation Orion. This image is courtesy of the United States Naval Observatory Library, who gives explicit permission to use it so long as the attribution is attached. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Uranometria_orion.jpg |
396 YBN [01/01/1604 CE] | 1622) Johannes Kepler (CE 1571-1630) publishes "Astronomiae Pars Optica" ("The Optical Part of Astronomy") In this book Kepler describes the inverse-square law governing the intensity of light, reflection by flat and curved mirrors, and principles of pinhole cameras, as well as the astronomical implications of optics such as parallax and the apparent sizes of heavenly bodies. "Astronomiae Pars Optica" is generally recognized as the foundation of modern optics (though the law of refraction is conspicuously absent). | Prague, (now: Czech Republic) (presumably) | ![]() [1] A plate from Johannes Kepler's Ad Vitellionem Paralipomena, quibus Astronomiae Pars Optica (1604), illustrating the structure of eyes. Source: http://www.hps.cam.ac.uk/starry/keplerbo oks.html PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Kepler_Optica.jpg ![]() [2] Johannes Kepler, oil painting by an unknown artist, 1627; in the cathedral, Strasbourg, France. Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York PD source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art -2965/Johannes-Kepler-oil-painting-by-an -unknown-artist-1627-in?articleTypeId=1 |
396 YBN [1604 CE] | 1635) Johannes Kepler (CE 1571-1630) publishes "Ad Vitellionem Paralipomena, Quibus Astronomiae Pars Optica Traditur" (1604; "Supplement to Witelo, in Which Is Expounded the Optical Part of Astronomy") which contains the first accurate description of how light from a single point forms a cone with a circular base at the pupil, and then meets again at a single point on the retina. | Prague, (now: Czech Republic) (presumably) | ![]() [1] A diagram from Johannes Kepler's 1611 Strena Seu de Nive Sexangula, illustrating what came to be known as the Kepler conjecture. Source: http://www.math.sunysb.edu/~tony/whatsne w/column/pennies-1200/cass1.html PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Kepler_conjecture_2.jpg ![]() [2] Johannes Kepler, oil painting by an unknown artist, 1627; in the cathedral, Strasbourg, France. Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York PD source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art -2965/Johannes-Kepler-oil-painting-by-an -unknown-artist-1627-in?articleTypeId=1 |
395 YBN [1605 CE] | 1590) Francis Bacon (CE 1561-1626) , English philosopher, published "Advancement of Learning", in which he argues against mysticism and tradition. | London, England (presumably) | ![]() [1] Sir Francis Bacon [t notice the collar, interesting how things like that come in and go out of popularity] PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Francis_Bacon.jpg ![]() [2] Francis Bacon, engraving by William Marshall, 1640 Mary Evans Picture Library PD source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art -8669/Francis-Bacon-engraving-by-William -Marshall-1640?articleTypeId=1 |
395 YBN [1605 CE] | 1630) Using Tycho Brahe's observations, Johannes Kepler (CE 1571-1630) recognizes that Mars moves in an elliptical orbit. | Prague, (now: Czech Republic) | ![]() [1] A diagram from Johannes Kepler's 1611 Strena Seu de Nive Sexangula, illustrating what came to be known as the Kepler conjecture. Source: http://www.math.sunysb.edu/~tony/whatsne w/column/pennies-1200/cass1.html PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Kepler_conjecture_2.jpg ![]() [2] Johannes Kepler, oil painting by an unknown artist, 1627; in the cathedral, Strasbourg, France. Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York PD source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art -2965/Johannes-Kepler-oil-painting-by-an -unknown-artist-1627-in?articleTypeId=1 |
394 YBN [1606 CE] | 1570) French historian and astronomer Joseph Justus Scaliger's (SkoLiJR) (CE 1540-1609) book "Thesaurus temporum, complectens Eusebi Pamphili Chronicon" (1606; "The Thesaurus of Time, Including the Chronicle of Eusebius Pamphilus") is published. This book is a reconstruction of the Chronicle of the early Christian historian Eusebius Pamphilus and a collection of Greek and Latin remnants placed in chronological order. Scaliger founds the "Julian Day" system, where January 1, 4713 BCE is set to day 1. This system forms a standard for astronomers through periods of various diverse calendars, and is still used today. | Leiden, Netherlands (presumably) | ![]() [1] Joseph Justus Scaliger source: http://www.telemachos.hu-berlin.de/bilde r/gudeman/gudeman.html PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Joseph_Justus_Scaliger.JPG ![]() [2] Joseph Justus Scaliger, oil painting by an unknown French artist, 17th century; in the Musée de Versailles Cliche Musees Nationaux PD source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art -14115/Joseph-Justus-Scaliger-oil-painti ng-by-an-unknown-French-artist?articleTy peId=1 |
394 YBN [1606 CE] | 1589) Andreas Libavius (liBAVEuS) (CE 1560-1616) , German alchemist, publishes "Alchymia" (1606; "Alchemy"), the first systematic chemistry textbook, in which Libavius is the first to describe the preparation of hydrochloric acid. tin tetrachloride, ammonium sulfate, and antimony sulfide. | ||
392 YBN [1608 CE] | 1618) Hans Lippershey (LiPRsE) (CE 1570-1619), German-Dutch optician, invents the first telescope (and microscope). Lippershey had placed a double convex lens (the "object glass") at the farther end of a tube, and a double concave lens (the "eyepiece") at the nearer end. An apprentice of Lippershey's accidentally finds that looking through two lens makes distant objects appear closer. Lippershey mounts two lens in a tube, and tries to sell them. Recognizing the use of the instrument in warfare, the government tries to keep it a secret, but having heard rumors about this device, Galileo in Italy, quickly constructes one. This is a refracting telescope, which spreads light out using two transparent lens. | Middelburg, Netherlands (presumably) | ![]() [1] Hans Lippershey (1570-September 1619), Dutch lensmaker. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Hans_Lippershey.jpg |
391 YBN [08/??/1609 CE] | 1603) Galileo presents a telescope that can magnify object 8 times larger to the Venetian Senate. Galileo is rewarded with life tenure (which makes being fired very difficult) and a doubling of his salary. Galileo is now one of the highest-paid professors at the University of Padua. | Venice, Italy | ![]() [1] Two of Galileo's first telescopes; in the Institute and Museum of the History of Science, Florence. Scala/Art Resource, New York PD source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art -2916/Two-of-Galileos-first-telescopes-i n-the-Institute-and-Museum?articleTypeId =1 ![]() [2] Galileo Galilei. Portrait in crayon by Leoni Source: French WP (Utilisateur:Kelson via http://iafosun.ifsi.rm.cnr.it/~iafolla/h ome/homegrsp.html) PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Galilee.jpg |
391 YBN [1609 CE] | 1599) Galileo Galilei (GoLilAO) (CE 1564-1642), understands that the distance covered by a falling body is proportional to the square of the elapsed time. This law is called the "Law of falling bodies". In empty space, all bodies fall to earth with the same constant acceleration and in proportion to the square of time. This motion is called uniformly accelerated motion. This law will later be expressed (by whom) as s = 1/2 (at2), where s is distance, t is time, and a is acceleration. (state by whom) Galileo finds that the trajectory of a projectile is a parabola. | Padua, Italy | ![]() [1] Galileo Galilei. Portrait in crayon by Leoni Source: French WP (Utilisateur:Kelson via http://iafosun.ifsi.rm.cnr.it/~iafolla/h ome/homegrsp.html) PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Galilee.jpg ![]() [2] Original portrait of Galileo Galilei by Justus Sustermans painted in 1636. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg |
391 YBN [1609 CE] | 1602) Galileo builds a telescope (that can also be used as a microscope) after hearing about the invention created in Holland. | ?, Italy | ![]() [1] Galileo Galilei. Portrait in crayon by Leoni Source: French WP (Utilisateur:Kelson via http://iafosun.ifsi.rm.cnr.it/~iafolla/h ome/homegrsp.html) PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Galilee.jpg ![]() [2] Original portrait of Galileo Galilei by Justus Sustermans painted in 1636. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg |
391 YBN [1609 CE] | 1619) Johannes Kepler (CE 1571-1630) understands that planets move in elliptical orbits. Johannes Kepler (CE 1571-1630) understands that planets move in elliptical orbits with the Sun at one focus of the ellipse and that the variable velocities of the planets are due to their varying distances from the Sun. Johannes Kepler (CE 1571-1630), German astronomer publishes "Astronomia Nova" ("A New Astronomy") which contains his first 2 laws of planetary motion: (1) the planets move in elliptical orbits with the Sun at one focus (2) the time needed to move through any arc of a planetary orbit is proportional to the area of the sector between the central body and that arc ("the area law"). | Weil der Stadt (now part of the Stuttgart Region in the German state of Baden-Württemberg, 30 km west of Stuttgart's center) | ![]() [1] Johannes Kepler, oil painting by an unknown artist, 1627; in the cathedral, Strasbourg, France. Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York PD source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art -2965/Johannes-Kepler-oil-painting-by-an -unknown-artist-1627-in?articleTypeId=1 ![]() [2] A 1610 portrait of Johannes Kepler by an unknown PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Johannes_Kepler_1610.jpg |
390 YBN [01/??/1610 CE] | 1605) Galileo sees four moons revolving around Jupiter and determines their period. Galileo finds that planet Jupiter has four moons visible only by telescope, that circle Jupiter with regular motions. Within a few weeks Galileo determines the periods of each moon. Galileo is the first to see that planet Venus has phases like the moon. Galileo also finds many more stars can be seen with the telescope than with the naked eye. Galileo describes these earthshaking finds in a little book, "Sidereus Nuncius" ("The Sidereal Messenger"). (in Latin?) Jupiter and it's moons is an example of small bodies orbiting a large body and this is evidence in support of the sun-centered theory, and is definite proof that not all bodies orbit the earth. Galileo is first to see that the planets appear as globes, but the stars appears as points, and concludes that the stars must be very far away, and that the universe may be infinitely large (again this logical view of the infinite universe is still not accepted today 400 years later). Galileo records the first clearly documented use of the compound microscope when using his telescope as a microscope to observe insects. An interesting truth is that a telescope and microscope are the same thing in that they take a small area and spread it out. There is not much purpose for humans in taking a large area and compacting it together into a small area. | Venice, Italy | ![]() [1] Galileo's Letter to Prince of Venice PD source: http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo /ganymede/manuscript1.jpg ![]() [2] Galileo's illustrations of the Moon, from his Sidereus Nuncius (1610; The Sidereal Messenger). Courtesy of the Joseph Regenstein Library, The University of Chicago PD source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art -2914/Galileos-illustrations-of-the-Moon -from-his-Sidereus-Nuncius?articleTypeId =1 |
389 YBN [06/??/1611 CE] | 1617) Johannes Fabricius (FoBrisEuS) (CE 1587-1615) is the first to show that the Sun rotates around its own axis. Johannes Fabricius (FoBrisEuS) (CE 1587-1615), German astronomer, is the first to show that the Sun rotates around its own axis in a book published in June of 1611. | Esens, Frisia (now northwest Germany and northeast Netherlands) (guess) | ![]() [1] Johannes Fabricius PD source: http://www.daviddarling.info/enc yclopedia/F/Fabricius.html |
389 YBN [1611 CE] | 1627) Johannes Kepler (CE 1571-1630) circulates a manuscript that will be published posthumously as "Somnium" ("The Dream") about a man who travels to the moon in a dream, and is the first science fiction (or futuristic) book. | Prague, (now: Czech Republic) | ![]() [1] ''SOMNIUM'' 1634 PD source: http://www.um.zagan.pl/kepler/im age/somnium.jpg ![]() [2] Johannes Kepler, oil painting by an unknown artist, 1627; in the cathedral, Strasbourg, France. Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York PD source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art -2965/Johannes-Kepler-oil-painting-by-an -unknown-artist-1627-in?articleTypeId=1 |
389 YBN [1611 CE] | 1628) Johannes Kepler (CE 1571-1630) publishes a short pamphlet entitled "Strena Seu de Nive Sexangula" ("A New Year's Gift of Hexagonal Snow") which investigates an atomistic basis for the symmetry of snowflakes, and explores the most efficient way to pack spheres. | Prague, (now: Czech Republic) | ![]() [1] A diagram from Johannes Kepler's 1611 Strena Seu de Nive Sexangula, illustrating what came to be known as the Kepler conjecture. Source: http://www.math.sunysb.edu/~tony/whatsne w/column/pennies-1200/cass1.html PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Kepler_conjecture_2.jpg ![]() [2] Johannes Kepler, oil painting by an unknown artist, 1627; in the cathedral, Strasbourg, France. Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York PD source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art -2965/Johannes-Kepler-oil-painting-by-an -unknown-artist-1627-in?articleTypeId=1 |
389 YBN [1611 CE] | 1629) Johannes Kepler (CE 1571-1630) completes the publishing of "Epitome astronomiae Copernicanae" ("Epitome of Copernican Astronomy") (published in three parts from 1618-1621), the first textbook of Copernican astronomy. | Prague, (now: Czech Republic) | ![]() [1] A diagram from Johannes Kepler's 1611 Strena Seu de Nive Sexangula, illustrating what came to be known as the Kepler conjecture. Source: http://www.math.sunysb.edu/~tony/whatsne w/column/pennies-1200/cass1.html PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Kepler_conjecture_2.jpg ![]() [2] Johannes Kepler, oil painting by an unknown artist, 1627; in the cathedral, Strasbourg, France. Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York PD source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art -2965/Johannes-Kepler-oil-painting-by-an -unknown-artist-1627-in?articleTypeId=1 |
389 YBN [1611 CE] | 1637) Simon Marius (CE 1573-1624) , German Astronomer, publishes the first telescopic observation of the Andromeda galaxy, describing the sight as "like a candle seen at night through a horn" (referring to horn lanterns, then common). | ??, Germany | ![]() [1] Simon Marius, (January 10, 1573 - December 26, 1624), German astronomer. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Simon_Marius.jpg |
388 YBN [01/12/1612 CE] | 1642) Christoph Scheiner (siGnR? or sInR?) (CE 1575-1650), German Astronomer, publishes "Tres Epistolae de Maculis Solaribus" ("Three Letters on Solar Spots"), in which he claims to have observed sunspots on a projection of the Sun, before Galileo on March in 1611, which Galileo disputes. This results in a controversy with Galileo, who claims that he was the first to discover sunspots. Scheiner publishes this book under the pseudonym "Apelles latens post tabulam", or "Apelles hiding behind the painting". | Ingolstadt, Bavaria, Germany (presumably) | ![]() [1] Sunspot plate from Scheiner's ``Tres Epistolae'' (650 x 505; 250K) http://www.math.yorku.ca/SCS/Gall ery/milestone/sec3.html PD/Corel source: http://cnx.rice.edu/content/m119 70/latest/tres_epistolae.gif ![]() [2] Christoph Scheiner No source specified. Please edit this image description and provide a source. Date 1725 PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Scheiner_christoph.gif |
388 YBN [1612 CE] | 1595) Sanctorius Sanctorius (SANKTOrEuS) (CE 1561-1636) , Italian physician, is the first to use a thermometer (one invented by Galileo that uses a liquid and air trapped in a tube) to measure the temperature of humans. | Padua, Italy (presumably) | ![]() [1] Engraving of Sanctorius of Padua PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Sanctorius.jpg ![]() [2] Santorio, marble portrait bust Alinari/Art Resource, New York PD source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art -14072/Santorio-marble-portrait-bust?art icleTypeId=1 |
386 YBN [1614 CE] | 1584) John Napier invents logarithms and exponential notation. John Napier (nAPER) (CE 1550-1617), Scottish mathematician, publishes "Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis Descriptio" ("Description of the Marvelous Canon of Logarithms"), which describes his invention of logarithms. Napier invents exponential notation, including the system of exponential multiplication by adding exponents and division by subtracting exponents. (in this book?) Napier's tables of logarithms are very popular. | Scotland (presumably) | ![]() [1] Painting of John Napier PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:John_Napier_%28Painting%29.jpeg ![]() [2] John Napier PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:John_Napier.JPG |
386 YBN [1614 CE] | 1596) Sanctorius Sanctorius (SANKTOrEuS) (CE 1561-1636) , Italian physician, publishes "De Statica Medicina" (1614; "On Medical Measurement") is the first systematic study of basal metabolism (the average rate that a body breaks apart molecules for fuel). | Padua, Italy (presumably) | ![]() [1] Engraving of Sanctorius of Padua PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Sanctorius.jpg ![]() [2] Santorio, marble portrait bust Alinari/Art Resource, New York PD source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art -14072/Santorio-marble-portrait-bust?art icleTypeId=1 |
386 YBN [1614 CE] | 1638) Simon Marius (CE 1573-1624) , German Astronomer, publishes "Mundus Iovialis", in which he names the 4 major moons of Jupiter: Io, Europa, Ganymede, Callisto after four Gods closely related to Jupiter (Zeus) in myths, and claims to have seen Jupiter's four major moons some days before Galileo. | ??, Germany | ![]() [1] Simon Marius, (January 10, 1573 - December 26, 1624), German astronomer. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Simon_Marius.jpg |
384 YBN [1616 CE] | 1608) Copernicanism is declared a heresy by Pope "Paul V" (Camillo Borghese). | Rome, Italy | ![]() [1] Galileo Galilei. Portrait in crayon by Leoni Source: French WP (Utilisateur:Kelson via http://iafosun.ifsi.rm.cnr.it/~iafolla/h ome/homegrsp.html) PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Galilee.jpg ![]() [2] Original portrait of Galileo Galilei by Justus Sustermans painted in 1636. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg |
384 YBN [1616 CE] | 1644) William Harvey (CE 1578-1657) understands the circulatory system. William Harvey (CE 1578-1657), English Physician, understands the circulatory system; that the heart is a muscle that contracts to push blood out, that blood can only move in one direction in blood vessels (not back and forth as Galen had believed), and that blood moves in a circle from the hearth to the arteries, from the arteries to the veins, and through the veins back to the heart. | London, England | ![]() [1] William Harvey Library of Congress PD source: http://www.answers.com/William+H arvey?cat=health ![]() [2] William Harvey Source University of Texas Libraries, The University of Texas at Austin PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:William_Harvey.jpg |
384 YBN [1616 CE] | 1831) Niccolò Zucchi (CE 1586-1670) builds the earliest known reflecting telescope. This telescope is before the telescopes of James Gregory and Isaac Newton. | Rome, Italy | ![]() [1] Nicolas Zucchi (1586-1670) PD source: http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/opti cs/timeline/people/zucchi.html |
383 YBN [1617 CE] | 1592) Henry Briggs (CE 1561-1630), English mathematician, publishes "Logarithmorum Chilias Prima" ("Introduction to Logarithms"), which describes using logarithms with base 10 and includes the logarithms of numbers from 1 to 1,000, calculated to 14 decimal places. | London, England (preumably) | ![]() [1] Briggs, Henry (Vlacq, A.) Arithmetica Logarithmica London 1624 disbound ID #: B277.82 LOC: CHM PD source: http://research.microsoft.com/~g bell/CyberMuseum_files/Bell_Book_Files/b ooks.htm |
381 YBN [1619 CE] | 1585) John Napier invents the decimal point. Scottish mathematician John Napier's (nAPER) (CE 1550-1617) "Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis Constructio" ("Construction of the Marvelous Canon of Logarithms") is published posthumously. This book contains the first use of the decimal point to separate the fractional from the integral part of a number. | Scotland (presumably) | ![]() [1] Painting of John Napier PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:John_Napier_%28Painting%29.jpeg ![]() [2] John Napier PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:John_Napier.JPG |
381 YBN [1619 CE] | 1632) Johannes Kepler's (CE 1571-1630) publishes "Harmonices Mundi" ("Harmonies of the World") which includes his third law: that the square of the period of orbit of a planet is proportional to the cube of its distance from the Sun. | Linz, Austria | ![]() [1] A hand-annotated illustration plate from Johannes Kepler's Harmonices mundi (1619), showing the perfect solids. source: http://hsci.cas.ou.edu/digitized/16thCen tury/Kepler/1619/Kepler-1619-pl-3-image/ PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Kepler-1619-pl-3.jpg ![]() [2] Johannes Kepler, oil painting by an unknown artist, 1627; in the cathedral, Strasbourg, France. Erich Lessing/Art Resource, New York PD source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art -2965/Johannes-Kepler-oil-painting-by-an -unknown-artist-1627-in?articleTypeId=1 |
381 YBN [1619 CE] | 1643) Christoph Scheiner (siGnR? or sInR?) (CE 1575-1650), German Astronomer, publishes "Oculus hoc est: Fundamentum opticum", in which Scheiner recognizes that the curvature of the lens in the human eye changes as the eye focuses to different distances. | Innsbruck, Austria | ![]() [1] Christoph Scheiner No source specified. Please edit this image description and provide a source. Date 1725 PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Scheiner_christoph.gif ![]() [2] Pantograph, from Book Pantographice seu ars delineandi, Page 29 Source http://fermi.imss.fi.it/rd/bdv?/bdviewe r/bid=000000920801 Date 1631 Author Christoph Scheiner PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Pantograph_by_Christoph_Scheiner.jpg |
380 YBN [1620 CE] | 1591) Francis Bacon's (CE 1561-1626) "New Atlantis" is published posthumously in 1627. This book describes an island governed by an Academy of Sciences. This idea will find partial realization with the organization of the Royal Society in 1660. | London, England (presumably) | ![]() [1] Sir Francis Bacon [t notice the collar, interesting how things like that come in and go out of popularity] PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Francis_Bacon.jpg ![]() [2] Francis Bacon, engraving by William Marshall, 1640 Mary Evans Picture Library PD source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art -8669/Francis-Bacon-engraving-by-William -Marshall-1640?articleTypeId=1 |
379 YBN [1621 CE] | 1651) Willebrord von Roijen Snell (CE 1580-1626), Dutch mathematician, identifies the law of refraction. | Leiden, Netherlands (presumably) | ![]() [1] Willibrord Snellius http://images.google.com/imgre s?imgurl=http://tau.fesg.tu-muenchen.de/ ~iapg/web/fame/images/geo/snellius.jpg&i mgrefurl=http://tau.fesg.tu-muenchen.de/ ~iapg/web/fame/seiten/snellius.php&h=584 &w=407&sz=81&hl=en&sig2=5XbrrVTx-PVInTZc fU_5ng&start=1&tbnid=QsmS80Z3DsqbhM:&tbn h=135&tbnw=94&ei=psvoRKCJLLP2wQGCnPDfDg& prev=/images%3Fq%3D%2522Snellius%2522%26 svnum%3D100%26hl%3Den%26lr%3D%26safe%3Do ff%26client%3Dfirefox-a%26rls%3Dorg.mozi lla:en-US:official%26sa%3DN http://tau. fesg.tu-muenchen.de/~iapg/web/fame/image s/geo/snellius.jpg PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Willebrord_Snellius.jpg ![]() [2] Snell's law equation GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sne ll%27s_law#_ref-4 |
378 YBN [1622 CE] | 1639) William Oughtred (oTreD) (CE 1574-1660), English mathematician invents the first slide-rule, two identical linear or circular logarithmic scales, used to perform calculations by moving them mechanically by hand. | Albury, Surrey, England (presumably) | ![]() [1] Portrait of William Oughtred, from http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist ory/PictDisplay/Oughtred.html PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Oughtred.jpg |
373 YBN [1627 CE] | 1634) Johannes Kepler (CE 1571-1630) publishes the "Rudolphine Tables", the planetary tables meant to replace the Prussian Tables of Erasmus Reinhold. This book includes the first time estimates for the "transit" of the planets Mercury and Venus across the face of the Sun. These transits have never been observed before, but according to the sun-centered theory have to take place. | Ulm, Germany | ![]() [1] from http://www.britannica.com/eb/art-2966/Fr ontispiece-from-Tabulae-Rudolphinae-by-J ohannes-Kepler?articleTypeId=1 Frontisp iece from Tabulae Rudolphinae (1627; ''Rudolphine Tables'') by Johannes Kepler. This is one of the most famous and richly symbolic images in the history of science. The figures, from left to right, are the astronomers Hipparchus, Nicolaus Copernicus, an anonymous ancient observer, Tycho Brahe, and Ptolemy, each surrounded by symbols of their work. The pillars in the background are made of wood; those in the foreground are made of brick and marble, symbolizing the progress of astronomy. Astronomical instruments serve as decorations. The figures on the cornice symbolize mathematical sciences; Kepler's patron, the Holy Roman emperor Rudolph II, is represented by the eagle. On the base, from left to right, are Kepler in his study, a map of Tycho Brahe's island of Ven, and a printing press. The writing at the bottom is Kepler's; this copy was given by him to a friend, Benjamin Ursinus. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Libr0310.jpg ![]() [2] World map in: ''Tabulae Rudolphinae : quibus astronomicae ....'' by Johannes Kepler, 1627. Source: NOAA source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Kepler-world.jpg |
372 YBN [1628 CE] | 1645) William Harvey (CE 1578-1657) publishes the circulation of blood theory in a small book of 72 pages, titled "Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus" ("An Anatomical Exercise Concerning the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals"). Harvey is ridiculed for refuting Galen, he is called "Circulator" which is Latin slang for the name given to people who sell medicines at a circus. | London, England printed in: Frankfurt, Germany | ![]() [1] Woodcut depicting William Harvey's theory of the circulation of blood, from his Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus (1628). The Granger Collection, New York PD source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art -15453/Woodcut-depicting-William-Harveys -theory-of-the-circulation-of-blood?arti cleTypeId=1 ![]() [2] William Harvey Library of Congress PD source: http://www.answers.com/William+H arvey?cat=health |
371 YBN [1629 CE] | 1672) Bonaventura Cavalieri (KoVoLYARE) (CE 1598-1647), Italian mathematician, develops his "method of indivisibles", a method of determining the size of geometric figures similar to the methods of integral calculus. | written: Bologna, Italy | ![]() [1] Bonaventura Cavalieri PD source: http://matematica.uni-bocconi.it /galeazzi/capitolo12.htm ![]() [2] Monument to Cavalieri in Milan. CC source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:IMG_4064_-_Milano%2C_Palazzo_di_Brera _-_Cavalieri%2C_Bonaventura_-_Foto_Giova nni_Dall%27Orto_19-jan_2007.jpg |
370 YBN [1630 CE] | 1649) Godefroy Wendelin (CE 1580-1667), Flemish astronomer repeats the experiment done by Aristarchos to measure the distance to the sun during a half moon, and gets an estimate 12 times Aristachos' estimate, but still 1/3 of the distance too short. | Belgium (presumably) | |
369 YBN [1631 CE] | 1640) William Oughtred (oTreD) (CE 1574-1660), English mathematician publishes "Clavis Mathematicae" ("The Key to Mathematics"), in which he introduces the "X" symbol for multiplication, and the abbreviations sin, cos, and tan used for the trigonometric functions sine, cosine, and tangent still used today. | Arundel, West Sussex, England (presumably) | ![]() [1] Portrait of William Oughtred, from http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist ory/PictDisplay/Oughtred.html PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Oughtred.jpg |
369 YBN [1631 CE] | 1655) Pierre Vernier (VRnYA) (CE 1584-1637), French mathematician, invents the "vernier scale" (pronounced with the r in England and the USA), a device capable of precise measurement. | Ornans, France (presumably: birth and death location) | ![]() [1] using the vernier caliper to measure a nut Source own image Date October 2006 Author Joaquim Alves Gaspar GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Using_the_caliper_new_en.gif ![]() [2] Zoom-in on ''Messschieber.jpg'' from commons made by danish user Ultraman. GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Close_up_of_vernier_scale.jpg |
369 YBN [1631 CE] | 1663) Pierre Gassendi (GoSoNDE) (CE 1592-1655), observes the transit of Mercury. Gassendi is the first person to see the transit of a planet across the face of the Sun. This transit is predicted by Kepler, and arrives within 5 hours of Kepler's estimated time. One reason for these variable times are the incalculable affects, such as the movement of liquids such as water, and metals that planets and stars are composed of, in addition to the many asteroids which exert small gravitational affects. A perfect system of planetary and star prediction appears to be impossible, and because the affects of uncountable atoms and molecules can not be accurately calculated, estimates of position for all larger composite pieces of matter must be constantly updated. | Paris, France (presumably) | ![]() [1] Pierre Gassendi (1592-1655). Peinture de Louis Édouard Rioult. (Base Joconde du Ministère de la Culture) PD source: http://www.voltaire-integral.com /Html/14/04CATALO_1_2.html ![]() [2] Scientist: Gassendi, Pierre (1592 - 1655) Discipline(s): Physics ; Astronomy Print Artist: Jacques Lubin, 1637-1695 Medium: Engraving Original Dimensions: Graphic: 17.6 x 14.1 cm / Sheet: 27.9 x 21.7 cm PD source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_n ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Gassen di |
369 YBN [1631 CE] | 1664) Pierre Gassendi (GoSoNDE) (CE 1592-1655), measures the velocity of sound. Gassendi is the first person to measure the velocity of sound, and shows that the velocity of sound is independent of it's(sic) pitch. Aristotle had claimed that high notes travel faster than low notes. | Paris, France (presumably) | ![]() [1] Pierre Gassendi (1592-1655). Peinture de Louis Édouard Rioult. (Base Joconde du Ministère de la Culture) PD source: http://www.voltaire-integral.com /Html/14/04CATALO_1_2.html ![]() [2] Scientist: Gassendi, Pierre (1592 - 1655) Discipline(s): Physics ; Astronomy Print Artist: Jacques Lubin, 1637-1695 Medium: Engraving Original Dimensions: Graphic: 17.6 x 14.1 cm / Sheet: 27.9 x 21.7 cm PD source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_n ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Gassen di |
368 YBN [1632 CE] | 1606) Galileo publishes "Dialogue on the Two Chief World Systems" in support of the sun-centered system. | Venice, Italy | ![]() [1] Galileo's Letter to Prince of Venice PD source: http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo /ganymede/manuscript1.jpg ![]() [2] Galileo's illustrations of the Moon, from his Sidereus Nuncius (1610; The Sidereal Messenger). Courtesy of the Joseph Regenstein Library, The University of Chicago PD source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art -2914/Galileos-illustrations-of-the-Moon -from-his-Sidereus-Nuncius?articleTypeId =1 |
367 YBN [06/22/1633 CE] | 1611) Galileo Galilei (CE 1564-1642) is condemned to life imprisonment by the Inquisition. | Rome, Italy | ![]() [1] Galileo's Letter to Prince of Venice PD source: http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo /ganymede/manuscript1.jpg ![]() [2] Galileo's illustrations of the Moon, from his Sidereus Nuncius (1610; The Sidereal Messenger). Courtesy of the Joseph Regenstein Library, The University of Chicago PD source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art -2914/Galileos-illustrations-of-the-Moon -from-his-Sidereus-Nuncius?articleTypeId =1 |
367 YBN [1633 CE] | 1666) Law of inertia. Comparison of light to a ball. René Descartes (CE 1596-1650) (DAKoRT), French philosopher and mathematician completes his books "Le Monde ou Traité de la lumière" ("The World or Treatise on Light"), and "L'Homme..." ("Man..."), which describe a mechanical heliocentric universe, and human beings and other species as mechanical devices. But abandons these works when hearing that Galileo has been condemned for heresy. "Le Monde" includes the earliest clear statement of the principle of inertia, that a body in motion will stay in motion until collision with some other body. Decartes compares reflection of light to reflection of a ball against the wall of a tennis court, but does not explicitly state that light is made of particles. Newton will use the example of a tennis ball in being the first to publish the clearly stated theory of light being made of globular bodies in 1672. | Netherlands (presumably) | ![]() [1] The balls of the ''second element'' which I think is a theory of particles similar to an aether that fill empty space, but its not clear[t] PD/Corel source: http://www.princeton.edu/~hos/mi ke/texts/descartes/world/Image9.gif ![]() [2] Drawing of star systems together from Le Monde[t] PD/Corel source: http://www.princeton.edu/~hos/mi ke/texts/descartes/world/world2.gif |
365 YBN [1635 CE] | 1657) Marin Mersenne (mRSeN) (CE 1588-1648), French Mathematician, forms the informal, private "Académie Parisienne" (the precursor to the French Academy of Sciences). | Paris, France (presumably) | ![]() [1] Marin Mersenne PD source: http://www.nndb.com/people/576/0 00107255/ ![]() [2] Mersenne, Marin (1588-1648) PD source: http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/the mes/biographies/MainBiographies/M/Mersen ne/1.html |
364 YBN [1636 CE] | 1219) Harvard College is founded in the Province of Massachusetts Bay, and is the first college in America. | Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA | ![]() [1] Lt Gov William Stoughton (1631-1701) overlooking one of the buildings of Harvard College, quite probably Stoughton Hall for which he was its main benefactor. The painting dates to circa 1700. This picture, which was taken from: Albert Bushnell Hart, Commonwealth History of Massachusetts (1927, vol. 1) opposite p. 562; was originally taken from an original portrait presumably still in the possession of Harvard University. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:HarvardStaughton.jpg |
364 YBN [1636 CE] | 1697) William Gascoigne (GasKOEN) (CE c1612-1644), invents the micrometer (a device for precision measurement) | ![]() [1] ''Gascoigne''s micrometer'' - via Richard Towneley - as drawn by Robert Hooke for the Royal Society,1667. PD source: http://www.narrowbandimaging.com /Northern%20Astronomical%20Review.htm ![]() [2] [t Modern micrometer] Outside micrometer, inside micrometer, and depth micrometer. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Micrometers.jpg | |
363 YBN [1637 CE] | 1660) Marin Mersenne (mRSeN) (CE 1588-1648) may be the first to measure the frequency of any sound. | Paris, France (presumably) | ![]() [1] Marin Mersenne PD source: http://www.nndb.com/people/576/0 00107255/ ![]() [2] Mersenne, Marin (1588-1648) PD source: http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/the mes/biographies/MainBiographies/M/Mersen ne/1.html |
363 YBN [1637 CE] | 1668) René Descartes (CE 1596-1650) (DAKoRT) describes the Cartesian coordinate system. René Descartes (CE 1596-1650) (DAKoRT) describes the Cartesian coordinate system where points are plotted on a surface. René Descartes (CE 1596-1650) (DAKoRT) describes the Cartesian coordinate system, in "La Géométrie" ("Geometry") which is published as an appendix to "Discours de la méthode" ("Discourse on Method"). The Cartesian coordinate system is the familiar two dimensional graph where points on a plane can be drawn, x along a horizontal line, and y along a vertical line, in order to plot curves. Descartes is the first to recognize that every point in a plane can be represented by two numbers, for example (-2,3), which can represent two units left and three units up. This makes a new way to visualize mathematical functions such as y=2x+3. This connects algebra and geometry. | Netherlands (presumably) | ![]() [1] Portrait of René Descartes by Frans Hals (1648) Description René Descartes, french philosopher (Oil on canvas, 68 x 77, Owned by the Musée du Louvre Paris) Source No source specified. Please edit this image description and provide a source. Date 1648 Author Frans Hals PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Descartes.jpg ![]() [2] Scientist: Descartes, René (1596 - 1650) Discipline(s): Physics ; Mathematics Print Artist: William Holl Medium: Engraving Original Artist: Franz Hals, ca.1582-1666 Original Dimensions: Graphic: 12.7 x 10.3 cm / Sheet: 25.5 x 17.5 cm PD source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=d |
362 YBN [1638 CE] | 1612) Galileo attempts to measure the speed of light. | Leiden, Netherlands and Florence, Italy | ![]() [1] Galileo's Letter to Prince of Venice PD source: http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo /ganymede/manuscript1.jpg ![]() [2] Galileo's illustrations of the Moon, from his Sidereus Nuncius (1610; The Sidereal Messenger). Courtesy of the Joseph Regenstein Library, The University of Chicago PD source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art -2914/Galileos-illustrations-of-the-Moon -from-his-Sidereus-Nuncius?articleTypeId =1 |
361 YBN [1639 CE] | 1387) The second hospital in the Western Hemisphere is the Hôtel-Dieu du Précieux Sang, established in Quebec city in New France. | Quebec, New France (modern Canada) | ![]() [1] L'hôtel Dieu de Québec Copyright © 2002-04 (Créations Chez Magy) COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.ph-ludwigsburg.de/htm l/2b-frnz-s-01/overmann/baf4/quebec/inde x.html |
361 YBN [1639 CE] | 1708) Jeremiah Horrocks (CE 1618-1641), observes the transit of Venus. Jeremiah Horrocks (CE 1618-1641), is the first human to observe the transit of Venus. | Hoole, Lancashire, England (presumably) | ![]() [1] This illustration, recreated from Horrocks's notes by the prominent Polish astronomer Hevelius, shows three positions of the planet Venus as it crosses the face of the Sun. Notice the two black and one white dot (the progression of Venus) in the lower left portion of the central circle (the Sun). PD source: http://www.adlerplanetarium.org/ research/collections/transit-of-venus/jh evelius1662b.jpg ![]() [2] Jeremiah Horrocks observand tranzitul lui Venus PD source: http://aira.astro.ro/2004/Venus2 /Importanta_fisa%20scurta.htm |
360 YBN [1640 CE] | 1665) Pierre Gassendi (GoSoNDE) (CE 1592-1655), performs the experiment of releasing a ball from the mast of a moving ship, and as he expects, the ball falls to the foot of the mast in a straight line. | Paris, France (presumably) | ![]() [1] Pierre Gassendi (1592-1655). Peinture de Louis Édouard Rioult. (Base Joconde du Ministère de la Culture) PD source: http://www.voltaire-integral.com /Html/14/04CATALO_1_2.html ![]() [2] Scientist: Gassendi, Pierre (1592 - 1655) Discipline(s): Physics ; Astronomy Print Artist: Jacques Lubin, 1637-1695 Medium: Engraving Original Dimensions: Graphic: 17.6 x 14.1 cm / Sheet: 27.9 x 21.7 cm PD source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_n ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Gassen di |
359 YBN [1641 CE] | 1699) Franciscus Sylvius (CE 1614-1672), French physician,publishes "Praxeos medicae idea nova" (1671, "New idea in medical practice"). Sylvius is one of the earliest and strongest defenders of Harvey's view of blood circulation. Sylvius is the first to reject health being dependent on the balance of 4 humors (blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile), a theory that goes back to Greek health science (medicine). Sylvius is the first to make gin and uses it to treat kidney ailments. Sylvius correctly views digestion as a chemical process. | Leiden, Netherlands (presumably) | ![]() [1] Franciscus Sylvius, detail of an engraving. BBC Hulton Picture Library PD source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art -14633/Franciscus-Sylvius-detail-of-an-e ngraving ![]() [2] Franciscus Sylvius Pildiallkiri: Franciscus Deleboe Sylvius, Medicinæ, practicæ in academia Lugduno-Batava professor. Allikas: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc/sylvius f.jpg PD source: http://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pil t:Sylviusf.jpg |
358 YBN [1642 CE] | 1719) Blaise Pascal (PoSKoL) (CE 1623-1662) invents a mechanical calculating machine that can add and subtract. | Rouen, France (presumably) | ![]() [1] A Pascaline, an early calculator. (Machine à calculer de Blaise Pascal sans sous ni deniers, signed by Pascal 1652) English: This item is on display at the Musée des Arts et Métiers, Paris Inv 823-1 GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Arts_et_Metiers_Pascaline_dsc03869.jp g ![]() [2] Scientist: Pascal, Blaise (1623 - 1662) Discipline(s): Mathematics ; Physics Print Artist: T. Dale Medium: Engraving Original Dimensions: Graphic: 14.4 x 8.1 cm / Sheet: 27.8 x 21.3 cm PD source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Pascal |
357 YBN [1643 CE] | 1692) vacuum. Earliest vacuum. Evangelista Torricelli (TORriceLlE) (CE 1608-1647), Italian physicist is the first human to create a sustained vacuum. Pursuing a suggestion from Galileo, Torricelli fills a glass tube 4 feet (1.2 m) long (units) with mercury and inverts the tube into a dish. Torricelli observes that some of the mercury does not flow out and that the space above the mercury in the tube is a vacuum. Torricelli observes that the height of the mercury in the tube changes from day to day and correctly concludes that this is caused by changes in atmospheric pressure (the weight of the air on earth). This device is also the first barometer, a measure of pressure exerted by air. | Florence, Italy | ![]() [1] Frontispiece to ''Lezioni accademiche d'Evangelista Torricelli....'', published in 1715. Library Call Number Q155 .T69 1715. Image ID: libr0367, Treasures of the NOAA Library Collection Photographer: Archival Photograph by Mr. Steve Nicklas, NOS, NGS Secondary source: NOAA Central Library National Oceanic & Atmospheric Adminstration (NOAA), USA http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/library/lib r0367.htm PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Libr0367.jpg ![]() [2] Frontispiece and title page to ''Lezioni accademiche d'Evangelista Torricelli ....'', published in 1715. Library Call Number Q155 .T69 1715. Image ID: libr0366, Treasures of the NOAA Library Collection Photographer: Archival Photograph by Mr. Steve Nicklas, NOS, NGS Secondary source: NOAA Central Library National Oceanic & Atmospheric Adminstration (NOAA), USA http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/librar y/libr0366.htm PD source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik i/Image:Libr0366.jpg |
356 YBN [1644 CE] | 1694) Johannes Hevelius (HeVAlEUS) (CE 1611-1687), German astronomer, is the first to see the phases of Mercury. | ![]() [1] Johannes Hevelius. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Johannes_Helvelius.jpg ![]() [2] llustration from ''Geschichte der Astron. Messwerkzeuge, 1907, Autor J.A. Repsold † 1919'' German subtitle says (Peter) Crüger's large azimuthal quadrant, completed by Hevel, according to Hevel's Machina coelestis (taken from German Wikipedia) PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Hevelius-Quadrant.jpg | |
355 YBN [1645 CE] | 1844) Ismaël Bullialdus (CE 1605-1694) theorizes that the force of gravity follows an inverse-squared distance law. Ismaël Bullialdus (CE 1605-1694), theorizes that the force of gravity follows an inverse-square distance law in his "Astronomia philolaica". | Paris, France | ![]() [1] Ismaël Bullialdus PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Boulliau.jpeg ![]() [2] Ismaelis Bvllialdi Astronomia Philolaica : title page Photo: COPYRIGHTED Book: PD source: http://diglib.hab.de/wdb.php?dir =drucke/2-1-4-astron-2f-1&image=00005 |
353 YBN [1647 CE] | 1695) Johannes Hevelius (HeVAlEUS) (CE 1611-1687), German astronomer, publishes "Selenographia" ("Pictures of the Moon"), and atlas of the moon's surface, using hand-engraved copper plates for the illustrations. Hevelius names parts of the moon after places on earth, calling the dark flat areas "seas" (maria in Latin). | ![]() [1] Subject : map of the moon (Selenographia) Author : Johannes Hevelius Date : 1647 PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Hevelius_Map_of_the_Moon_1647.jpg ![]() [2] Johannes Hevelius. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Johannes_Helvelius.jpg | |
352 YBN [09/19/1648 CE] | 1721) Blaise Pascal (PoSKoL) (CE 1623-1662) proves that atmospheric pressure changes at different elevations. This implies that empty space (a vacuum) exists above the atmosphere. | Rouen, France (presumably) | ![]() [1] Scientist: Pascal, Blaise (1623 - 1662) Discipline(s): Mathematics ; Physics Print Artist: T. Dale Medium: Engraving Original Dimensions: Graphic: 14.4 x 8.1 cm / Sheet: 27.8 x 21.3 cm PD source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Pascal ![]() [2] Blaise Pascal source : http://www.thocp.net/biographies/pascal_ blaise.html PD source: %20Blaise |
352 YBN [1648 CE] | 1648) The Flemish physician and alchemist, Jan Baptista van Helmont's (CE 1580-1644), "Ortus Medicinæ (1648; "Origin of Medicine") is published (posthumously) in which Helmont is the first to label a substance as a "gas" and to identify the gas "carbon dioxide". | Vilvoorde, Belgium | ![]() [1] Portrait of Helmont, mistakenly thought to be Robert Hooke see http://www.libraries.uc.edu/source/volfo ur/oesper2.html PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:HOOKE_Robert.jpg ![]() [2] Fig. 2. Etching of Joan Baptista Van Helmont (1579-1644) and his son Franciscus Mercurius Van Helmont (1614-1699), from J.B. Van Helmont, Ortus medicinae (Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1648) (Oesper Collection). PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Jan_Baptist_van_Helmont.jpg |
352 YBN [1648 CE] | 1686) Johann Rudolf Glauber (GlOBR) (CE 1604-1670), German chemist, finds that hydrochloric acid can be formed by sulfuric acid and common salt (sodium chloride) and finds that the residue sodium sulfate (also know as "sal mirabile" and "Glauber's salt") works as a laxative (makes defecation easier). Glauber also records a method for forming nitric acid, from potassium nitrate and sulfuric acid in 1648. Glauber prepares compounds of many metals known at this time, for example an antimony salt. Glauber builds the largest chemistry lab of the time in his house, at one point employing 5 or 6 people. Glauber prepares acetone and benzene. | Amsterdam, Netherlands (presumably) | ![]() [1] Glauber, engraving PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Johann_Rudolf_Glauber.jpg ![]() [2] Glauber, Furni novi philosophici : sive Description artis destillatoriae novae, 1651 PD source: http://hdelboy.club.fr/chevreul_ hoefer_2.html |
351 YBN [05/19/1649 CE] | 1526) The English Civil War ends with the replacement of the English monarchy with first the Commonwealth of England (1649-1653). | England | ![]() [1] Image from University of Texas Libraries http://utopia.utexas.edu/project/portrai ts/cromwell.jpg in the public domain. Original source for this picture: Hundred Greatest Men, The. New York: D. Appleton & Company, 1885. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Oliver_CromwellUT.jpg ![]() [2] Description: Unfinished portrait miniature of Oliver Cromwell by Samuel Cooper. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Cooper%2C_Oliver_Cromwell.jpg |
350 YBN [1650 CE] | 1670) Giovanni Battista Riccioli (rETcOlE) (CE 1598-1671), is the first to observe a double (binary) star system (Mizar in Ursa Major). Riccioli calculates the earth's acceleration due to gravity at 30 feet (9.144 meters) per second per second (close to the current value of 9.80665 meters per second per second accepted today). (place chronologically) Riccioli measures the parallax of the Sun (from two points on earth?), and calculates the distance at 24 million miles {units} (the actual average distance of the Sun from Earth is 150 million km, 93 million miles). | Bologna, Italy (presumably) | |
350 YBN [1650 CE] | 1675) Athanasius Kircher (KiRKR) (CE 1601-1680), German Scholar produces a vacuum (by using Guericke's method) to prove that sound cannot be produced in the absence of air. | Rome, Italy (presumably) | ![]() [1] Cornelius Bloemart (1603-1680) - Athanasius Kircher (1602-1680), pictured in his book Mundus Subterraneus, 1664 PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Athanasius_Kircher.jpg ![]() [2] non-expressive scan of out of copyright (1636) image from Athanasius Kircher's Prodromus Coptus, p. 283. from http://kircher.stanford.edu/gallery/ PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Kirchercopticalpha.jpg |
350 YBN [1650 CE] | 1683) Otto von Guericke (GAriKu) (CE 1602-1686) constructs the first air pump. Otto von Guericke (GAriKu) (CE 1602-1686) German physicist, constructs the first air pump and uses it to produce a vacuum chamber in which he examines the role of air in combustion and respiration. | Magdeburg, Germany (presumably) | ![]() [1] Apparatus of Otto von Guerricke with water receptacle at base removed. PD/Corel source: http://books.google.com/books?id =f2dMAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA239&dq=%22geissler+pu mp%22#PPA238,M1 ![]() [2] Otto von Guericke PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Guericke.png |
350 YBN [1650 CE] | 1722) Blaise Pascal (PoSKoL) (CE 1623-1662) understands (Pascal's law) that pressure applied to a confined liquid is transmitted equally through the liquid in all directions regardless of the area to which the pressure is applied. This is the basis of the hydraulic press. | Rouen, France (presumably) | ![]() [1] Scientist: Pascal, Blaise (1623 - 1662) Discipline(s): Mathematics ; Physics Print Artist: T. Dale Medium: Engraving Original Dimensions: Graphic: 14.4 x 8.1 cm / Sheet: 27.8 x 21.3 cm PD source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Pascal ![]() [2] Blaise Pascal source : http://www.thocp.net/biographies/pascal_ blaise.html PD source: %20Blaise |
350 YBN [1650 CE] | 1753) Malpighi (moLPEJE), (CE 1628-1694) is one of the first people to use a microscope to study animal and vegetable structure. | Bologna, Italy (presumably) | ![]() [1] Description Marcello Malphigi Source L C Miall. The History of Biology. Watts and Co. Date 1911 Author L C Miall PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:MarcelloMalphigiMiall.jpg ![]() [2] from http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/ * 11:57, 27 August 2002 Magnus Manske 432x575 (78,604 bytes) (from meta) Source Originally from en.wikipedia; description page is (was) here Date Commons upload by Magnus Manske 10:03, 10 May 2006 (UTC) PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Marcello_Malpighi_large.jpg |
349 YBN [1651 CE] | 1572) William Gilbert's (CE 1544-1603) writings are published after his death as "De Mundo Nostro Sublunari Philosophia Nova" ("A New Philosophy of Our Sublunar World"). Gilbert is the first to speculate on what keeps the planets in their orbits if the celestial spheres first invented by Pythagoras do not exist, deciding that magnetic attraction keeps the planets in their orbits. | London, England (presumably) | ![]() [1] Paiting of William Gilbert (1544 - 1603) Source http://physics.ship.edu/~mrc/pfs/110/in side_out/vu1/Galileo/Images/Port/gilbert .gif Date Author Unknown, after title page of De Magnete (1600) PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:William_Gilbert.jpg |
349 YBN [1651 CE] | 1646) William Harvey (CE 1578-1657) publishes "Exercitationes de Generatione Animalium" (1651, "Anatomical Exercitations Concerning the Generation of Animals") in which Harvey correctly supports the theory that the embryo builds gradually from its parts, as opposed to existing complete and preformed in the ovum. | London, England (presumably) | ![]() [1] William Harvey Library of Congress PD source: http://www.answers.com/William+H arvey?cat=health ![]() [2] William Harvey Source University of Texas Libraries, The University of Texas at Austin PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:William_Harvey.jpg |
349 YBN [1651 CE] | 1647) William Harvey (CE 1578-1657) publishes "De generatione" (1651; "On the Generation of Animals") which describes the theory that an embryo builds gradually from its parts, instead of existing preformed in the ovum. | London, England (presumably) | ![]() [1] William Harvey Library of Congress PD source: http://www.answers.com/William+H arvey?cat=health ![]() [2] William Harvey Source University of Texas Libraries, The University of Texas at Austin PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:William_Harvey.jpg |
349 YBN [1651 CE] | 1671) Giovanni Battista Riccioli (rETcOlE) (CE 1598-1671), publishes "Almagestum novum" ("The New Almagest") in which he names the craters on the moon after astronomers. | Bologna, Italy | ![]() [1] Riccioli, Almagestum novum (1651). Lunar map. PD source: http://hsci.cas.ou.edu/images/jp g-100dpi-5in/17thCentury/Riccioli/1651/R iccioli-1651-Moon.jpg ![]() [2] G.B. Riccioli, Almagestum Novum (1651). The image portrays Urania, the muse of astronomy, weighing up the rival systems of Copernicus, in which the earth moves round the sun, and Riccioli himself, in which the earth remains stationary at the center of the universe. The older system of Ptolemy has already been discarded and lies on the ground alongside. PD source: http://microcosmos.uchicago.edu/ ptolemy/almagestum_novum_detail.html |
348 YBN [1652 CE] | 1775) Olof Rudbeck (rUDBeK) (CE 1630-1702) identifies lymphatic vessels. | Uppsala, Sweden | ![]() [1] Portrait of the Swedish physician and polyhistor Olaus Rudbeck (also known as Olof Rudbeck, Olaus Rudbeckius) the Elder (1630-1702). Rudbeck was an anatomist, and one of the discoverers of the lymphic vessels in 1651-52 (discovered independently by the Dane Thomas Bartholin at about the same time), and was long professor of Medicine at Uppsala University. He also founded the earliest botanical garden in Uppsala (later named after Carolus Linnaeus) and initiated a major botanical work with detailed copperplate engravings, some of which were printed but many of which were destroyed in the Uppsala fire in 1702 before publication. He is also known as an engineer and architect, who, among other things, designed the anatomical theatre in the Gustavianum building in Uppsala, and as a speculative historical writer who tried to prove that Sweden was in fact the lost Atlantis. Source First version: This photograph was first uploaded as Bild:Olof Rudbeck dä målad av Martin Mijtens dä 1696.jpg to the Swedish Wikipedia on 8 October 2003, 21.50 by sv:Användare:Den fjättrade ankan and then had the size 340x360 (11 386 bytes). Second version: less cropped, fetched from [1] Date 1696 Author Martin Mijtens the Elder (1548-1736), Dutch-Swedish painter. A detail of this painting in black and white is used to illustrate the article on Rudbeck in Svenskt biografiskt lexikon, vol. 30, p. 643. It is discussed in the article on Mijtens in SBL 25, p. 501. PD source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik i/Image:Olaus_Rudbeck_Sr_%28portrait_by_ Martin_Mijtens_Sr%2C_1696%29.jpg ![]() [2] The archaeologist Olof Rudbeck (1630 - 1702) reveals his „Predecessors'' Hesiod, Platon, Aristoteles, Apollodor, Tacitus, Odysseus, Ptolemäus, Plutarch and Orpheus the „Truth'' about Atlantis. From „Atland eller Manheim'', 1679-89. PD source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik i/Image:Rudbeck_Atlantis.jpg |
346 YBN [1654 CE] | 1720) Blaise Pascal (PoSKoL) (CE 1623-1662) and Pierre de Fermat (FARmo) (CE 1601-1665) through their correspondence create the science of probability. | Paris, France (presumably) | ![]() [1] Scientist: Pascal, Blaise (1623 - 1662) Discipline(s): Mathematics ; Physics Print Artist: T. Dale Medium: Engraving Original Dimensions: Graphic: 14.4 x 8.1 cm / Sheet: 27.8 x 21.3 cm PD source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Pascal ![]() [2] Blaise Pascal source : http://www.thocp.net/biographies/pascal_ blaise.html PD source: %20Blaise |
345 YBN [03/25/1655 CE] | 1763) Huygens (HOEGeNZ) (CE 1629-1695) identifies the (first?) moon of Jupiter, Titan. Christiaan Huygens (HOEGeNZ) (CE 1629-1695) identifies the (first?) moon of Jupiter, Titan. | The Hague, Netherlands (presumably) | ![]() [1] This natural color composite was taken during the Cassini spacecraft's April 16, 2005, flyby of Titan. It is a combination of images taken through three filters that are sensitive to red, green and violet light. It shows approximately what Titan would look like to the human eye: a hazy orange globe surrounded by a tenuous, bluish haze. The orange color is due to the hydrocarbon particles which make up Titan's atmospheric haze. This obscuring haze was particularly frustrating for planetary scientists following the NASA Voyager mission encounters in 1980-81. Fortunately, Cassini is able to pierce Titan's veil at infrared wavelengths (see PIA06228). North on Titan is up and tilted 30 degrees to the right. The images to create this composite were taken with the Cassini spacecraft wide angle camera on April 16, 2005, at distances ranging from approximately 173,000 to 168,200 kilometers (107,500 to 104,500 miles) from Titan and from a Sun-Titan-spacecraft, or phase, angle of 56 degrees. Resolution in the images is approximately 10 kilometers per pixel. The Cassini-Huygens mission is a cooperative project of NASA, the European Space Agency and the Italian Space Agency. The Jet Propulsion Laboratory, a division of the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena, manages the mission for NASA's Science Mission Directorate, Washington, D.C. The Cassini orbiter and its two onboard cameras were designed, developed and assembled at JPL. The imaging team is based at the Space Science Institute, Boulder, Colo. For more information about the Cassini-Huygens mission, visit http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov and the Cassini imaging team home page, http://ciclops.org. Source * http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog /PIA06230 (cropped and rotated from the original) PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Titan_in_natural_color_Cassini.jpg ![]() [2] Christiaan Huygens, the astronomer. source: http://ressources2.techno.free.fr/inform atique/sites/inventions/inventions.html PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Christiaan_Huygens-painting.jpeg |
345 YBN [1655 CE] | 1702) John Wallis (CE 1616-1703) extends exponents to include negative numbers and fractions (for example x-2=1/x2, and x1/2=sqrt(x)). | (University of Oxford) Oxford, England | ![]() [1] John Wallis, English mathematician with important contributions to analysis. Source: en:Image:John_Wallis.jpg PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:John_Wallis.jpg ![]() [2] John Wallis, oil painting after a portrait by Sir Godfrey Kneller; in the National Portrait Gallery, London Courtesy of the National Portrait Gallery, London PD source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art -15126/John-Wallis-oil-painting-after-a- portrait-by-Sir-Godfrey?articleTypeId=1 |
344 YBN [1656 CE] | 1764) Huygens (HOEGeNZ) (CE 1629-1695) invents the first pendulum clock. Christaan Huygens (HOEGeNZ) (CE 1629-1695) invents the first pendulum clock. | The Hague, Netherlands (presumably) | ![]() [1] Reconstruction of the pioneer pendulum clock designed by the Dutch scientist, Christiaan Huygens (1629-1693), in 1656. Huygens commissioned the clockmaker Salomon Coster of the Hague to make the clock and a patent was issued in Coster's name in 1657. It was described and illustrated by Huygen in his book, 'Horologium' in 1658. Although Galileo had suggested the use of a pendulum to count the time, Huygen's design, where the dial and hands of a clock were controlled by a pendulum, was the first truly practical pendulum clock. Huygens attached a pendulum to the gears of a clock. The regular swing of the pendulum allowed the clock to achieve greater accuracy, as the hands are turned by the falling weight, which releases the same amount of energy with each tick. Side view. Image number: 10239953 Credit: Science Museum/Science & Society Picture Library Date taken: 12 January 2004 13:57 Image rights: Science Museum source: http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/ images/I010/10239953.aspx ![]() [2] Buy the rights or a print COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/ images/I022/10284689.aspx |
343 YBN [1657 CE] | 1703) John Wallis (CE 1616-1703) creates the infinity symbol ∞. | London, England (presumably) | ![]() [1] John Wallis, English mathematician with important contributions to analysis. Source: en:Image:John_Wallis.jpg PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:John_Wallis.jpg ![]() [2] John Wallis, oil painting after a portrait by Sir Godfrey Kneller; in the National Portrait Gallery, London Courtesy of the National Portrait Gallery, London PD source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art -15126/John-Wallis-oil-painting-after-a- portrait-by-Sir-Godfrey?articleTypeId=1 |
343 YBN [1657 CE] | 1794) Robert Hooke (CE 1635-1703) invents the spiral spring which he calls the "circular pendulum". | Oxford, England (presumably) | ![]() [1] Hooke memorial window, St Helen's Bishopsgate (now destroyed) http://www.roberthooke.org.u k/ on http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.mart in/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm PD source: http://freespace.virgin.net/ric. martin/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm ![]() [2] Frontispiece to Cyclopædia, 1728 edition View an enlarged 1000 x 811 pixel JPG image (271KB) the engraved frontispiece to the 1728 edition of Chambers' Cyclopedia shows as an interesting detail a bust of Robert Hooke.[3] [t there are busts of Newton in the upper left, and a few on the bottom right] [Frontispiece] COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.she-philosopher.com/g allery/cyclopaedia.html |
342 YBN [1658 CE] | 1677) Athanasius Kircher (KiRKR) (CE 1601-1680), proposes that disease is caused by tiny living creatures. Kircher also proposes hygienic measures to prevent the spread of disease. | Rome, Italy (presumably) | ![]() [1] Cornelius Bloemart (1603-1680) - Athanasius Kircher (1602-1680), pictured in his book Mundus Subterraneus, 1664 PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Athanasius_Kircher.jpg |
342 YBN [1658 CE] | 1804) Jan Swammerdam (Yon SVoMRDoM) (CE 1637-1680) is the first to observe and describe red blood cells. | Amsterdam, Netherlands (presumably) | |
341 YBN [1659 CE] | 1681) Pierre de Fermat (FARmo) (CE 1601-1665), French mathematician independently of Descartes, Fermat invents analytic geometry (which is plotting points from a function on to a graph). Fermat uses three dimensional coordinates (or triordinates) where Descartes only uses two dimensional coordinates. Through correspondence, Fermat and Blaise Pascal form the theory of probability. Fermat is famous for scribbling in the margin of a book of Diofantos what is called "Fermat's last theorem", that the equation (xn + yn = zn for n>2) has no solution for whole numbers, but that there is no room for the simple proof in the margin. This theorem will remain unsolved until the late 1900s. Fermat finds a summation process for areas bounded by curves, that is equivalent to the formula used in modern integral calculus. (integration, but not differentiation?) | Toulouse, France (presumably) | ![]() [1] Fermat, portrait by Roland Lefèvre; in the Narbonne City Museums, France Courtesy of the Musees de la Ville de Narbonne, France PD source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art -10637/Fermat-portrait-by-Roland-Lefevre -in-the-Narbonne-City-Museums?articleTyp eId=1 ![]() [2] A portrait of Pierre de Fermat, French lawyer and mathematician. Source http://www.mathe.tu-freiberg.de/~hebisc h/cafe/fermat.html Date 17th century A.D. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Pierre_de_Fermat.jpg |
341 YBN [1659 CE] | 1755) Malpighi (moLPEJE), (CE 1628-1694) Malpighi is first to note the lymph glands (or lymph nodes), which Rudbeck will include as part of the lymphatic system. | Bologna, Italy | ![]() [1] Description Marcello Malphigi Source L C Miall. The History of Biology. Watts and Co. Date 1911 Author L C Miall PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:MarcelloMalphigiMiall.jpg ![]() [2] from http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/ * 11:57, 27 August 2002 Magnus Manske 432x575 (78,604 bytes) (from meta) Source Originally from en.wikipedia; description page is (was) here Date Commons upload by Magnus Manske 10:03, 10 May 2006 (UTC) PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Marcello_Malpighi_large.jpg |
341 YBN [1659 CE] | 1766) Huygens (HOEGeNZ) (CE 1629-1695) is the first to note surface markings on Mars. | The Hague, Netherlands (presumably) | ![]() [1] Sketch of Mars by Christiaan Huygens This sketch, made in 1659, is the first known recording of markings on the surface of Mars. As is traditional for sketches drawn based on the view through a telescope, it is inverted, with south at the top. PD source: http://www.planetary.org/explore /topics/timelines/timeline_to_1698.html ![]() [2] Christiaan Huygens, the astronomer. source: http://ressources2.techno.free.fr/inform atique/sites/inventions/inventions.html PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Christiaan_Huygens-painting.jpeg |
340 YBN [11/28/1660 CE] | 1704) The Royal Society is formed. | London, England | ![]() [1] The Fame of the Royal Society. From Thomas Sprat's History of the Royal Society In the Center is a bust of the Society's Founder - Charles II Left is William Brouncker- The first President On the Right is Francis Bacon the Inspiration of the Royal Society PD source: http://www.sirbacon.org/esquire. html ![]() [2] John Wallis, English mathematician with important contributions to analysis. Source: en:Image:John_Wallis.jpg PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:John_Wallis.jpg |
340 YBN [1660 CE] | 1716) Vincenzo Viviani (ViVEonE) (CE 1622-1703) and Giovanni Alfonso Borelli measure a more accurate speed of sound as 350 meters per second (current: 331.29 meters/s {1,086.91 feet/s 741 miles/hour} at 0°C). | Florence, Italy | ![]() [1] Vincenzo Viviani aus: http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/hist ory/PictDisplay/Viviani.html PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Vincenzo_Viviani.jpeg ![]() [2] Portrait of Giovanni Borelli from this web site: http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timel ine/people/borelli.html The portrait is made in 17th century. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:GBorelli.jpg |
340 YBN [1660 CE] | 1737) Robert Boyle (CE 1627-1691) performs experiments sending electricity through an evacuated container and states that electrical attraction is transmitted through empty space (a vacuum). (verify if electrical current can move through empty space, Plucker stated that it can't) | Oxford, England (presumably) | ![]() [1] Scientist: Boyle, Robert (1627 - 1691) Discipline(s): Chemistry ; Physics Original Dimensions: Graphic: 13.1 x 8.2 cm / PD source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Boyle ![]() [2] Scientist: Boyle, Robert (1627 - 1691) Discipline(s): Chemistry ; Physics Print Artist: George Vertue, 1684-1756 Medium: Engraving Original Artist: Johann Kerseboom, d.1708 Original Dimensions: Graphic: 39.5 x 24.3 cm / PD source: %20Robert |
339 YBN [1661 CE] | 1738) Robert Boyle (CE 1627-1691) recognizes acids, bases and neutral liquids using acid-base indicators. Boyle defines an element as any substance that cannot be broken down farther into another substance. | Oxford, England (presumably) | ![]() [1] The Skeptical Chymist title page PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:000a.jpg ![]() [2] Scientist: Boyle, Robert (1627 - 1691) Discipline(s): Chemistry ; Physics Original Dimensions: Graphic: 13.1 x 8.2 cm / PD source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Boyle |
339 YBN [1661 CE] | 1754) Malpighi (moLPEJE), (CE 1628-1694) observes the connection of arteries and veins. Marcello Malpighi (moLPEJE), (CE 1628-1694) observes microscopic blood vessels, eventually named "capillaries", in the wings of bats, that connect the smallest parts of the arteries with the smallest parts of the veins. | Bologna, Italy | ![]() [1] Description Marcello Malphigi Source L C Miall. The History of Biology. Watts and Co. Date 1911 Author L C Miall PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:MarcelloMalphigiMiall.jpg ![]() [2] from http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/ * 11:57, 27 August 2002 Magnus Manske 432x575 (78,604 bytes) (from meta) Source Originally from en.wikipedia; description page is (was) here Date Commons upload by Magnus Manske 10:03, 10 May 2006 (UTC) PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Marcello_Malpighi_large.jpg |
339 YBN [1661 CE] | 1810) Nicolaus Steno (STAnO) (CE 1638-1686) discovers the duct of the parotid gland (the salivary gland located near the angle of the jaw), (still called the duct of Steno). In addition, Steno demonstrates the existence of the pineal gland in animals other than humans. demonstrates the existence of the pineal gland in animals other than humans. René Descartes had considered the pineal gland the location of the soul, wrongly believing that both were found only in humans. views fossils {as does his contemporary Hooke} as ancient animals that had lived normal lives and in death were petrified. | Amsterdam, Netherlands | ![]() [1] Niels Steensen (da) - Nicholas Steno (1638 - 1686) var en pioner både indenfor anatomi og geologi. - Danish Scientist image from/fra J. P. Trap: berømte danske mænd og kvinder, 1868 The portrait originated around the time Steno died in the German city Schwerin. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Niels_stensen.jpg ![]() [2] Nicolaus Steno STAnO [t accurate?] PD source: http://www.nndb.com/people/070/0 00097776/ |
338 YBN [1662 CE] | 1739) Robert Boyle (CE 1627-1691) explains that the pressure and volume of a gas are inversely related (this is called Boyle's Law). Robert Boyle (CE 1627-1691) explains his and Robert Hooke's experimental finding that the pressure and volume of a gas are inversely related (this is called Boyle's Law). Boyle finds this when using a 17 foot J-shaped tube to trap air using mercury. Boyle recognizes that when he adds twice the amount of mercury, he is adding twice the pressure on the air trapped in the end of the tube. When Boyle does this the air volume is reduced by a half, and in reverse, if pressure is lowered by removing half of the mercury, the volume of the air expands by two times. | Oxford, England (presumably) | ![]() [1] Scientist: Boyle, Robert (1627 - 1691) Discipline(s): Chemistry ; Physics Original Dimensions: Graphic: 13.1 x 8.2 cm / PD source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Boyle ![]() [2] Scientist: Boyle, Robert (1627 - 1691) Discipline(s): Chemistry ; Physics Print Artist: George Vertue, 1684-1756 Medium: Engraving Original Artist: Johann Kerseboom, d.1708 Original Dimensions: Graphic: 39.5 x 24.3 cm / PD source: %20Robert |
337 YBN [1663 CE] | 1814) James Gregory (1638-1675) publishes the earliest design of a reflecting telescope. James Gregory (1638-1675) publishes the earliest design of a reflecting telescope in "Optica Promota" (1663; "The Advance of Optics"). | London, England | ![]() [1] Portrait of the Astronomer James Gregory. Description James Gregory Source http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~his tory/PictDisplay/Gregory.html Date ? Author ? Permission http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~his tory/Miscellaneous/Copyright.html PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:James_Gregory.jpeg ![]() [2] Gregorian reflecting telescope (1663) Long before the technology existed to make it, James Gregory envisioned a telescope with a parabolic primary mirror. The telescope''s images would have been free of both chromatic and spherical aberration. By using a mirror, rather than a lens, Gregory eliminated chromatic aberration. The mirror's shape was parabolic, not spherical, eliminating spherical aberration. COPYRIGHTED EDU source: http://amazing-space.stsci.edu/r esources/explorations/groundup/lesson/ba sics/g10b/index.php |
337 YBN [1663 CE] | 2247) Otto von Guericke (GAriKu) (CE 1602-1686) builds the first static electricity generator. Otto von Guericke (GAriKu) (CE 1602-1686) builds the first static electricity generator by rotating a sulfur globe against a cloth. | Magdeburg, Germany (presumably) | ![]() [1] Otto Guericke electrical device. Footage is claimed to be PD old. Picture was obtained from http://www.corrosion-doctors.org/Biograp hies/GuerickeBio.htm PD source: http://www.answers.com/topic/gue ricke-electricaldevice-png ![]() [2] Otto von Guericke PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Guericke.png |
336 YBN [07/??/1664 CE] | 2328) Robert Hooke (CE 1635-1703) measures the frequency of sound (that is the pitch, the number of beats per second). Hooke measures two hundred seventy two vibrations in one second of time as being the note "G" (although this is now recognized as C#). Possibly Marin Mersenne was the first of record to record a frequency for any sound by 1637, that of 84 cycles per second. | London, England (presumably) | ![]() [1] Hooke memorial window, St Helen's Bishopsgate (now destroyed) http://www.roberthooke.org.u k/ on http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.mart in/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm PD source: http://freespace.virgin.net/ric. martin/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm ![]() [2] Frontispiece to Cyclopædia, 1728 edition View an enlarged 1000 x 811 pixel JPG image (271KB) the engraved frontispiece to the 1728 edition of Chambers' Cyclopedia shows as an interesting detail a bust of Robert Hooke.[3] [t there are busts of Newton in the upper left, and a few on the bottom right] [Frontispiece] COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.she-philosopher.com/g allery/cyclopaedia.html |
336 YBN [11/23/1664 CE] | 1799) Robert Hooke (CE 1635-1703) publishes "Micrographia", which contains beautiful drawings of microscopic observations. Hooke is first to use the word "cells" to describe the tiny rectangular holes he identifies in a thin sliver of cork viewed under a microscope. Hooke suggests a transverse wave theory of light with a transparent homogenius medium, comparing the spreading of light vibrations to that of waves in water. Hooke's wave theory in "Micrographia" (1665), and Francesco Grimaldi's wave theory in "Physico-mathesis de lumine, coloribus, et iride" (1665; "Physicomathematical Studies of Light, Colors, and the Rainbow") are curiously both released to the public in the same year and are the earliest recorded wave theories for light that I am aware of. | London, England | ![]() [1] The title page of Hooke's famous 'Micrographia', published in 1665. PD source: http://freespace.virgin.net/ric. martin/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm ![]() [2] Suber cells and mimosa leaves. Robert Hooke, Micrographia, 1665.[3] Robert Hooke's drawings of the cellular structure of cork and a sprig of sensitive plant from Micrographia (1665). Oxford Science Library/Heritage-Images [2] PD source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik i/Image:RobertHookeMicrographia1665.jpg |
336 YBN [1664 CE] | 1714) Thomas Willis (CE 1621-1675), publishes "Cerebri Anatome, cui accessit Nervorum descriptio et usus" (1664; "Anatomy of the Brain, with a Description of the Nerves and Their Function"), the most complete and accurate account of the nervous system to this time. Willis gives the first reliable description of typhoid fever. Willis is the first to describe myasthenia gravis and childbed fever, naming it "puerperal fever" from Latin phrase for "child bearing" (is?) Willis recognizes (as earlier Greek physicians may have known) the (unusually high quantity of) sugar content in urine among some people with diabetes. (Perhaps this fact is recognized from oral sex?) | Oxford, England (presumably) | ![]() [1] Scientist: Willis, Thomas (1621 - 1675) Discipline(s): Medicine Original Dimensions: Graphic: 15.8 x 9.6 cm / Sheet: 17.5 x 11 cm PD source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=w ![]() [2] Thomas Willis, engraving by G. Vertue, 1742, after a portrait by D. Loggan, c. 1666 Archiv fur Kunst und Geschichte, Berlin PD source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art -33103/Thomas-Willis-engraving-by-G-Vert ue-1742-after-a-portrait?articleTypeId=1 |
335 YBN [1665 CE] | 1688) Giovanni Alfonso Borelli (BoreLE) (CE 1608-1679), proposes that comets also move in elliptical orbits. Borelli understands that a hollow copper sphere is buoyant (in air) when evacuated, but that it soon collapses under air pressure. The Montgolfier brothers will recognize in 150 years that by putting in a lighter than air gas, a sphere can be used as a balloon. (place chronologically) | Pisa, Italy (presumably) | ![]() [1] Portrait of Giovanni Borelli from this web site: http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timel ine/people/borelli.html The portrait is made in 17th century. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:GBorelli.jpg ![]() [2] Giovanni Alfonso Borelli. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Giovanni_Alfonso_Borelli.jpg |
335 YBN [1665 CE] | 1707) Francesco Grimaldi (GREMoLDE) (CE 1618-1663) observes what he calls "diffraction" of light through two narrow openings. This double-slit experiment will be an obstacle to the correct interpretation of light as a particle that obeys the law of gravity for 300 and counting years. The more accurate and surprisingly obvious interpretation of photons reflecting off the sides of the slit will not be explored until modern times, however humans should keep open minds and explore as many theories as possible. Grimaldi to create a wave theory of light. Robert Hooke in England publishes a wave theory for light in this year too. These two wave theories for light are the earliest recorded wave theories for light I am aware of. This debate over light being a particle or wave phenomenon will continue for the next 350 years into the present time. | Bologna, Italy (presumably) | ![]() [1] Physico-mathesis de lvmine, coloribvs, et iride, aliisqve adnexis; libri dvo ... Avctore Francisco Maria Grimaldo. Bononiae, Ex Typographia Haeredis V. Benatij; impensis H. Berniae, 1665, [London, Dawsons, 1966] Latin Light through two holes between diffracts in the transmission, we see a large widening that shows its stretched out direction. (my own translation, and needs correction) PD/COPYRIGHTED source: Physico-mathesis de lvmine, coloribvs, et iride, aliisqve adnexis; libri dvo ... Avctore Francisco Maria Grimaldo. Bononiae, Ex Typographia Haeredis V. Benatij; impensis H. Berniae, 1665, [London, Dawsons, 1966 Latin 9 ![]() [2] Francesco Maria Grimaldi (Bologna, 2 aprile 1618 - Bologna 28 dicembre 1663), astronomo e fisico italiano, in un'incisione seicentesca. PD source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Franc escomaria_Grimaldi.jpg |
335 YBN [1665 CE] | 1726) (Italian:) Giovanni Domenico Cassini (Ko SEnE) (French:) Jean Dominique Cassini (KoSE nE) (CE 1625-1712) measures the period of rotation of Mars as 24 hours and 40 minutes. | Bologna, Italy | ![]() [1] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s): Astronomy ; Geodesy Print Artist: N. Dupuis Medium: Engraving Original Dimensions: Graphic: 14.3 x 10.2 cm / Sheet: 24.6 x 16.2 cm PD source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c ![]() [2] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s): Astronomy ; Geodesy Original Dimensions: Graphic: 25.2 x 18.5 cm / Sheet: 27.4 x 19.5 cm PD source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c |
335 YBN [1665 CE] | 1776) Richard Lower (CE 1631-1691) performs the first blood transfusion. | London?, England | ![]() [1] Richard Lower PD source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc /lower.jpg ![]() [2] Richard Lower. PD source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc /lower.jpg |
334 YBN [12/22/1666 CE] | 1712) The French Academy of Sciences (Académie des sciences) is founded. | Paris, France | ![]() [1] A celebratory engraving of the activities of the Académie des Sciences from 1698. Source: http://www.princeton.edu/~his291/Jpegs/A cademie.JPG PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Acad%C3%A9mie_des_Sciences_1698.jpg ![]() [2] Louis XIV visiting the Académie in 1671 An engraving by Sebastien Le Clerc from Mémoires pour servir a l'Histoire Naturelle des Animause (Paris, 1671), depicting King Louis XIV visting the Académie des Sciences. Source: http://www.phys.uu.nl/~huygens/images/ac ademie_royale_paris.jpg PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Acad%C3%A9mie_des_Sciences_1671.jpg |
334 YBN [1666 CE] | 1723) Thomas Sydenham (SiDnuM) (CE 1624-1689) is first to differentiate scarlet fever from measles and names "Scarlet fever". (place chronologically) Sydenham is the first to use a derivative of opium, laudanum (alcohol tincture of opium) to relieve pain and induce rest. Sydenham uses iron in the treatment of anemia. (place chronologically) Sydenham popularizes the use of cinchona (quinine) to treat malaria. (effective?) | London, England (presumably) | ![]() [1] Scientist: Sydenham, Thomas (1624 - 1689) Discipline(s): Medicine Original Dimensions: Graphic: 7.2 x 6.5 cm / Sheet: 17.5 x 7.9 cm PD source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_n ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Sydenh am ![]() [2] Sydenham, detail of an oil painting by Mary Beale, 1688; in the National Portrait Gallery, London Courtesy of the National Portrait Gallery, London PD source: %20Thomas |
334 YBN [1666 CE] | 1757) Malpighi (moLPEJE), (CE 1628-1694) publishes "De viscerum structura execitatio anatomica" (1666) which gives a detailed and fairly accurate account of the structure of the liver, spleen, and kidney. | Bologna, Italy | ![]() [1] Description Marcello Malphigi Source L C Miall. The History of Biology. Watts and Co. Date 1911 Author L C Miall PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:MarcelloMalphigiMiall.jpg ![]() [2] from http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/ * 11:57, 27 August 2002 Magnus Manske 432x575 (78,604 bytes) (from meta) Source Originally from en.wikipedia; description page is (was) here Date Commons upload by Magnus Manske 10:03, 10 May 2006 (UTC) PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Marcello_Malpighi_large.jpg |
334 YBN [1666 CE] | 1758) Malpighi (moLPEJE), (CE 1628-1694) publishes "De bombyce" (1669), on the internal organs of the silk-worm moth, which is the first detailed account of the structure of an invertebrate. | Bologna, Italy | ![]() [1] Description Marcello Malphigi Source L C Miall. The History of Biology. Watts and Co. Date 1911 Author L C Miall PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:MarcelloMalphigiMiall.jpg ![]() [2] from http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/ * 11:57, 27 August 2002 Magnus Manske 432x575 (78,604 bytes) (from meta) Source Originally from en.wikipedia; description page is (was) here Date Commons upload by Magnus Manske 10:03, 10 May 2006 (UTC) PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Marcello_Malpighi_large.jpg |
334 YBN [1666 CE] | 1803) Robert Hooke (CE 1635-1703) publishes his theory that a single attractive force from the sun, which varies in inverse proportion to the square distance between the sun and planet, is responsible for the planets' elliptical orbits. Hooke will inform Isaac Newton to this theory in correspondence in 1679. Hooke can not prove this theory mathematically, and when Newton does (by including a gravitational constant and object mass), Newton will fail to credit Hooke with the inverse distance squared portion of the theory of gravity. | London, England (presumably) | ![]() [1] Hooke memorial window, St Helen's Bishopsgate (now destroyed) http://www.roberthooke.org.u k/ on http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.mart in/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm PD source: http://freespace.virgin.net/ric. martin/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm ![]() [2] Frontispiece to Cyclopædia, 1728 edition View an enlarged 1000 x 811 pixel JPG image (271KB) the engraved frontispiece to the 1728 edition of Chambers' Cyclopedia shows as an interesting detail a bust of Robert Hooke.[3] [t there are busts of Newton in the upper left, and a few on the bottom right] [Frontispiece] COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.she-philosopher.com/g allery/cyclopaedia.html |
334 YBN [1666 CE] | 1826) Isaac Newton (CE 1642-1727) understands that light is a mixture of differently refractable colored rays. Isaac Newton (CE 1642-1727) understands that "Light itself is a heterogeneous mixture of differently refrangible rays." Newton shows that the colors from a prism are part of the white light itself by passing the rainbow or "spectrum" through a second prism in order to reverse the effect of the first prism, and observes that white light is produced again. Newton shows that if only a single color is passed through a second prism, that band of color might be widened or shortened, but always remains the same color. Newton explains that the color of bodies can be explained by their varying reflection or absorption of different colors contained in white light. (verify that Newton actually understands this) | Woolsthorpe, England | ![]() [1] Description Isaac Newton Date 1689 Author Godfrey Kneller PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg ![]() [2] Sir Isaac Newton Description National Portrait Gallery London Source http://www.nd.edu/~dharley/HistIdeas/Ne wton.html (not actual); first uploaded in German Wikipedia by Dr. Manuel Date 26. Jan. 2005 (orig. upload) Author Godfrey Kneller (1702) PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Isaac_Newton.jpeg |
333 YBN [06/15/1667 CE] | 1815) Jean Baptiste Denis (DunE) (CE 1640-1704), French physician, performs the firsthuman blood transfusion. | ?, France | ![]() [1] Jean-Baptiste Denis PD source: http://vietsciences.free.fr/lich su/lichsutruyenmau.htm ![]() [2] Starr's book opens with an account of this early transfusion, illustrated in a 1692 German medical textbook. The physician, Jean-Baptiste Denis, believed the lamb's blood -- rich in gentle ''humors'' -- would pacify the madman Antoine Mauroy. PD source: http://www.bu.edu/bridge/archive /1998/09-18/features7.html |
333 YBN [1667 CE] | 1813) Nicolaus Steno (STAnO) (CE 1638-1686) publishes a short essay "The Dissection of the Head of a Shark" at the end of his "Elements of Myology". This essay marks the beginning of the science of paleontology. | Florence, Italy (presumably) | ![]() [1] Steno's shark teeth from Elementorum myologiæ specimen, seu musculi descriptio geometrica : cui accedunt Canis Carchariæ dissectum caput, et dissectus piscis ex Canum genere Source http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/im ages/stenoshark.jpg Date 1667 Author Niels Stensen (Steno) PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Stenoshark.jpg ![]() [2] none PD source: http://epswww.unm.edu/facstaff/z sharp/106/lecture%202%20steno.htm |
333 YBN [1667 CE] | 1816) James Gregory (1638-1675) is the first to study a "convergent series", a series with an infinite number of members but has a finite sum. | Padua?, Italy | ![]() [1] Portrait of the Astronomer James Gregory. Description James Gregory Source http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~his tory/PictDisplay/Gregory.html Date ? Author ? Permission http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~his tory/Miscellaneous/Copyright.html PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:James_Gregory.jpeg ![]() [2] Gregorian reflecting telescope (1663) Long before the technology existed to make it, James Gregory envisioned a telescope with a parabolic primary mirror. The telescope''s images would have been free of both chromatic and spherical aberration. By using a mirror, rather than a lens, Gregory eliminated chromatic aberration. The mirror's shape was parabolic, not spherical, eliminating spherical aberration. COPYRIGHTED EDU source: http://amazing-space.stsci.edu/r esources/explorations/groundup/lesson/ba sics/g10b/index.php |
332 YBN [1668 CE] | 1727) (Italian:) Giovanni Domenico Cassini (Ko SEnE) (French:) Jean Dominique Cassini (KoSE nE) (CE 1625-1712) establishes Jupiter's period of rotation as nine hours fifty-six minutes. Cassini issues a table of the motions of Jupiter's moons, which will later serve the Danish astronomer Ole Rømer (Roemer) in his measuring the velocity of light and proving that this velocity is finite in 1675. | Bologna, Italy | ![]() [1] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s): Astronomy ; Geodesy Print Artist: N. Dupuis Medium: Engraving Original Dimensions: Graphic: 14.3 x 10.2 cm / Sheet: 24.6 x 16.2 cm PD source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c ![]() [2] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s): Astronomy ; Geodesy Original Dimensions: Graphic: 25.2 x 18.5 cm / Sheet: 27.4 x 19.5 cm PD source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c |
332 YBN [1668 CE] | 1736) Francesco Redi (rADE) (1 1626-1697) disproves "spontaneous regeneration" of flies from meat. | Florence, Italy (presumably) | ![]() [1] Scientist: Redi, Francesco (1626 - 1698) Discipline(s): Medicine Print Artist: Lodovico Pelli, 1814-1876 Medium: Engraving Original Dimensions: Graphic: 11 x 11 cm / Sheet: 19.2 x 14.3 cm PD source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D iscipline_1=Medicine ![]() [2] Francesco Redi Esperienze intorno alla generazione degl'insetti fatte da Francesco Redi ... e da lvi scritte in vna lettera all'illvstrissimo Signor Carlo Dati.. Firenze, All'insegna della Stella, 1668. 3 p. l., 228 p. illus., plates (part fold.) 24 cm. Call no.: QL496.R35 1668 PD source: http://www.library.umass.edu/spc oll/exhibits/herbal/redi.htm |
332 YBN [1668 CE] | 1830) Issac Newton (CE 1642-1727) builds the first reflecting telescope that can compete with a refracting telescope, and the first with a second mirror angeled at 45 degrees to send the image to the side of the telescope. | Cambridge, England | ![]() [1] Presumably Newton's first reflecting telescope COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.newton.cam.ac.uk/newt on.html ![]() [2] Description Isaac Newton Date 1689 Author Godfrey Kneller PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg |
331 YBN [07/??/1669 CE] | 1827) Isaac Newton (CE 1642-1727) invents calculus, a system of calculating, using two main tools: differentiation and integration. Differentiation (differential calculus) determines the rate of change of an equation, and integration (integral calculus) uses the summation of infinitely many small pieces to determine the length, area or volume of an equation. | Cambridge, England | ![]() [1] Description Isaac Newton Date 1689 Author Godfrey Kneller PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg ![]() [2] Sir Isaac Newton Description National Portrait Gallery London Source http://www.nd.edu/~dharley/HistIdeas/Ne wton.html (not actual); first uploaded in German Wikipedia by Dr. Manuel Date 26. Jan. 2005 (orig. upload) Author Godfrey Kneller (1702) PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Isaac_Newton.jpeg |
331 YBN [1669 CE] | 1735) Erasmus Bartholin (BoRTUliN) (CE 1625-1698) is the first to record the "double refraction" phenomenon of calcite (Iceland feldspar). Erasmus Bartholin (BoRTUliN) (CE 1625-1698), Danish physician, is the first to record the "double refraction" phenomenon of calcite (Iceland feldspar). | Copenhagen, Denmark | ![]() [1] 1693-1698 Bartholin, Rasmus (1625- 4/11 1698) Universitetsprofessor, læge, matematiker, fysiker, Valgt 25/1 1693 som den ældste Senium in Academia Læs om ham i Dansk Biografisk Lexicon PD source: http://kilder.rundetaarn.dk/biog rafisketavler/bibliotekarer.htm ![]() [2] 1625 Rasmus Bartholin PD source: http://www.roskildehistorie.dk/1 600/billeder/personer/Bartholin/Bartholi n.htm |
331 YBN [1669 CE] | 1774) Hennig Brand (CE 1630-c1710) identifies phosphorus which is the first known element. | Hamburg, Germany (presumably) | ![]() [1] The Alchemist in Search of the Philosophers Stone (1771) by Joseph Wright depicting Hennig Brand discovering phosphorus (the glow shown is exaggerated) PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Henning_brand.jpg ![]() [2] A retort. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:My_retort.jpg |
331 YBN [1669 CE] | 1805) Jan Swammerdam (Yon SVoMRDoM) (CE 1637-1680) publishes "Historia Insectorum Generalis" ("A General History of Insects"). | Amsterdam, Netherlands (presumably) | ![]() [1] Jan Swammerdam Historia insectorum generalis, ofte, Algemeene verhandeling van de bloedeloose dierkens : waar in, de waaragtige gronden van haare langsaame aangroeingen in leedemaaten, klaarelijk werden voorgestelt : kragtiglijk, van de gemeene dwaaling der vervorming, anders metamorphosis genoemt, gesuyvert : ende beknoptelijk, in vier onderscheide orderen van veranderingen, ofte natuurelijke uytbottingen in leeden, begreepen t'Utrrecht : By Meinardus van Dreunen ..., 1669. [28], 168, 48 p., XIII, [1] leaves of plates (some folded) : ill. (engravings) ; 21 cm. (4to) Call no.: QL463.S8 1669 PD source: http://www.library.umass.edu/spc oll/exhibits/herbal/29.jpg ![]() [2] The SCUA copy of Historia insectorum generalis includes a scarce additional plate depicting a mosquito as seen under magnification. title page metamorphosis of insects ''The manner in which worms and caterpillars change into pupae.'' scorpion Scorpion mosquito Additional plate depicting a mosquito PD source: http://www.library.umass.edu/spc oll/exhibits/herbal/28.jpg |
331 YBN [1669 CE] | 1811) Nicolaus Steno (STAnO) (CE 1638-1686) published his geological observations in "De solido intra solidum naturaliter contento dissertationis prodromus" ("The Prodromus of Nicolaus Steno's Dissertation Concerning a Solid Body Enclosed by Process of Nature Within a Solid"). | Amsterdam, Netherlands | ![]() [1] none PD source: http://epswww.unm.edu/facstaff/z sharp/106/lecture%202%20steno.htm ![]() [2] Niels Steensen (da) - Nicholas Steno (1638 - 1686) var en pioner både indenfor anatomi og geologi. - Danish Scientist image from/fra J. P. Trap: berømte danske mænd og kvinder, 1868 The portrait originated around the time Steno died in the German city Schwerin. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Niels_stensen.jpg |
329 YBN [1671 CE] | 1715) Thomas Willis (CE 1621-1675), is the first to describe myasthenia gravis in 1671, a chronic muscular fatigue marked by progressive paralysis, and puerperal (childbed) fever, which he names. | Oxford, England (presumably) | ![]() [1] Scientist: Willis, Thomas (1621 - 1675) Discipline(s): Medicine Original Dimensions: Graphic: 15.8 x 9.6 cm / Sheet: 17.5 x 11 cm PD source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=w ![]() [2] Thomas Willis, engraving by G. Vertue, 1742, after a portrait by D. Loggan, c. 1666 Archiv fur Kunst und Geschichte, Berlin PD source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art -33103/Thomas-Willis-engraving-by-G-Vert ue-1742-after-a-portrait?articleTypeId=1 |
329 YBN [1671 CE] | 1729) Giovanni Cassini (Ko SEnE) (CE 1625-1712) identifies the moon of Saturn, Iapetus (IoPeTuS). (Italian:) Giovanni Domenico Cassini (Ko SEnE) (French:) Jean Dominique Cassini (KoSE nE) (CE 1625-1712) identifies the first known moon of Saturn, Iapetus. | Paris, France | ![]() [1] Approximately natural color mosaic of Iapetus taken on December 31, 2004 at a distance of about 173 000 km and phase angle of 52 degrees. The mosaic consists of two footprints which were the only ones where multispectral coverage exists at this point in the flyby. The missing portions for full-disk coverage were filled in with three clear filter frames which were colorized. The view is dominated by the dark Cassini Regio. Brighter terrain is visible high on Iapetus' northern latitudes. Hints of much brighter terrain can also be seen at the limb at approx. 7 o'clock position where slight camera saturation occured. Two huge and ancient impact basins are visible as well as a mysterious mountain range running precisely along the equator. North pole is approximately at 1 o'clock position and is in darkness here. Credit: NASA / JPL / SSI / Gordan Ugarkovic [t looks very like a terrestrial with meteor impacts, might this have been orbiting the Sun? or absorbs impacts around Saturn? If around the Sun and then fell back to Saturn that might be important. It's a classic question of moon form around planets or only around stars.] PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Iapetus_mosaic_color.jpg ![]() [2] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s): Astronomy ; Geodesy Print Artist: N. Dupuis Medium: Engraving Original Dimensions: Graphic: 14.3 x 10.2 cm / Sheet: 24.6 x 16.2 cm PD source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c |
329 YBN [1671 CE] | 1854) Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (LIPniTS) (CE 1646-1716), constructs a calculating machine that can add, subtract, multiply and divide. | Mainz, Germany | ![]() [1] Description Deutsch: Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (Gemälde von Bernhard Christoph Francke, Braunschweig, Herzog-Anton-Ulrich-Museum, um 1700) Source http://www.hfac.uh.edu/gbrown/philosoph ers/leibniz/BritannicaPages/Leibniz/Leib nizGif.html Date ca. 1700 PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Gottfried_Wilhelm_von_Leibniz.jpg ![]() [2] Source: http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedi a/L/Leibniz.html PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Leibniz_231.jpg |
329 YBN [1671 CE] | 2119) Robert Boyle (CE 1627-1691) describes the reaction between iron filings and dilute acids that results in the release of gaseous hydrogen (which Boyle describes as an) ("inflammable solution of Mars" {iron}). | Oxford, England (presumably) | ![]() [1] Scientist: Boyle, Robert (1627 - 1691) Discipline(s): Chemistry ; Physics Original Dimensions: Graphic: 13.1 x 8.2 cm / PD source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Boyle ![]() [2] Scientist: Boyle, Robert (1627 - 1691) Discipline(s): Chemistry ; Physics Print Artist: George Vertue, 1684-1756 Medium: Engraving Original Artist: Johann Kerseboom, d.1708 Original Dimensions: Graphic: 39.5 x 24.3 cm / PD source: %20Robert |
328 YBN [02/19/1672 CE] | 1829) Issac Newton (CE 1642-1727) revives the view that light is a particle. Isaac Newton (CE 1642-1727) theorizes that rays of light might be particles (globular) like tennis balls. Newton explains that white light is a mixture of differently refractable (refrangible) primary colors. Newton explains that white light is a mixture of differently refractable (refrangible) primary colors, and that the colors produced from a prism cannot be changed into other colors. Newton states that color is a property of light, and not a property of objects light is reflected off. All these finds are described by Newton in a letter to the Royal Society Secretary (February 6, 1672) which is published in the Society's "Philosophical Transactions" with the title "New Theory about Light and Colors" (February 19th). In 55 BCE, Lucretius, wrote in his "De Natura Rerum ("On the Nature of Things"): "The light and heat of the sun; these are composed of minute atoms". Which is the oldest known clear description of light as being particle in nature. However, to my knowledge, there is no other record of a particle theory of light after Lucretius and before Newton, which implies that Newton was the first to revive the light as a particle idea, and certainly that he was smart enough to support the light as a particle theory when most others did not. This divides scientists into two groups, those who support the corpuscular interpretation of light (light as a particle), and those who view light as being like sound, a wave where particles of a medium, thought to be ether, move a signal (cause the effects of light). These two sides actually continue to this day, however currently a large group of people accept a compromise that light is both a particle and a wave. | Cambridge, England | ![]() [1] Description Isaac Newton Date 1689 Author Godfrey Kneller PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg ![]() [2] Sir Isaac Newton Description National Portrait Gallery London Source http://www.nd.edu/~dharley/HistIdeas/Ne wton.html (not actual); first uploaded in German Wikipedia by Dr. Manuel Date 26. Jan. 2005 (orig. upload) Author Godfrey Kneller (1702) PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Isaac_Newton.jpeg |
328 YBN [1672 CE] | 1191) Thomas Willis (1621-1675), English physician publishes the earliest English work on so-called mental disease, "De Anima Brutorum" ("Discourses Concerning the Souls of Brutes"), which reveals a violent brutal side to Willis and the people of this time. As the title implies people labeled with mental disorders are viewed as "brutes". In this book describes so-called "insane" people as having super human strength, and advocates violence as a useful treatment, writing: "Discipline, threats, fetters, blows are needed as much as medical treatment...". | London, England | ![]() [1] Willis, Thomas, 1621-1675 De anima brutorum quae hominis vitalis ac sentitiva est : exercitationes duae / studio Thomae Willis M.D. Publisher Londini : Typis E.F. impensis Ric. Davis, Oxon, 1672. PD source: http://www.library.usyd.edu.au/l ibraries/rare/medicine/WillisAnima1672.j pg ![]() [2] Thomas Willis British Anatomist PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Thomas_Willis.jpg |
328 YBN [1672 CE] | 1730) Giovanni Cassini (Ko SEnE) (CE 1625-1712) identifies a moon of Saturn, Rhea (rEo). (Italian:) Giovanni Domenico Cassini (Ko SEnE) (French:) Jean Dominique Cassini (KoSE nE) (CE 1625-1712) identifies a moon of Saturn, Rhea. | Paris, France | ![]() [1] 2005-12-06 Rhea mission:Cassini Imaging Science Subsystem - Narrow Angle 4500x4500x1 Rhea: Full Moon PIA07763: Full Resolution: TIFF (20.29 MB) JPEG (2.354 MB) PD source: http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov /target/Rhea?start=50 ![]() [2] Ancient Craters on Saturn's Rhea Credit: Cassini Imaging Team, SSI, JPL, ESA, NASA Explanation: Saturn's ragged moon Rhea has one of the oldest surfaces known. Estimated as changing little in the past billion years, Rhea shows craters so old they no longer appear round - their edges have become compromised by more recent cratering. Like Earth's Moon, Rhea's rotation is locked on Saturn, and the above image shows part of Rhea's surface that always faces Saturn. Rhea's leading surface is more highly cratered than its trailing surface. Rhea is composed mostly of water-ice but is thought to have a small rocky core. The above image was taken by the robot Cassini spacecraft now orbiting Saturn. Cassini swooped past Rhea two months ago and captured the above image from about 100,000 kilometers away. Rhea spans 1,500 kilometers making it Saturn's second largest moon after Titan. Several surface features on Rhea remain unexplained including large light patches. PD source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap0605 30.html |
328 YBN [1672 CE] | 1731) Scale of universe calculated, Sun calculated to be 86 million miles from Earth. | Paris, France;Guiana, South America | ![]() [1] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s): Astronomy ; Geodesy Print Artist: N. Dupuis Medium: Engraving Original Dimensions: Graphic: 14.3 x 10.2 cm / Sheet: 24.6 x 16.2 cm PD source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c ![]() [2] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s): Astronomy ; Geodesy Original Dimensions: Graphic: 25.2 x 18.5 cm / Sheet: 27.4 x 19.5 cm PD source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c |
328 YBN [1672 CE] | 1759) Malpighi (moLPEJE), (CE 1628-1694) sends the Royal Society "De formatione pulli in ovo" (1672). | Bologna, Italy | ![]() [1] Description Marcello Malphigi Source L C Miall. The History of Biology. Watts and Co. Date 1911 Author L C Miall PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:MarcelloMalphigiMiall.jpg ![]() [2] from http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/ * 11:57, 27 August 2002 Magnus Manske 432x575 (78,604 bytes) (from meta) Source Originally from en.wikipedia; description page is (was) here Date Commons upload by Magnus Manske 10:03, 10 May 2006 (UTC) PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Marcello_Malpighi_large.jpg |
327 YBN [1673 CE] | 1770) Huygens (HOEGeNZ) (CE 1629-1695) publishes "Horologium oscillatorium". | Paris, France (presumably) | ![]() [1] Huygens, Horologium oscillatorium, 1673. PD source: http://kinematic.library.cornell .edu:8190/kmoddl/toc_huygens1.html ![]() [2] http://www.kanazawa-it.ac.jp/dawn/167301 .html Huygens, Christiaan. (1629-1695). Horologium Oscillatorium,,,. Parisiis, 1673, First edition. PD source: http://www.kanazawa-it.ac.jp/daw n/photo/167301.jpg |
327 YBN [1673 CE] | 1819) Regnier de Graaf (CE 1641-1673) is the first to describe the follicles of the ovary, but does not understand that the follicle contains the oocyte or ovum cell. | Delft, Netherlands (presumably) | ![]() [1] Regnier de Graaf, Dutch anatomist. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Regnier_de_graaf.jpeg ![]() [2] Regnier de Graaf the Graafian follicles and female ejaculation, PD source: http://www2.hu-berlin.de/sexolog y/GESUND/ARCHIV/GIF/XA_GRAAF.JPG |
326 YBN [09/07/1674 CE] | 1781) Leeuwenhoek (lAVeNHvK) (CE 1632-1723) is the first to observe protists (single-cell organisms with one or more nucleus). Antoni van Leeuwenhoek (lAVeNHvK) (CE 1632-1723) is the first to observe protists (single-cell organisms with one or more nucleus). | Delft, Netherlands | ![]() [1] Description w:Antoni van Leeuwenhoek Source Project Gutenberg ebook of Den Waaragtigen Omloop des Bloeds http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1 8929 http://www.gutenberg.org/files/189 29/18929-h/18929-h.htm Date 1686 Author J. Verkolje PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Antoni_van_Leeuwenhoek.png ![]() [2] Leeuwenhoek Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, detail of a portrait by Jan Verkolje; in the Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam.[2] COPYRIGHTED photo but PD painting source: http://www.abdn.ac.uk/mediarelea ses/release.php?id=197 |
326 YBN [1674 CE] | 1749) John Ray (CE 1627-1705), defines the concept of "species" in terms of structural qualities. | ?, England | ![]() [1] John Ray From Shuster & Shipley, facing p. 232. In turn from an original portrait, by a painter not identified, in (1917) the British Museum. PD source: http://www.marcdatabase.com/~lem ur/lemur.com/gallery-of-antiquarian-tech nology/worthies/ |
326 YBN [1674 CE] | 1825) John Mayow (mAO) (CE 1641-1679) identifies "spiritus nitroaereus" (oxygen) as a distinct atmospheric entity, about 100 years before Joseph Priestley and Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier will identify it. | Oxford, England | ![]() [1] John Mayow PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:John_Mayow.jpg ![]() [2] John Mayow, 1641-1679. Tractatus quinque medico-physici. [Five medico-physical tracts] Oxford: E Theatro Sheldoniano, 1674. Gift of John F. Fulton. PD source: http://www.med.yale.edu/library/ historical/founders/images/tractatus.jpg |
326 YBN [1674 CE] | 2410) Claude Dechales (CE 1621-1678) notices that colors are produced by light reflected from small scratches made in metal. This will lead to the diffraction gratings. | Lyons, France | |
325 YBN [1675 CE] | 1732) Giovanni Cassini (Ko SEnE) (CE 1625-1712) identifies the space between the ring of Jupiter, called "Cassini's division". Giovanni Cassini (Ko SEnE) (CE 1625-1712) identifies the "Cassini division", the dark gap between the rings A and B of Saturn. | Paris, France | ![]() [1] What's That Speck? Cassini's climb to progressively higher elevations reveals the ''negative'' side of Saturn's rings. As the Sun shines through the rings, they take on the appearance of a photonegative: the dense B ring (at the center) blocks much of the incoming light, while the less dense regions scatter and transmit light. Close inspection reveals not one, but two moons in this scene. Mimas (397 kilometers, or 247 miles across) is easily visible near the upper right, but the shepherd moon Prometheus (102 kilometers, or 63 miles across) can also be seen. Prometheus is a dark spot against the far side of the thin, bright F ring. Most of Prometheus' sunlit side is turned away from Cassini in this view. The image was taken in visible light with the Cassini spacecraft wide-angle camera on April 15, 2005, at a distance of approximately 570,000 kilometers (350,000 miles) from Saturn. The image scale is 30 kilometers (19 miles) per pixel. The Cassini-Huygens mission is a cooperative project of NASA, the European Space Agency and the Italian Space Agency. The Jet Propulsion Laboratory, a division of the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena, manages the mission for NASA's Science Mission Directorate, Washington, D.C. The Cassini orbiter and its two onboard cameras were designed, developed and assembled at JPL. The imaging team is based at the Space Science Institute, Boulder, Colo. For more information about the Cassini-Huygens mission visit http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov . For additional images visit the Cassini imaging team homepage http://ciclops.org . Image Credit: NASA/JPL/Space Science Institute PD source: http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/mult imedia/display.cfm?IM_ID=3943 ![]() [2] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s): Astronomy ; Geodesy Print Artist: N. Dupuis Medium: Engraving Original Dimensions: Graphic: 14.3 x 10.2 cm / Sheet: 24.6 x 16.2 cm PD source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c |
325 YBN [1675 CE] | 1836) Isaac Newton (CE 1642-1727) describes "Newton's rings", concentric colored rings in the thin film of air between a lens and a flat sheet of glass, the distance between these concentric rings (Newton's rings) depends on the increasing thickness of the film of air between the lens and glass. | Cambridge, England | ![]() [1] Description Isaac Newton Date 1689 Author Godfrey Kneller PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg ![]() [2] Sir Isaac Newton Description National Portrait Gallery London Source http://www.nd.edu/~dharley/HistIdeas/Ne wton.html (not actual); first uploaded in German Wikipedia by Dr. Manuel Date 26. Jan. 2005 (orig. upload) Author Godfrey Kneller (1702) PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Isaac_Newton.jpeg |
325 YBN [1675 CE] | 1859) The Royal Greenwich observatory is founded. | Greenwich, England | ![]() [1] John Flamsteed. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:John_Flamsteed.jpg ![]() [2] Bust of John Flamsteed in the Museum of the Royal Greenwich Observatory, London PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:John_Flamsteed_Royal_Greenwich_Observ atory_Museum.jpg |
324 YBN [10/09/1676 CE] | 1782) Leeuwenhoek (lAVeNHvK) (CE 1632-1723) is the first to observe bacteria. Antoni van Leeuwenhoek (lAVeNHvK) (CE 1632-1723) is the first to observe bacteria (prokaryotes, single-cell organisms without a nucleus). | Delft, Netherlands | ![]() [1] Description w:Antoni van Leeuwenhoek Source Project Gutenberg ebook of Den Waaragtigen Omloop des Bloeds http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1 8929 http://www.gutenberg.org/files/189 29/18929-h/18929-h.htm Date 1686 Author J. Verkolje PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Antoni_van_Leeuwenhoek.png ![]() [2] Leeuwenhoek Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, detail of a portrait by Jan Verkolje; in the Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam.[2] COPYRIGHTED photo but PD painting source: http://www.abdn.ac.uk/mediarelea ses/release.php?id=197 |
324 YBN [1676 CE] | 1711) Edmé Mariotte (moRYuT) (CE 1620-1684) independently of Boyle identifies that the volume of a gas varies inversely with its pressure, and goes further than Boyle by saying that this is true only if there is no change in temperature. | Paris, France (presumably) | ![]() [1] Edme Mariotte PD? source: http://www.nndb.com/people/112/0 00095824/ |
324 YBN [1676 CE] | 1725) Thomas Sydenham (SiDnuM) (CE 1624-1689) writes "Observationes Medicae" (1676), a standard textbook for two centuries. | London, England (presumably) | ![]() [1] Scientist: Sydenham, Thomas (1624 - 1689) Discipline(s): Medicine Original Dimensions: Graphic: 7.2 x 6.5 cm / Sheet: 17.5 x 7.9 cm PD source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_n ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Sydenh am ![]() [2] Sydenham, detail of an oil painting by Mary Beale, 1688; in the National Portrait Gallery, London Courtesy of the National Portrait Gallery, London PD source: %20Thomas |
324 YBN [1676 CE] | 1746) John Ray (CE 1627-1705), publishes "Ornithologia" (1676) which contains 230 species of birds. | ?, England | ![]() [1] John Ray From Shuster & Shipley, facing p. 232. In turn from an original portrait, by a painter not identified, in (1917) the British Museum. PD source: http://www.marcdatabase.com/~lem ur/lemur.com/gallery-of-antiquarian-tech nology/worthies/ |
324 YBN [1676 CE] | 1747) John Ray (CE 1627-1705), publishes "Historia piscium" (1686) which classifies species of fishes. | ?, England | ![]() [1] John Ray From Shuster & Shipley, facing p. 232. In turn from an original portrait, by a painter not identified, in (1917) the British Museum. PD source: http://www.marcdatabase.com/~lem ur/lemur.com/gallery-of-antiquarian-tech nology/worthies/ |
324 YBN [1676 CE] | 1748) John Ray (CE 1627-1705), distinguishes between monocotyledons and dicotyledons, plants whose seeds germinate with one leaf and those with two. | ?, England | ![]() [1] John Ray From Shuster & Shipley, facing p. 232. In turn from an original portrait, by a painter not identified, in (1917) the British Museum. PD source: http://www.marcdatabase.com/~lem ur/lemur.com/gallery-of-antiquarian-tech nology/worthies/ |
324 YBN [1676 CE] | 1851) Humans estimate speed of light. Ole (or Olaus) Rømer (ROEmR) (CE 1644-1710) explains that the speed of light is finite, and calculates the speed of light as (in modern units) 225,000 km (140,000 miles) per second (too small according to the modern estimate: 299,792 km, or 186,282 miles per second). | (Paris Observatory) Paris, France | ![]() [1] Ole Rømer PD source: http://www.rundetaarn.dk/dansk/o bservatorium/grafik/roemer1.jpg ![]() [2] Ole Rømer PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Ole_roemer.jpg |
323 YBN [1677 CE] | 1784) Antoni van Leeuwenhoek (lAVeNHvK) (CE 1632-1723) is the first to describe spermatozoa. | Delft, Netherlands | ![]() [1] Spermatozoa (Dutch = ''zaaddiertjes'') after an image published in Phil.Trans. XII,nov. 1678) : 1-4 Human, 5-8 Dog. PD source: http://www.euronet.nl/users/warn ar/leeuwenhoek.html ![]() [2] Description w:Antoni van Leeuwenhoek Source Project Gutenberg ebook of Den Waaragtigen Omloop des Bloeds http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1 8929 http://www.gutenberg.org/files/189 29/18929-h/18929-h.htm Date 1686 Author J. Verkolje PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Antoni_van_Leeuwenhoek.png |
322 YBN [1678 CE] | 1768) Christaan Huygens (HOEGeNZ) (CE 1629-1695) presents his "Traité de la lumière" ("Treatise on Light") which puts forward a theory of light as a longitudinal wave like sound. Huygens is the first to describe polarization of light. | Paris, France (presumably) | ![]() [1] Christiaan Huygens, the astronomer. source: http://ressources2.techno.free.fr/inform atique/sites/inventions/inventions.html PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Christiaan_Huygens-painting.jpeg ![]() [2] Christiaan Huygens Library of Congress PD source: http://www.answers.com/Christiaa n+Huygens?cat=technology |
322 YBN [1678 CE] | 1802) Robert Hooke (CE 1635-1703) describes "Hooke's Law", that the force that restores a spring (or any elastic system) to its equilibrium position is proportional to the distance by which it is displaced from that equilibrium position. | London, England (presumably) | ![]() [1] Hooke memorial window, St Helen's Bishopsgate (now destroyed) http://www.roberthooke.org.u k/ on http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.mart in/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm PD source: http://freespace.virgin.net/ric. martin/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm ![]() [2] Frontispiece to Cyclopædia, 1728 edition View an enlarged 1000 x 811 pixel JPG image (271KB) the engraved frontispiece to the 1728 edition of Chambers' Cyclopedia shows as an interesting detail a bust of Robert Hooke.[3] [t there are busts of Newton in the upper left, and a few on the bottom right] [Frontispiece] COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.she-philosopher.com/g allery/cyclopaedia.html |
322 YBN [1678 CE] | 1871) Edmond Halley (CE 1656-1742) publishes the first catalog of telescopically located stars seen only from the southern hemisphere. | London, England (presumably) | ![]() [1] Portrait of Edmond Halley painted around 1687 by Thomas Murray (Royal Society, London) uploaded from http://www.phys.uu.nl/~vgent/astrology/n ewton.htm PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Edmund_Halley.gif ![]() [2] Portrait of Edmond Halley PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Edmond_Halley_5.jpg |
322 YBN [1678 CE] | 3379) Explosion (combustion) vacuum engine design. | Orléans, France | |
322 YBN [1678 CE] | 3592) Muscle contracted using two different metals. | Amsterdam, Netherlands (presumably) | ![]() [1] One of Galvani’s decisive experiments was to show that movement could be induced by stroking an iron plate against a brass hook inserted into the frog’s spinal column, which generated a small electric current. In one version of Swammerdam’s nerve muscle experiment, the nerve was suspended in a brass hook, which was then stroked with a silver wire: PD/Corel source: http://www.janswammerdam.net/Ima ges/Fig4.jpg |
321 YBN [05/27/1679 CE] | 1527) The Habeas Corpus Act 1679 is passed by the Parliament of England (31 Cha. 2 c. 2) during the reign of King Charles II to define and strengthen the ancient writ of habeas corpus, whereby persons unlawfully detained can be ordered to be prosecuted before a court of law. | (presumably) London, England | |
321 YBN [1679 CE] | 1761) Malpighi (moLPEJE), (CE 1628-1694) publishes "Anatome plantarum" (part 1: 1675, part 2: 1679). | Bologna, Italy;(p 2: published London, England) | ![]() [1] Anatome plantarum y De ovo incubato PD source: http://www.unav.es/biblioteca/im agenes/hufa-anatome-plantarum.jpg ![]() [2] Malpighi, Anatomia plantarum, 1675, fol. PD source: http://gbamici.sns.it/img/ednaz/ malpighi.jpg |
321 YBN [1679 CE] | 1863) Denis Papin (PoPoN) (CE 1647-1712) builds the first pressure cooker which reawakens work with steam. Papin also suggests the first cylinder and piston steam engine. | London, England | ![]() [1] subject: Denis Papin, unknown artist, 1689. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Denis_Papin.jpg ![]() [2] http://www.chemistryexplained.com/Bo-Ce/ Boyle-Robert.html PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Boyle-Papin-Digester.jpg |
320 YBN [1680 CE] | 1690) Giovanni Alfonso Borelli (BoreLE) (CE 1608-1679), correctly explains muscular action and the movements of bones in terms of levers. | Rome, Italy (presumably) | ![]() [1] Portrait of Giovanni Borelli from this web site: http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timel ine/people/borelli.html The portrait is made in 17th century. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:GBorelli.jpg ![]() [2] Giovanni Alfonso Borelli. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Giovanni_Alfonso_Borelli.jpg |
320 YBN [1680 CE] | 1740) Robert Boyle (CE 1627-1691) 1680 prepares phosphorus from urine (second to Brand who ten years before had been first to find a new element) (how did they know it was an element?). | London, England (presumably) | ![]() [1] Scientist: Boyle, Robert (1627 - 1691) Discipline(s): Chemistry ; Physics Original Dimensions: Graphic: 13.1 x 8.2 cm / PD source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Boyle ![]() [2] Scientist: Boyle, Robert (1627 - 1691) Discipline(s): Chemistry ; Physics Print Artist: George Vertue, 1684-1756 Medium: Engraving Original Artist: Johann Kerseboom, d.1708 Original Dimensions: Graphic: 39.5 x 24.3 cm / PD source: %20Robert |
320 YBN [1680 CE] | 3378) Cylinder and piston, explosion (combustion) vacuum engine. | Paris, France | ![]() [1] Christiaan Huygens, the astronomer. source: http://ressources2.techno.free.fr/inform atique/sites/inventions/inventions.html PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Christiaan_Huygens-painting.jpeg ![]() [2] Christiaan Huygens Library of Congress PD source: http://www.answers.com/Christiaa n+Huygens?cat=technology |
318 YBN [03/03/1682 CE] | 1788) Antoni van Leeuwenhoek (lAVeNHvK) (CE 1632-1723) describes the first cell nucleus. | Delft, Netherlands | ![]() [1] Description w:Antoni van Leeuwenhoek Source Project Gutenberg ebook of Den Waaragtigen Omloop des Bloeds http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1 8929 http://www.gutenberg.org/files/189 29/18929-h/18929-h.htm Date 1686 Author J. Verkolje PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Antoni_van_Leeuwenhoek.png ![]() [2] Leeuwenhoek Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, detail of a portrait by Jan Verkolje; in the Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam.[2] COPYRIGHTED photo but PD painting source: http://www.abdn.ac.uk/mediarelea ses/release.php?id=197 |
318 YBN [1682 CE] | 1821) Nehemiah Grew (CE 1641-1712) identifies the sex organs of plants, the pistils (female) and stamens (male) with a microscope. Grew also understands how grains of pollen produced by the stamens are the equivalent to sperm cells in the animal world. | presented: London, England | ![]() [1] Title Page of ''The Anatomy of Plants'' PD source: http://www.wsulibs.wsu.edu/holla nd/masc/masctour/earlyprinting/images/50 .jpg ![]() [2] Vine-Root Cut Transversely PD source: http://www.wsulibs.wsu.edu/holla nd/masc/masctour/earlyprinting/images/51 .jpg |
317 YBN [09/12/1683 CE] | 1785) Antoni van Leeuwenhoek (lAVeNHvK) (CE 1632-1723) draws the first picture of bacteria. | Delft, Netherlands | ![]() [1] Fig. 7. Bacteria from a human mouth, letter of 17 September 1683. A is a motile Bacillus, B is Selenomonas sputigena, with CÂ…D its path, E is Micrococci, F is Leptothrix buccalis, and G is a spirochaete, probably Spirochaeta buccalis (Dobell 1932:Plate 24 or Leeuwenhoek 1939-1999, IV:Plate 8). COPYRIGHTED? source: http://esapubs.org/bulletin/back issues/087-1/bulletin_jan2006.htm ![]() [2] Description w:Antoni van Leeuwenhoek Source Project Gutenberg ebook of Den Waaragtigen Omloop des Bloeds http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1 8929 http://www.gutenberg.org/files/189 29/18929-h/18929-h.htm Date 1686 Author J. Verkolje PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Antoni_van_Leeuwenhoek.png |
317 YBN [1683 CE] | 1728) (Italian:) Giovanni Domenico Cassini (Ko SEnE) (French:) Jean Dominique Cassini (KoSE nE) (CE 1625-1712) is the first to study "zodiacal light", a faint illumination of the night sky stretching from the sun along the line of the ecliptic (the orbit of the planets), which Swiss mathematician Nicolas Fatio de Duillier (CE 1664-1753) will correctly explain as dust particles in interplanetary space. | Paris, France | ![]() [1] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s): Astronomy ; Geodesy Print Artist: N. Dupuis Medium: Engraving Original Dimensions: Graphic: 14.3 x 10.2 cm / Sheet: 24.6 x 16.2 cm PD source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c ![]() [2] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s): Astronomy ; Geodesy Original Dimensions: Graphic: 25.2 x 18.5 cm / Sheet: 27.4 x 19.5 cm PD source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c |
316 YBN [10/??/1684 CE] | 1855) Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (LIPniTS) (CE 1646-1716) publishes a system of differential and integral calculus. This form of calculus is the one used today (as opposed to Newton's "fluxions") (uses integral symbol?). | (develops in) Paris, France; (publishes in) Hannover, Germany | ![]() [1] Description Deutsch: Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (Gemälde von Bernhard Christoph Francke, Braunschweig, Herzog-Anton-Ulrich-Museum, um 1700) Source http://www.hfac.uh.edu/gbrown/philosoph ers/leibniz/BritannicaPages/Leibniz/Leib nizGif.html Date ca. 1700 PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Gottfried_Wilhelm_von_Leibniz.jpg ![]() [2] Source: http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedi a/L/Leibniz.html PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Leibniz_231.jpg |
316 YBN [1684 CE] | 1733) Giovanni Cassini (Ko SEnE) (CE 1625-1712) identifies the moons Dione (DIOnE) (Greek Διώνη) and Tethys (TEtuS) (Greek Τηθύς) of Saturn. | Paris, France | ![]() [1] Bright Cliffs Across Saturn's Moon Dione Credit: Cassini Imaging Team, SSI, JPL, ESA, NASA Explanation: What causes the bright streaks on Dione? Recent images of this unusual moon by the robot Cassini spacecraft now orbiting Saturn are helping to crack the mystery. Close inspection of Dione's trailing hemisphere, pictured above, indicates that the white wisps are composed of deep ice cliffs dropping hundreds of meters. The cliffs may indicate that Dione has undergone some sort of tectonic surface displacements in its past. The bright ice-cliffs run across some of Dione's many craters, indicating that the process that created them occurred later than the impacts that created those craters. Dione is made of mostly water ice but its relatively high density indicates that it contains much rock inside. Giovanni Cassini discovered Dione in 1684. The above image was taken at the end of July from a distance of about 263,000 kilometers. Other high resolution images of Dione were taken by the passing Voyager spacecraft in 1980. PD source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap0609 05.html ![]() [2] 4,500 Kilometers Above Dione Credit : Cassini Imaging Team, SSI, JPL, ESA, NASA Explanation: What does the surface of Saturn's moon Dione look like? To find out, the robot Cassini spacecraft currently orbiting Saturn flew right past the fourth largest moon of the giant planet earlier this month. Pictured above is an image taken about 4,500 kilometers above Dione's icy surface, spanning about 23 kilometers. Fractures, grooves, and craters in Dione's ice and rock are visible. In many cases, surface features are caused by unknown processes and can only be described. Many of the craters have bright walls but dark floors, indicating that fresher ice is brighter. Nearly parallel grooves run from the upper right to the lower left. Fractures sometimes across the bottom of craters, indicating a relatively recent formation. The lip of a 60-kilometer wide crater runs from the middle left to the upper center of the image, while the crater's center is visible on the lower right. Images like this will continue to be studied to better understand Dione as well as Saturn's complex system of rings and moons. PD source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap0510 26.html |
313 YBN [1687 CE] | 1845) Isaac Newton (CE 1642-1727) describes the universal law of gravitation, that all matter attracts other matter in a force that is the product of their masses, and the inverse of their distance squared. Isaac Newton (CE 1642-1727) describes the universal law of gravitation, that all matter attracts other matter in a force that is the product of their masses, and the inverse of their distance squared. In this book Newton codifies Galileo's findings into three laws of motion. The first is the principle of inertia: a body at rest remains at rest and a body in motion remains in motion at a constant velocity as long as outside forces are not involved. This first law confirms Buridan's suggestion 300 years before and ends the theory that angels or spirits constantly push the planets. They move because nothing exists in the space they move to stop them after the initial impulse. The second law of motion defines a force in terms of mass and acceleration and this is the first clear distinction between the mass of a body (representing its resistance to acceleration; or in other words the quantity of inertia it possesses), and its weight (representing the amount of gravitational force between itself and another body). The third law of motion states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. The famous equation Newton publishes is: F=Gm1m2/d^2 where m1 and m2 are the masses of two objects (for example, the earth and moon), d is the distance between their centers, G is the gravitational constant, and F is the force of gravitational attraction between them. Newton holds that this law is true for any two objects in the universe. So this laws comes to be called the law of "universal gravitation". Newton's second law describes the equation F=ma, that the force used to move an object, and likewise the force a moving object has, is proportional to the object's mass and acceleration. Substituting a=F/m in the F=Gm1m2/d^2 equation, the force of acceleration on any mass from another mass can be calculated as a2=Gm1/r^2. Newton is the first to estimate the mass or amount of matter contained in a planet. Newton illustrates in a drawing the way in which gravitation would control the motion of what we today call an artificial satellite. That the Sun attracts planets with a inverse distance force was already known from Ismaël Bullialdus in a book he published in 1645 titled "Astronomia philolaica". In addition Robert Hooke had explained this inverse distance relation to Newton in his letter of 1679. | Cambridge, England (presumably) | ![]() [1] Sir Isaac Newton's own first edition copy of his Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica with his handwritten corrections for the second edition. The first edition was published under the imprint of Samuel Pepys who was president of the Royal Society. By the time of the second edition, Newton himself had become president of the Royal Society, as noted in his corrections. The book can be seen in the Wren Library of Trinity College, Cambridge. CC source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:NewtonsPrincipia.jpg ![]() [2] Description Isaac Newton Date 1689 Author Godfrey Kneller PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg |
310 YBN [1690 CE] | 1200) Christopher Polhammar (better known as Polhem) (CE 1661-1751), a Swedish scientist, inventor and industrialist invents a gear-cutting machine (a machine for cutting gears out of cylinders of metal). | Sweden | ![]() [1] Christopher Polhem in 1741. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Christopher_Polhem_painted_by_Johan_H enrik_Scheffel_1741.jpg |
310 YBN [1690 CE] | 1696) Johannes Hevelius' (HeVAlEUS) (CE 1611-1687), star catalog with 1564 stars is published posthumously as "Prodromus Astronomiae" ("Guide to Astronomy") (1690). | Gdansk, Poland | ![]() [1] Figur A: Ursa Minor - Lille Bjørn PD source: http://www.kb.dk/udstillinger/St jernebilleder/atlasser/hevelius/index.ht ml ![]() [2] Johannes Hevelius. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Johannes_Helvelius.jpg |
310 YBN [1690 CE] | 1864) Steam engine reinvented. | Leipzig, Germany | ![]() [1] First Piston Steam Engine, by Papin. 19th century encyclopedia. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Papinengine.jpg ![]() [2] subject: Denis Papin, unknown artist, 1689. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Denis_Papin.jpg |
309 YBN [1691 CE] | 1744) John Ray (CE 1627-1705), publishes a book in which he describes fossils as petrified remains of extinct creatures, but this will not be accepted by biologists for 100 years. (is first to correctly identify fossils?) | Cambridge?, England | ![]() [1] John Ray From Shuster & Shipley, facing p. 232. In turn from an original portrait, by a painter not identified, in (1917) the British Museum. PD source: http://www.marcdatabase.com/~lem ur/lemur.com/gallery-of-antiquarian-tech nology/worthies/ |
307 YBN [1693 CE] | 1745) John Ray (CE 1627-1705), publishes a book that contains the first logical classification of animals, based mainly of hoofs, toes, and teeth. | Cambridge?, England | ![]() [1] John Ray From Shuster & Shipley, facing p. 232. In turn from an original portrait, by a painter not identified, in (1917) the British Museum. PD source: http://www.marcdatabase.com/~lem ur/lemur.com/gallery-of-antiquarian-tech nology/worthies/ |
307 YBN [1693 CE] | 1750) John Ray (CE 1627-1705), publishes "Synopsis Methodica Animalium Quadrupedum et Serpentini Generis" (1693; "Synopsis of Quadrupeds and Reptiles"). | ?, England | ![]() [1] John Ray From Shuster & Shipley, facing p. 232. In turn from an original portrait, by a painter not identified, in (1917) the British Museum. PD source: http://www.marcdatabase.com/~lem ur/lemur.com/gallery-of-antiquarian-tech nology/worthies/ |
306 YBN [1694 CE] | 1388) The University of Halle is founded by Lutherans in 1694. This progressive-minded school is one of the first to renounce religious orthodoxy of any kind in favour of rational and objective intellectual inquiry, and is the first where teachers lecture in German (the venacular or common language) instead of Latin. Halle's innovations will be adopted by the University of Göttingen (founded 1737) a generation later and subsequently by most German and many American universities. The Encyclopedia Brittanica describes the university in Halle the first modern university. Until the end of the 1700s, the curriculum of most universities is based on the seven liberal arts: grammar, logic, rhetoric, geometry, arithmetic, astronomy, and music. Students then proceeded to study under one of the professional faculties of medicine, law, and theology. Final examinations are grueling, and many students fail. | Halle, Saxony-Anhalt | ![]() [1] Faculty of Theology. This page provides a closer look at the Faculty of Theology at the University of Halle-Wittenberg. Click on the images to enlarge. The Faculty of Theology is located in the Francke Foundations. This is the Main House of the Foundations, a regular site of exhibits, concerts and other events. To its right is the entrance to the Foundations and the home of their founder, August Hermann Francke. At the extreme right of the picture you may catch a glimpse of the Faculty's main building. COPYRIGHTED EDU source: http://www.theologie.uni-halle.d e/81_207025/?lang=en ![]() [2] University Library building in Halle (Saale).GNU source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik i/Image:Halle_(Saale)_University_Library _Building_(Feb-2006).jpg |
305 YBN [06/10/1695 CE] | 1792) Antoni van Leeuwenhoek (lAVeNHvK) (CE 1632-1723) identifies parthenogenesis in aphids. | Delft, Netherlands | ![]() [1] Fig. 10. Leeuwenhoek''s Fig. 1 is a ''green louse'' (aphid) natural size; his Fig. 2 is an aphid shell seen under a microscope, from which a fly had emerged at the bottom; his Fig. 3 is a parasitic fly that emerged from an aphid (26 October 1700, Royal Society of London Philosophical Transactions 22:facing p. 655). COPYRIGHTED? source: http://esapubs.org/bulletin/back issues/087-1/bulletin_jan2006.htm ![]() [2] Description w:Antoni van Leeuwenhoek Source Project Gutenberg ebook of Den Waaragtigen Omloop des Bloeds http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1 8929 http://www.gutenberg.org/files/189 29/18929-h/18929-h.htm Date 1686 Author J. Verkolje PD source: http://www.abdn.ac.uk/mediarelea ses/release.php?id=197 |
302 YBN [07/02/1698 CE] | 1868) Thomas Savery (CE 1650-1715) builds the first practical steam engine. | ?, England | ![]() [1] URL:http://www.humanthermodynamics.com/H T-history.html Description: Savery Steam Engine [1698] PD source: http://www.answers.com/topic/sav ery-engine-jpg ![]() [2] http://www.history.rochester.edu/steam/t hurston/1878/Chapter1.html PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Thomas_Savery.gif |
302 YBN [1698 CE] | 1772) Christiaan Huygens' (HOEGeNZ) (CE 1629-1695) book "Cosmotheoros" in which he speculates in detail about life on other planets, is published posthumously. | The Hague, Netherlands (presumably) | ![]() [1] Cosmotheoros (1698) PD source: http://www.phys.uu.nl/~huygens/c osmotheoros_en.htm ![]() [2] The Proportion of the Magnitude of the Planets, in respect of one another, and the Sun PD source: http://www.phys.uu.nl/~huygens/c osmotheoros_nl.htm |
302 YBN [1698 CE] | 1777) Christaan Huygens (HOEGeNZ) (CE 1629-1695) makes the first specific estimate of the distance of the stars by comparing the size of Sirius to a fractional portion of the Sun. | The Hague, Netherlands (presumably) | ![]() [1] Christiaan Huygens, the astronomer. source: http://ressources2.techno.free.fr/inform atique/sites/inventions/inventions.html PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Christiaan_Huygens-painting.jpeg ![]() [2] Christiaan Huygens Library of Congress PD source: http://www.answers.com/Christiaa n+Huygens?cat=technology |
301 YBN [1699 CE] | 2008) Nicolas Malebranche (CE 1638-1715) introduces the concept of frequency to light and is the first to theorize that color is based on frequency of light (not because of different sizes as Newton supposed, or because of the velocity of light particles as Thomas Melville will suppose). | Paris, France | ![]() [1] Engraving by N. Edelinck after I. B. Santerre - Nicolas Malebranche PD source: http://www.archiv.cas.cz/english /foto/malebra.htm |
296 YBN [1704 CE] | 1743) John Ray (CE 1627-1705), publishes a three-volume encyclopedia of plant life (1686-1704), in which he describes 18,600 different plant species, and lays the groundwork for systematic classification which will be done by Linneaus. | Cambridge?, England | ![]() [1] John Ray From Shuster & Shipley, facing p. 232. In turn from an original portrait, by a painter not identified, in (1917) the British Museum. PD source: http://www.marcdatabase.com/~lem ur/lemur.com/gallery-of-antiquarian-tech nology/worthies/ |
296 YBN [1704 CE] | 1846) Isaac Newton rejects the theory of light as a motion through a medium in favor of a universe mostly made of empty space and supports the theory that light moves in a straight line. In "Opticks", appears initially to accept an aether medium through all of space, in Queries 18-24, however Newton later in Query 28 appears to explicitly reject any medium for light, and in particular a dense fluid medium favoring a universe of mostly empty space (vacuum), but does allow the possible exception of vapors of planets and comets, and a very thin (rare) aetherial medium. Isaac Newton (CE 1642-1727) publishes "Opticks" summarizing his work on light written in English. Newton's first Query is "Do not Bodies act upon Light at a distance, and by their action bend its Rays; and is not this action strongest at the least (t smallest) distance?". This implies that Newton viewed light corpuscles as matter that respond presumably to the force of gravity (although Newton expands this in Query 31 to include Magnetism and Electricity). Query 4 implies that reflection, refraction and inflection (diffraction) are all controlled by one principle. Query 5 reveals that Newton accepts the view of heat as motion. Query 6 reveals that Newton understands that objects absorb light, and can be reflected and refracted within them. Newton does not recognize that all matter may be made of particles of light, but does theorize in Query 30 that bodies and Light may be convertible into one another. | Cambridge, England (presumably) | ![]() [1] The first, 1704, edition of Opticks or a treatise of the reflections, refractions, inflections and colours of light PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Opticks.jpg ![]() [2] Description Isaac Newton Date 1689 Author Godfrey Kneller PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg |
295 YBN [1705 CE] | 1872) Edmond Halley (CE 1656-1742) is the first to understand that comets orbit the Sun and to calculate the path of a comet. | London, England (presumably) | ![]() [1] Description Comet P/Halley as taken March 8, 1986 by W. Liller, Easter Island, part of the International Halley Watch (IHW) Large Scale Phenomena Network. Source NSSDC's Photo Gallery (NASA): * http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/photo_gallery /photogallery-comets.html * http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image/planeta ry/comet/lspn_comet_halley1.jpg Date image taken on 8. Mar. 1986 Author NASA/W. Liller Permission (Reusing this image) Copyright information from http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/photo_gallery /photogallery-faq.html - All of the images presented on NSSDC's Photo Gallery are in the public domain. As such, they may be used for any purpose. [...] PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Lspn_comet_halley.jpg ![]() [2] Portrait of Edmond Halley painted around 1687 by Thomas Murray (Royal Society, London) uploaded from http://www.phys.uu.nl/~vgent/astrology/n ewton.htm PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Edmund_Halley.gif |
295 YBN [1705 CE] | 1876) Edmond Halley (CE 1656-1742) proves that stars move over long periods of time. Before this most people believed that stars unlike the planets never move in relation to each other. | ![]() [1] Description Comet P/Halley as taken March 8, 1986 by W. Liller, Easter Island, part of the International Halley Watch (IHW) Large Scale Phenomena Network. Source NSSDC's Photo Gallery (NASA): * http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/photo_gallery /photogallery-comets.html * http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image/planeta ry/comet/lspn_comet_halley1.jpg Date image taken on 8. Mar. 1986 Author NASA/W. Liller Permission (Reusing this image) Copyright information from http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/photo_gallery /photogallery-faq.html - All of the images presented on NSSDC's Photo Gallery are in the public domain. As such, they may be used for any purpose. [...] PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Lspn_comet_halley.jpg ![]() [2] Portrait of Edmond Halley painted around 1687 by Thomas Murray (Royal Society, London) uploaded from http://www.phys.uu.nl/~vgent/astrology/n ewton.htm PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Edmund_Halley.gif | |
290 YBN [1710 CE] | 1752) John Ray's (CE 1627-1705), "Historia insectorum" (1710) is published posthumously and records some 300 species of insects. | ?, England | ![]() [1] John Ray From Shuster & Shipley, facing p. 232. In turn from an original portrait, by a painter not identified, in (1917) the British Museum. PD source: http://www.marcdatabase.com/~lem ur/lemur.com/gallery-of-antiquarian-tech nology/worthies/ |
288 YBN [1712 CE] | 1889) English engineer, Thomas Newcomen (CE 1663-1729) designs an improved steam engine that does not use high-pressure steam. | Dudley Castle, Staffordshire, England | ![]() [1] Il disegno rappresenta il principio di funzionamento della macchina realizzata da Newcomen nel 1712 PD source: http://www.racine.ra.it/ungarett i/SeT/macvapor/wattbiog.htm ![]() [2] Newcomen engine from Practical physics for secondary schools. Fundamental principles and applications to daily life, publ. 1913 by Macmillan and Company, p. 219 A full version of the book can be found at http://www.archive.org/details/practical physics00blacrich, including high-resultion colour scans (300 dpi) of every page (ftp://ia310940.us.archive.org/1/items/p racticalphysics00blacrich). PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Newcomen6325.png |
286 YBN [1714 CE] | 1925) Gabriel Fahrenheit (ForeNHIT) (CE 1686-1736), invents a thermometer that uses mercury and the Fahrenheit temperature scale (still in use today). Fahrenheit notices that boiling point changes with change in pressure. | Amsterdam, Netherlands (presumably) | ![]() [1] Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (1686 - 1736) PD source: http://sabaoth.infoserve.pl/danz ig-online/sl.html ![]() [2] Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (Quecksilberthermometer) (* 24. Mai 1686 in Danzig, † 16. September 1736 in Den Haag) PD source: http://www.erfinder.at/tag-der-e rfinder/Daniel-Gabriel-Fahrenheit.php |
275 YBN [1725 CE] | 1861) John Flamsteed's (CE 1646-1719) star catalog "Historia Coelestis Britannica" ("British Celestial Record") is published posthumously. | London, England (presumably) | ![]() [1] John Flamsteed. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:John_Flamsteed.jpg ![]() [2] Bust of John Flamsteed in the Museum of the Royal Greenwich Observatory, London PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:John_Flamsteed_Royal_Greenwich_Observ atory_Museum.jpg |
275 YBN [1725 CE] | 3604) Perforated roll of paper used to make textiles. | Lyon, France | ![]() [1] Basile Bouchon's loom, 1725 COPYRIGHTED source: http://cs-exhibitions.uni-klu.ac .at/uploads/pics/Basile_Bouchons_loom_01 .jpg |
271 YBN [01/??/1729 CE] | 1931) Speed of light calculated from the apparent change in position of stars. | Kew, England | ![]() [1] Figure from Bradley's paper PD source: http://books.google.com/books?pg =PA260&dq=%22Mr.+B+considered+this+matte r%22&id=MPg4AAAAMAAJ#v=onepage&q=%22Mr.% 20B%20considered%20this%20matter%22&f=fa lse ![]() [2] James Bradley (1693-1762), English astronomer. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:James_Bradley.jpg |
271 YBN [1729 CE] | 1884) Chester Moore Hall (CE 1703-1771), a British lawyer, produces the first achromatic lenses in 1729. | ?, England | ![]() [1] Diagram of an achromatic lens (doublet). PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/4/46/Achromat_doublet_en.s vg |
270 YBN [1730 CE] | 1205) The sextant is invented by two men independently, John Hadley (1682-1744), an English mathematician, and Thomas Godfrey (1704-1749), an American inventor. Isaac Newton invented the principle of the doubly reflecting navigation instrument, but never published it. The sextant, along with the octant, replace the astrolabe as the main instruments for navigation. The main advantage ofthe sextant over the astrolabe is that celestial objects are measured relative to the horizon, rather than to the instrument, which allows much better precision. The angle, and the time when a celestial object is measured, can be used to calculate a position line on a nautical or aeronautical chart. A common use of the sextant is to sight the sun at noon to find what latitude a person is at. Held horizontally, the sextant can be used to measure the angle between any two objects. Traditional sextants have a half-horizon mirror. It divides the field of view in two. On one side, there is a view of the horizon; on the other side, a view of the celestial object. The advantage of this type is that both the horizon and celestial object are bright, and as clear as possible. Whole-horizon sextants use a half-silvered horizon mirror to provide a full view of the horizon. This makes it easy to see when the bottom limb of a celestial object touches the horizon. | England | ![]() [1] Black-and-white image of a sextant. Not detailed. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Sextant.gif ![]() [2] Grand Turk, a replica of a three-masted 6th rate frigate from Nelson's days - sextant and logbook. GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Grand_Turk%2835%29.jpg |
270 YBN [1730 CE] | 1941) Georg Brandt (CE 1694-1768), Swedish chemist names a blue iron-like metal "cobalt". | Stockholm, Sweden | ![]() [1] Appearance metallic with gray tinge PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Cobalt-sample.jpg ![]() [2] Cobalt GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Co-TableImage.png |
267 YBN [12/??/1733 CE] | 1965) Charles Du Fay (CE 1698-1739) identifies two kinds of electricity: "vitreous" (Franklin will name "positive") and "resinous" (Franklin will name "negative"). | Paris, France | ![]() [1] 1733 AD: Charles Francois de Cisternay Du FayThe French chemist Charles Francois de Cisternay Du Fay (1698-1739) discovered that when objects are rubbed together they either repel or attract each other and therefore that electricity came in two forms, which he called ''resinous'' (-) and ''vitreous'' (+). PD source: http://www.worldofenergy.com.au/ 07_timeline_world_1675_1780.html |
267 YBN [1733 CE] | 1197) John Kay (June 17, 1704 - 1780) invents the "flying shuttle", which increases the speed of weaving, and allows one person to weave greater widths of cloth. The original shuttle is a piece of wood that contains a bobbin on to which the weft yarn (the yarn that goes crossways) is wound. The shuttle is pushed from one side of the warp (the series of yarns extended lengthways in a loom) to the other side. Before the flying shuttle, large looms required two people. The flying shuttle is thrown by a lever that can be operated by only one weaver. In 1753 Kay's house is attacked by textile workers who are angry that his inventions might take work away from them. Kay fleas to France where he will die in poverty. | England | ![]() [1] Flying shuttles COPYRIGHTED source: http://inventors.about.com/libra ry/inventors/blflyingshuttle.htm |
266 YBN [1734 CE] | 1919) René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur (rAOmYOR) (CE 1683-1757) publishes (in six volumes) "Memoires pour servir à l'histoire des insectes" (1734-42; "Memoirs Serving as a Natural History of Insects"), the first serious and comprehensive book on insects. | Paris, France (presumably) | ![]() [1] René-Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur Source Galerie des naturalistes de J. Pizzetta, Ed. Hennuyer, 1893 (tombé dans le domaine public) Date Author J. Pizzetta PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Reaumur_1683-1757.jpg |
266 YBN [1734 CE] | 2073) Emanuel Swedenborg (CE 1688-1772), Swedish scientist, suggests an early form of the nebular hypothesis, the theory that the star system formed from a nebula (cloud of particles). | Sweden (presumably) | ![]() [1] * Emanuel Swedenborg at the age of 75, holding the soon to be published manuscript of Apocalypsis Revelata (1766). * Painting by Per Kraft. Currently located at the Government collection of paintings, w:Gripsholm, Sweden. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Emanuel_Swedenborg_full_portrait.jpg |
265 YBN [1735 CE] | 1936) John Harrison (CE 1693-1776), English instrument maker, builds the first clock that can keep accurate time at sea. | London, England | ![]() [1] John Harrison était autodidacte. Son frère James et lui mirent au point une première horloge en 1735: le H1, elle ne ressemblait pas du tout à une horloge au sens propre, mais elle fonctionnait plutôt bien. Ce fût le début des premiers chronomètres de marine avec balancier et spiral. Il est en outre l'inventeur du pendule compensateur à gril et d'un système de compensation pour les montres. From [2]: John Harrison, detail of an oil painting by Thomas King; in the Science Museum, London Courtesy of the Science Museum, London, lent by W.H. Barton[2] PD source: http://www.worldtempus.com/wt/1/ 903 ![]() [2] Scientist: Harrison, John (1693 - 1776) Discipline(s): Scientific Instruments Print Artist: William Holl, 1807-1871 Medium: Engraving Original Artist: King Original Dimensions: Graphic: 12.5 x 10.2 cm / Sheet: 27.3 x 18.1 cm PD source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=h |
265 YBN [1735 CE] | 1996) Carolus Linnaeus (linAus) (CE 1707-1778) creates a uniform system for categorizing living objects of earth, including the human species. Carolus Linnaeus (linAus) (CE 1707-1778) Swedish botanist creates a uniform system for categorizing living objects of earth, including the human species (overshadowing the earlier work of Ray) and is considered the founder of taxonomy. Linnaeus groups species into genus, class, order. Linnaeus rejects the theory of evolution. | Netherlands | ![]() [1] Artist Alexander Roslin Title Carl von Linné 1707-1778 Year 1775 Technique Oil on canvas Dimensions 56 x 46 cm Current location Royal Science Academy of Sweden (Kungliga vetenskapsakademin) Stockholm Permission Public domain Carl von Linné painted by Alexander Roslin in 1775. The original painting can be viewed at the Royal Science Academy of Sweden (Kungliga vetenskapsakademin). PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Carl_von_Linn%C3%A9.jpg ![]() [2] Carl von Linné (Carolus Linnaeus) (1707 - 1778) ''The Father of Taxonomy'' PD source: http://www.mun.ca/biology/scarr/ Linnaeus.htm |
264 YBN [1736 CE] | 1966) Pierre de Maupertuis (moPARTUE) (CE 1698-1759) verifies that the Earth is an oblate spheroid (a sphere flattened at the poles). | Lapland | ![]() [1] Scientist: Maupertuis, Pierre-Louis Moreau de (1698 - 1759) Discipline(s): Mathematics ; Biology ; Physics Print Artist: Johann Jakob Haid, 1704-1767 Medium: Engraving Original Artist: R. Tourmere Original Dimensions: Graphic: 31 x 19 cm / PD source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D iscipline_1=Biology ![]() [2] Scientist: Maupertuis, Pierre-Louis Moreau de (1698 - 1759) Discipline(s): Mathematics ; Biology ; Physics Original Dimensions: Graphic: 13.9 x 11 cm / Sheet: 30.7 x 21.5 cm PD source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D iscipline_1=Biology |
263 YBN [1737 CE] | 1808) Hermann Boerhaave publishes posthumously Jan Swammerdam's (Yon SVoMRDoM) (CE 1637-1680) many manuscripts in two volumes called "Biblia naturae" ("Bible of Nature"). | Amsterdam, Netherlands (presumably) | ![]() [1] http://www.dvjb.kvl.dk/English/ul/exhibi tions/web%20exhibitions/insects.aspx Ja n Swammerdam (1637-80): Biblia naturae. 1737/38 og 1752 DVJB has the first edition of this major scientific work made up of three folio volumes with Dutch and Latin text from 1737/38 and a single-volume German edition from 1752. PD source: http://www.dvjb.kvl.dk/upload/dv jb/ill/roeseninsect/swammerdam-a.jpg ![]() [2] same PD source: http://www.dvjb.kvl.dk/upload/dv jb/ill/roeseninsect/swammerdam-b.jpg |
260 YBN [1740 CE] | 1201) Benjamin Huntsman (4 June 1704 - 20 June 1776), English inventor and steel-manufacturer, creates the "crucible" method to make "crucible steel", in an effort to make a better steel for clock springs. Huntsman's system used a coke-fired furnace capable of reaching 1600 °C, into which ten or twelve clay crucibles, each holding about 15 kg of iron, were placed. When the pots are at a white heat they are charged with blister steel broken into lumps of about ½ kg, and a flux to help remove impurities. The pots are removed after about 3 hours in the furnace, impurities skimmed off, and the molten steel poured into ingots. Crucible steels will remain the best steel on earth, although very expensive, until the introduction of the Bessemer process will replace it. The Bessemer process will be able to produce steel of similar (or better) quality for a fraction of the time and cost. The Besemer process and more modern methods instead remove carbon from the pig iron, stopping before all the carbon is removed. | Sheffield, England | |
260 YBN [1740 CE] | 2067) Charles Bonnet (BOnA) (CE 1720-1793), Swiss naturalist identifies parthenogenesis (reproduction without fertilization) in female aphids. | Geneva?, Switzerland (presumably) | ![]() [1] engraving of Charles Bonnet Source http://www.ville-ge.ch/musinfo/mhng/pag e1/ins-ill-04.htm Date paint in 1777 Author Paint by I. Iuel et engraved by IF. Clemens PD source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik i/Image:Charles_Bonnet_engraved.jpg ![]() [2] Charles Bonnet (1720-1793). Source: http://www.univie.ac.at/science-archives /wissenschaftstheorie_2/bonnet.html PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:CharlesBonnet.jpg |
258 YBN [1742 CE] | 1975) Anders Celsius (SeLSEuS) (CE 1701-1744) invents the Celsius temperature scale (often called the centigrade scale). | Uppsala, Sweden (presumably) | ![]() [1] Painting by Olof Arenius (1701 - 1766) Uppsala University - Astronomical Observatory PD source: http://www.astro.uu.se/history/i mages/celsius2.jpg ![]() [2] Anders Celsius, detail from a drawing by an unknown artist, 18th century. Archiv fur Kunst und Geschichte, Berlin PD source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art /print?id=9261&articleTypeId=0 |
258 YBN [1742 CE] | 2068) Charles Bonnet (BOnA) (CE 1720-1793), Swiss naturalist, identifies that insects breathe through pores he names "stigmata". | Geneva?, Switzerland (presumably) | ![]() [1] engraving of Charles Bonnet Source http://www.ville-ge.ch/musinfo/mhng/pag e1/ins-ill-04.htm Date paint in 1777 Author Paint by I. Iuel et engraved by IF. Clemens PD source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik i/Image:Charles_Bonnet_engraved.jpg ![]() [2] Charles Bonnet (1720-1793). Source: http://www.univie.ac.at/science-archives /wissenschaftstheorie_2/bonnet.html PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:CharlesBonnet.jpg |
257 YBN [1743 CE] | 2037) Alexis Claude Clairaut (KlArO) (CE 1713-1765) confirms that the orbit of the Moon follows the inverse distance law. | Paris, France (presumably) | ![]() [1] Scientist: Clairaut, Alexis Claude (1713 - 1765) Discipline(s): Mathematics ; Astronomy Print Artist: Cathelin Medium: Engraving Original Artist: Charles-Nicolas Cochin, 1715-1790 Original Dimensions: Graphic: 23.5 x 17 cm / Sheet: 29.8 x 21.2 cm PD source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c |
255 YBN [11/04/1745 CE] | 1972) The capacitor (and Leyden jar). | Pomerania?, Prussia (coast of Baltic Sea between Germany and Poland) | ![]() [1] http://books.google.com/books?id=ko9BAAA AIAAJ&pg=PA71&dq=jar+%22von+Kleist%22&lr =&as_brr=1&ei=aniTR_uCJ5HwsgOQ5bU4#PPA71 ,M1 page with text and figure about von Kleist's invention of the Leyden jar Source Electricity in Every-day Life Date 1905 Author Edwin J. Houston PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Von_Kleist_Leyden_jar_1905.png |
255 YBN [1745 CE] | 2966) Electrostatic motor. | (University of Erfurt) Erfurt, Germany | ![]() [1] a is connected to the electrified conductor; b is the insulated clapper; c the grounded gong. PD/Corel source: http://books.google.com/books?id =TFLkGa4bDCIC ![]() [2] Franklin's Bells COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.arcsandsparks.com/fra nklin.html |
254 YBN [04/20/1746 CE] | 1930) Pieter van Musschenbroek (mOESeNBrvK v=oo in book) (CE 1692-1761), Dutch physicist invents the first device that can store a large amounts of electric charge. This device will come to be called a "Leiden jar". This is an early form of the capacitor. | Leiden, Netherlands | ![]() [1] Pieter van Musschenbroek aus: http://20eeuwennederland.nl/actueel/1113 .htm PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Pieter_van_Musschenbroek.jpeg ![]() [2] AD 1745 E.G. Von Kliest & Pieter van Musschenbroek PD source: http://itp.nyu.edu/~nql3186/elec tricity/pages/leyden.html |
254 YBN [1746 CE] | 1995) Leonhard Euler (OElR) (CE 1707-1783), Swiss mathematician, understands that color of light depends on so-called wavelength (or "photon interval"). | Berlin, Germany | ![]() [1] portrait by Johann Georg Brucker From English Wikipedia: Leonhard Euler Source: http://www.mathematik.de/mde/information /kalenderblatt/differentialrechnung/eule r-1000.png PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Leonhard_Euler_2.jpg ![]() [2] From: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Leonh ard_Euler.jpg Leonhard_Euler.jpg (219 × 283 pixel, file size: 13 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Picture of Leonhard Euler by Emanuel Handmann. Retrieved from: http://www.kunstkopie.de/static/m otive/Bildnis-des-Mathematikers-Leonhard -Euler-Emanuel-Handmann-1010890.html PD source: http://www.croeos.net/Mambo/inde x.php?Itemid=67&id=527&option=com_conten t&task=view |
253 YBN [07/11/1747 CE] | 1981) Franklin describes electricity as a single fluid. | Philadelphia, PA (English colonies) USA (letter to London, England) | ![]() [1] Credit: ''White House Historical Association (White House Collection)'' (981) Painted in 1759 by British artist and scientist Benjamin Wilson -who disagreed with Franklin's findings about electrical polarity -this portrait hung in Franklin's dining room in Philadelphia until Captain Andre' stole it during the British occupation of Philadelphia. Returned to the U.S. in 1906, it is now in the White House, in Washington, D. C. PD source: http://www.explorepahistory.com/ displayimage.php?imgId=668 ![]() [2] Multimedia Gallery - Image Portrait of Benjamin Franklin by artist David Martin (1737-1797) Portrait of Benjamin Franklin by artist David Martin (1737-1797) Credit: Library of Congress, LC-USZC4-3576 PD source: http://www.nsf.gov/news/mmg/medi a/images/benfranklin2_h3.jpg |
253 YBN [1747 CE] | 2055) James Lind (CE 1716-1794), Scottish physician, performs one of the earliest clinical experiments and shows that citrus fruits work well in curing scurvy. | England | ![]() [1] Painted by Sir George Chalmers, c 1720-1791. painting: PD image: COPYRIGHTED? source: http://www.jameslindlibrary.org/ trial_records/17th_18th_Century/lind/lin d_portrait.html ![]() [2] James Lind painting: PD image: COPYRIGHTED? source: http://dodd.cmcvellore.ac.in/hom /17%20-%20James%20Lind.html |
253 YBN [1747 CE] | 3452) Humans recognize that an expanded gas lowers temperature, the basis of refrigeration. | (Academy of Petersburg) Petersburg, Russia | ![]() [1] St. Petersburg, 6 August 1783. Prof. Richman and his assistant being struck by lightning while charging capacitors. The assistant escaped almost unharmed, whereas Richman was dead immediately. The pathologic analysis revealed that ''he only had a small hole in his forehead, a burnt left shoe and a blue spot at his foot. [...] the brain being ok, the front part of the lung sane, but the rear being brown and black of blood.'' The conclusion was that the electric discharge had taken its way through Richmann's body. The scientific community was shocked. [t notice difference in dates] PD/Corel source: http://www.hp-gramatke.net/histo ry/english/page4000.htm ![]() [2] Description Black and white print of a William Cullen portrait Source Medical Portrait Gallery Date 1834 Author Thomas Pettigrew PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/0/0c/Cullen_William.jpg |
252 YBN [02/14/1748 CE] | 1932) James Bradley (CE 1693-1762), English Astronomer, announces his finding of the "annual change of declination in some of the fixed stars" (which Bradley calls "nutation"), that result because of the movement of the nodes of the Moon's orbit around the earth. | Kew, England | ![]() [1] James Bradley (1693-1762), English astronomer. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:James_Bradley.jpg |
252 YBN [1748 CE] | 2954) Nollet describes osmosis. | Paris, France (presumably) | ![]() [1] Jean-Antoine Nollet PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Abbenollet.jpg ![]() [2] Scientist: Nollet, Jean-Antoine, abbé (1700 - 1770) Discipline(s): Physics Print Artist: Pasqual Pere Moles I Corones, 1741-1797 Medium: Engraving Original Artist: Georges de a Tour, 1593-1652 Original Dimensions: Graphic: 13.8 x 11.8 cm / Sheet: 27.4 x 19.5 cm PD source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=n |
251 YBN [1749 CE] | 2046) Denis Diderot (DEDrO) (CE 1713-1784), French writer , presents a theory of survival by superior adaptation. | Paris, France (presumably) | ![]() [1] Portrait of Denis Diderot 1767 Oil on canvas, 81 x 65 cm Musée du Louvre, Paris PD source: http://www.wga.hu/art/l/loo/loui s/diderot.jpg ![]() [2] Scientist: Diderot, Denis (1713 - 1784) Discipline(s): Encyclopedist Print Artist: Pierre Pelee, 1801-1871 Medium: Engraving Original Artist: Felix Emmanuel Henri Philippoteaux, 1815-1884 Original Dimensions: Graphic: 15.7 x 13.1 cm / Sheet: 26.4 x 18.3 cm PD source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=d |
249 YBN [1751 CE] | 2047) Denis Diderot (DEDrO) (CE 1713-1784), French writer , begins publishing "Encyclopédie" (1751-1772), a twenty-eight volume encyclopedia. | Paris, France | ![]() [1] Info: Cover of the Encyclopédie. Resized to 600px width Credit: See List of contributors to the Encyclopédie Source: http://ets.lib.uchicago.edu/ARTFL/OLDENC YC/images PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:ENC_1-NA5_600px.jpeg ![]() [2] Info: ''Figurative System of organisation of human knowledge from the en:Encyclopédie. For an English translation see: en:Figurative system of human knowledge http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Figurativ e_system_of_human_knowledge Credit: See en:List of contributors to the Encyclopédie Source: http://ets.lib.uchicago.edu/ARTFL/OLDENC YC/images PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:ENC_SYSTEME_FIGURE.jpeg |
249 YBN [1751 CE] | 2070) Axel Fredrik Cronstedt (KrUNSTeT), (CE 1722-1765), Swedish mineralogist isolates the element Nickel. | ![]() [1] Axel Fredrik Cronstedt (1722-1765) COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.jergym.hiedu.cz/~cano vm/objevite/objev/cron.htm ![]() [2] Axel Fredrik Cronstedt COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.bgf.nu/ljus/u/cronste dt.html | |
248 YBN [02/20/1752 CE] | 2976) Spark passed through vacuum tube (producing X-Ray light). | London, England | ![]() [1] William Watson (1715â€''1787) * Print Artist: J. Thornwaite * Medium/Year: Line engraving, 1784 * Original Artist: after an oilpainting by Lemuel Francis Abbott * Original Dimensions: Graphic: 9.8 x 7.7 cm / Sheet: 14.5 x 10.2 cm PD source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Willi am_Watson.jpg ![]() [2] Figure from a Watson 1746 paper PD/Corel source: A Sequel to the Experiments and Observations Tending to Illustrate the Nature and Properties of Electricity; In a Letter to the Royal Society from the Same Journal Philosophical Transactions (1683-1775) Issue Volume 44 - 1746/1747 Author William Watson DOI 10.1098/rstl.1746.0119 Wats on_William_1746_Sequel.pdf |
248 YBN [1752 CE] | 1922) René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur (rAOmYOR) (CE 1683-1757), proves that digestion is chemical and not mechanical by putting food in small metal cylinders which are then regurgitated by birds with partially digested food. Réaumur also isolates gastric juice. | Paris, France (presumably) | ![]() [1] René-Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur Source Galerie des naturalistes de J. Pizzetta, Ed. Hennuyer, 1893 (tombé dans le domaine public) Date Author J. Pizzetta PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Reaumur_1683-1757.jpg |
247 YBN [1753 CE] | 2013) Albrecht von Haller (HolR) (CE 1708-1777), Swiss physiologist, is the first to demonstrate experimentally that sensibility (the ability to produce sensation) exists only in organs supplied with nerves, while irritability (a reaction to stimuli, known today as contractility) is a property of the organ or tissue. | Göttingen, Germany (presumably) | ![]() [1] Albrecht von Haller PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Albrecht_von_Haller.jpg ![]() [2] Haller, of Swiss origin, was a leading figure in eighteenth-century physiology. He conceived the idea of 'sensibility' and 'irritability' to explain the body's reaction to stimulus. In his formulation of the concept of irritability to account for muscle contraction, he first acknowledged, although in an implicit way, the importance of information flow in biological systems. (Image courtesy of the library G. Romiti of the Anatomical Institute of the University of Pisa.) PD source: http://www.nature.com/nrm/journa l/v1/n2/fig_tab/nrm1100_149a_F2.html |
245 YBN [01/25/1755 CE] | 1370) M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University (Russian: Москоk 4;ский госудk 2;рстве 085;ный унивеl 8;ситет имени М.В.Лом 086;носов& #1072;), the oldest university in mainland Russia is founded. Moscow University is established on the instigation of Ivan Shuvalov and Mikhail Lomonosov by a decree of Russian Empress Elizabeth. First lessons are held on April 26. January 25 is still celebrated as Students' Day in Russia. | Moscow, Russia | ![]() [1] Lomonosov University in Moscow, Russia GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Moskau_Uni.jpg ![]() [2] Building of the Moscow State University on the Mokhovaya Street (now the dean's office). 18th-century watercolour. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Mgu_1798.jpg |
245 YBN [11/??/1755 CE] | 1528) The Corsican Republic is the first democratic republic (representative democracy) and first Constitution (the design and laws of a government usually recorded on a hand written document) of the Enlightenment. This Republic is formed under the leadership of Pasquale Paoli against the rulers of Genoa. | Corsica | ![]() [1] Buste of the Corsican politician Pasquale Paoli, by John Flaxman, at Westminster Abbey, London. GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Buste_Pasquale_Paoli.jpg |
245 YBN [1755 CE] | 2072) Immanuel Kant (CE 1724-1804), German philosopher puts forward a nebular hypothesis, that the star system formed as a result of the gravitational interaction of atoms, and that the Milky Way is a lens shaped collection of stars and that other such "island universes" exist. | Königsberg, Germany | ![]() [1] Steel engraving by J. L. Raab, 1791 after a painting by Döbler Source: [1] http://www.jhu.edu/~phil/kant-hegelconfe rence/main.htm PD source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik i/Image:Immanuel_Kant_(portrait).jpg ![]() [2] Kant PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Kant_2.jpg |
245 YBN [1755 CE] | 2089) Joseph Black (CE 1728-1799), Scottish chemist rediscovers carbon dioxide (which he calls "fixed air"). | Edinburgh, Scotland | ![]() [1] Scan of an old picture of Joseph Black Source The Gases of the Atmosphere (old book) Date 1896 Author William Ramsay PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Black_Joseph.jpg |
243 YBN [1757 CE] | 2039) Alexis Claude Clairaut (KlArO) (CE 1713-1765) is the first to estimate the mass of celestial objects based on the perturbations they have on the earth's motion. Using this method, Clairaut estimates the mass of Venus to be 2/3 (.667) of earth (actual: around 4/5 {0.815} Earths) and the moon to be, and the mass of moon to be 1/67 (.0149) of earth (actual: 1/81 {0.0123}), which are the most accurate for the time. | Paris, France | ![]() [1] Scientist: Clairaut, Alexis Claude (1713 - 1765) Discipline(s): Mathematics ; Astronomy Print Artist: Cathelin Medium: Engraving Original Artist: Charles-Nicolas Cochin, 1715-1790 Original Dimensions: Graphic: 23.5 x 17 cm / Sheet: 29.8 x 21.2 cm PD source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c |
242 YBN [1758 CE] | 1203) Thomas Highs (1718-1803) invents the water frame, by adapting a water wheel to a spinning frame (a device invented by Lewis Paul that uses draw rollers to stretch, or attenuate, the yarn. A thick 'string' of cotton roving is passed between three sets of rollers, each set rotating faster than the previous one. In this way the cotton is reduced in thickness and increased in length before a strengthening twist is added by a bobbin-and-flyer mechanism). Highs (or possibly James Hargreaves) may also be the inventor of the "Spinning Jenny", a multi-spool spinning wheel. | England | ![]() [1] An image of Thomas Highs' spinning jenny design, taken Edward Baines's History of the Cotton Manufacture in Great Britain. Since Baine has been dead for over 100 years, this image is now in the public domain. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Thomashighsjenny.JPG |
240 YBN [1760 CE] | 2122) Water separated into hydrogen and oxygen using electricity. Giovanni Beccaria (CE 1716-1781), Italian physicist, passes electricity sparks through water and observes bubbles (of Hydrogen and Oxygen gas) released from the water but incorrectly supposes that the action of the electric matter promotes the evaporation of water. Beccaria does not recognize that the gases produced are the components of water. | Turin, Italy | ![]() [1] Anonimo, Giambattista Beccaria, fine secolo XVIII PD? source: http://www.torinoscienza.it/img/ orig/it/s00/00/000c/00000c89.jpg ![]() [2] Beccaria, Giovanni Battista (1716-1781) PD? source: http://bms.beniculturali.it/ritr atti/ritratti.php?chiave=ritr0079 |
239 YBN [1761 CE] | 2028) Mikhail Vasilievich Lomonosov (lumunOSuF) (CE 1711-1765) Russian chemist and writer, is the first to observe the atmophere of Venus which Lomonosov does through the transit of Venus across the sun, concluding that Venus has an atmosphere "similar to, or perhaps greater than that of the earth". | Saint Petersburg, Russia | ![]() [1] from http://www.peoples.ru/science/founder/lo monosov/ PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Lomonosov.jpg |
237 YBN [1763 CE] | 2043) Nicolas Louis de Lacaille (LoKoYu) (CE 1713-1762) prepares a catalog of the positions of nearly 10,000 stars, including nearly two thousand stars seen only from the Southern Hemisphere of earth. (This book also contains) a star map which is much more extensive and accurate than Halley's. Lacaille identifies Alpha Centauri, the closest star to the sun, and names 14 new southern constellations after astronomical instruments. | Paris, France (presumably) | ![]() [1] Nicolas Louis de Lacaille Born: 15-May-1713 Birthplace: Rumigny, France Died: 21-Mar-1762 Location of death: Paris, France Cause of death: unspecified PD source: http://www.nndb.com/people/370/0 00105055/ ![]() [2] Nicolas Louis de Lacaille PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Nicolas_Louis_de_Lacaille.jpg |
236 YBN [1764 CE] | 2091) Joseph Black (CE 1728-1799), Scottish chemist recognizes the difference between intensity (temperature) and quantity of heat. Black discovers the idea of "latent heat", which is the characteristic amount of heat absorbed or released by a substance during a change in its physical state that occurs without changing its temperature. Black identifies the principle of "specific heat", which is the temperature change in a substance that results from a specific quantity of heat. | Glasgow, Scotland | ![]() [1] Scan of an old picture of Joseph Black Source The Gases of the Atmosphere (old book) Date 1896 Author William Ramsay PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Black_Joseph.jpg |
235 YBN [05/??/1765 CE] | 2145) James Watt (CE 1736-1819) Scottish engineer improves Newcomen's steam engine by inventing the "separate condenser", so that heat is not lost when cooling and reheating the steam chamber. | Glasgow, Scotland (presumably) | ![]() [1] From http://www.lib.utexas.edu/photodraw/port raits/index.html, in the public domain original source: Helmolt, H.F., ed. History of the World. New York: Dodd, Mead and Company, 1902. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:James_Watt.jpg ![]() [2] James Watt, oil painting by H. Howard; in the National Portrait Gallery, London. Courtesy of The National Portrait Gallery, London PD COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art -15159/James-Watt-oil-painting-by-H-Howa rd-in-the-National?articleTypeId=1 |
234 YBN [1766 CE] | 2113) Henry Cavendish (CE 1731-1810), English chemist and physicist, produces hydrogen by dissolving metals in acids and carbon dioxide by dissolving alkalis in acids, and collects these and other gases in bottles inverted over water or mercury. | London, England | ![]() [1] By Henry Cavendish Published 1921 The University Press PD source: http://books.google.com/books?id =ygqYnSR3oe0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=the +scientific+papers+cavendish#PPA78-IA ![]() [2] Figures from Cavendish's 1766 3 papers PD source: http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac. uk/content/k22512528480nx11/?p=d80161c90 5fe4831aa63484ba66ccb98&pi=2 cavendish_ 3gases.pdf |
232 YBN [1768 CE] | 2093) Johann Heinrich Lambert (LoMBRT) (CE 1728-1777) German mathematician, introduces the hyperbolic trigonometric functions (sinh, cosh, etc., just as the ordinary sine and cosine functions trace (or parameterize) a circle, so the sinh and cosh parameterize a hyperbola). Also in this year, Lambert provides the first rigorous proof that pi (the ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter) is an irrational quantity, meaning that it cannot be expressed as the quotient (or ratio) of two integers. | Berlin, Germany | ![]() [1] copied from http://www.galerie-universum.de/gu_2003/ ausstellungstafeln/ahnengalerie_wissensc haftler/lambert_lang.htm Johann H. Lambert PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:JHLambert.jpg ![]() [2] Lambert, Johann Heinrich (1728 - 1777) Discipline(s): Mathematics ; Physics ; Astronomy Original Dimensions: Graphic: 7.6 x 8.8 cm PD source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D iscipline_1=Physics |
232 YBN [1768 CE] | 2104) Lazzaro Spallanzani (SPoLoNTSonE) (CE 1729-1799), Italian biologist, provides evidence against the theory of spontaneous generation by showing that after 30-45 minutes of boiling, no microorganisms appear in sealed solutions of food. | Pavia, Italy (presumably) | ![]() [1] Lazzaro Spallanzani, Italian biologist, 1729-99 Source:http://home.tiscalinet.c h/biografien/biografien/spallanzani.htm PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Spallanzani.jpg ![]() [2] Spallanzani, detail of an oil painting by an unknown artist; in the collection of the Universita degli Studi di Pavia, Italy Courtesy of the Universita degli Studi di Pavia, Italy Related Articles: Spallanzani, Lazzaro (Encyclopædia Britannica) Italian physiologist who made important contributions to the experimental study of bodily functions and animal reproduction. His investigations into the development of microscopic life in nutrient culture solutions paved the way for the research of Louis Pasteur. To cite this page: * MLA style: ''Spallanzani, Lazzaro.'' Online Photograph. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 12 Nov. 2007 source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art -31518/Spallanzani-detail-of-an-oil-pain ting-by-an-unknown-artist?articleTypeId= 1 |
231 YBN [1769 CE] | 1206) Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot (26 February 1725 - 2 October 1804), a French inventor, builds what may be the first self-propelled vehicle built on earth using a steam engine. Cugnot may be the first to convert the back-and-forth motion of a steam piston into rotary motion (James Watt does this too in 1781 in England). | England | ![]() [1] Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot's steam auto, from 7 August, 1869 issue of Appleton's Journal of Popular Literature, Science, and Art. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:CugnotAppleton.jpg ![]() [2] Fardier de Cugnot, modèle de 1771. Musée des Arts et Métiers, Paris. 11 janvier 2005. (Note that this is the second fardier, the full-size one. It is not a 'model' (as has been mis-translated elsewhere)) Source : Photo et photographisme © Roby 19:13, 12 Jan 2005 (UTC). Avec l'aimable permission du Musée des Arts et Métiers, Paris. GNU source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/5/56/FardierdeCugnot200501 11.jpg |
231 YBN [1769 CE] | 2130) Richard Arkwright (CE 1732-1792), English inventor, patents a device that will spin thread by mechanically reproducing the motions ordinarily made by the human hand, that will come to be called the "water frame". | ![]() [1] Description Richard Arkwright portrait Source http://utopia.utexas.edu/project/port raits/arkwright.jpg PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Richard_arkwright.jpg ![]() [2] Richard Arkwright 1732-92 COPYRIGHTED? source: http://www.derwentvalleymills.or g/04_his/his_003b.htm | |
228 YBN [1772 CE] | 2049) Denis Diderot (DEDrO) (CE 1713-1784), French writer , completes his "Encyclopédie" (1751-1772), in 28 volumes, 17 of text and 11 of illustrates plates. | Paris, France | ![]() [1] Portrait of Denis Diderot 1767 Oil on canvas, 81 x 65 cm Musée du Louvre, Paris PD source: http://www.wga.hu/art/l/loo/loui s/diderot.jpg ![]() [2] Scientist: Diderot, Denis (1713 - 1784) Discipline(s): Encyclopedist Print Artist: Pierre Pelee, 1801-1871 Medium: Engraving Original Artist: Felix Emmanuel Henri Philippoteaux, 1815-1884 Original Dimensions: Graphic: 15.7 x 13.1 cm / Sheet: 26.4 x 18.3 cm PD source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=d |
228 YBN [1772 CE] | 2078) John Michell (MicL) (CE 1724-1793) attempts to detect the momentum of light particles by allowing sunlight to reflect off of a square copper plate balanced by a harpsichord wire attached to a counterweight. According to Joseph Priestly, the copper plate does turn (in the direction the light is moving in?). In 1792 Abraham Bennet, using a vibration magnetometer, will claim to get a null result. | Thornhill, Yorkshire, England (presumably) | |
228 YBN [1772 CE] | 2138) Joseph Priestley (CE 1733-1804) describes how to dissolve carbon dioxide ("fixed air") in water which is the beginning of the soda-water industry. Before this there are only 3 known gases: air, carbon dioxide and hydrogen. Priestley identifies 10 new gases: nitric oxide ((which Priestley calls) "nitrous air"), nitrogen dioxide (red nitrous vapour), nitrous oxide (inflammable nitrous air, later called "laughing gas"), hydrogen chloride (marine acid air), ammonia (alkaline air), sulfur dioxide (vitriolic acid air), silicon tetrafluoride (fluor acid air), nitrogen (phlogisticated air), oxygen (dephlogisticated air, independently codiscovered by Carl Wilhelm Scheele), and a gas later identified as carbon monoxide. | Leeds, England | ![]() [1] Portrait of Joseph Priestley Source http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=h ttp://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/im ages/priestlyc.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www. chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/PortraitsHH_ Detail.asp%3FHH_LName%3DPriestley&h=640& w=462&sz=57&hl=en&start=9&tbnid=ipHldQCy TukivM:&tbnh=137&tbnw=99&prev=/images%3F q%3Djoseph%2Bpriestley%26gbv%3D2%26svnum %3D10%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DG Date 1794 Author Ellen Sharples PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Priestley.jpg ![]() [2] Description Portrait of Joseph Priestley Source http://www.search.revolutionaryplayers. org.uk/engine/resource/default.asp?theme =47&originator=%2Fengine%2Ftheme%2Fdefau lt%2Easp&page=3&records=58&direction=1&p ointer=2784&text=0&resource=4501 Date c.1763 Author Artist is unknown. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:PriestleyLeeds.jpg |
228 YBN [1772 CE] | 2199) Karl Scheele (sAlu) (CE 1742-1786) isolates oxygen (independently of Joseph Priestley). | Uppsala, Sweden | ![]() [1] Karl Wilhelm Scheele Library of Congress PD source: http://www.answers.com/Karl+Wilh elm+Scheele+?cat=technology ![]() [2] Chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele from Svenska Familj-Journalen 1874. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Carl_Wilhelm_Scheele_from_Familj-Jour nalen1874.png |
228 YBN [1772 CE] | 2285) Daniel Rutherford (CE 1749-1819) Scottish chemist, (is credited with being) the first to isolate nitrogen. | Edinburgh, Scotland | ![]() [1] Description Scan of an old picture of Daniel Rutherford Source The Gases of the Atmosphere (old book) Date 1896 Author William Ramsay PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Rutherford_Daniel.jpg |
226 YBN [08/01/1774 CE] | 2139) Joseph Priestley (CE 1733-1804) isolates oxygen (independently of Karl Scheele). | Calne, England | ![]() [1] Portrait of Joseph Priestley Source http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=h ttp://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/im ages/priestlyc.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www. chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/PortraitsHH_ Detail.asp%3FHH_LName%3DPriestley&h=640& w=462&sz=57&hl=en&start=9&tbnid=ipHldQCy TukivM:&tbnh=137&tbnw=99&prev=/images%3F q%3Djoseph%2Bpriestley%26gbv%3D2%26svnum %3D10%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DG Date 1794 Author Ellen Sharples PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Priestley.jpg ![]() [2] Description Portrait of Joseph Priestley Source http://www.search.revolutionaryplayers. org.uk/engine/resource/default.asp?theme =47&originator=%2Fengine%2Ftheme%2Fdefau lt%2Easp&page=3&records=58&direction=1&p ointer=2784&text=0&resource=4501 Date c.1763 Author Artist is unknown. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:PriestleyLeeds.jpg |
226 YBN [1774 CE] | 2200) Karl Wilhelm Scheele (sAlu) (CE 1742-1786) isolates chlorine gas. | Uppsala, Sweden | ![]() [1] Karl Wilhelm Scheele Library of Congress PD source: http://www.answers.com/Karl+Wilh elm+Scheele+?cat=technology ![]() [2] Chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele from Svenska Familj-Journalen 1874. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Carl_Wilhelm_Scheele_from_Familj-Jour nalen1874.png |
226 YBN [1774 CE] | 2201) Karl Wilhelm Scheele (sAlu) (CE 1742-1786) studies or isolates for the first time many organic acids including: tartaric, citric, benzoic, oxalic, malic (which he calls "acid of apples"), and gallic from plant sources; lactic, mucic and uric from animal sources; and molybdic and arsenious acid from mineral sources. In addition Scheele studies or isolates for the first time other organic substances such as casein, aldehyde, and glycerol. (need dates for all finds) Scheele studies copper arsenite which is called Scheele's green, and a calcium tungstate mineral that is now called scheelite. | Uppsala, Sweden | ![]() [1] Karl Wilhelm Scheele Library of Congress PD source: http://www.answers.com/Karl+Wilh elm+Scheele+?cat=technology ![]() [2] Chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele from Svenska Familj-Journalen 1874. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Carl_Wilhelm_Scheele_from_Familj-Jour nalen1874.png |
226 YBN [1774 CE] | 2216) Antoine Laurent Lavoisier (loVWoZYA) (CE 1743-1794) shows how material in the air combines with metals when heated, which will end the phlogiston theory of combustion, and demonstrates the conservation of mass. Antoin e Laurent Lavoisier (loVWoZYA) (CE 1743-1794) heats tin and lead in closed contained with air. Both metals form a layer of calx on the surface. The calx is heavier than the original metal, but the vessel still weighs the same after heating, so Lavoisier concludes that there must be a weight loss elsewhere, possibly in the air or in the vessel. If the air, then a partial vacuum must exist in the vessel, and sure enough air rushes in when Lavoisier opens the vessel, and then the vessel and its contents gain weight. (It is interesting that atoms in air bonding with a solid creates a vacuum, as I suppose any gas chemically combining with a solid in a closed container will create a vacuum of empty space and pressure difference with the atmosphere of Earth.) Lavoisier therefore shows that the calx (now known as oxide) is made of a combination of the metal with air, and that rusting (and combustion) do not involve a loss of phlogiston but a gain of at least a portion of the air. This experiment will finally end the popularity of the phlogiston theory, and establish chemistry on its modern basis (in terms of oxygen combustion). Lavoisier also shows that mass is only shifted from one place to another and cannot be created or destroyed, which is the law of conservation of mass. The mass loss from particles of light in the form of particles of light of various frequencies is apparently too small to be measured and Lavoisier (presumably) misses this concept. One modern view is that electrons are composed of photons and vary in mass depending on their orbit as the Bohr model requires, and in combustion, the photons observed are released from electrons around the oxygen and fuel atoms, the electrons losing mass in the form of photons, while the nucleus of all atoms is still preserved. Another view holds that some atoms completely separate into their source photons in oxygen combustion. | Paris, France (presumably) | ![]() [1] Creator/Artist Name English: Jacques-Louis David Alternative names English: David Date of birth/death 1748-08-30 1825-12-29 Location of birth/death English: Paris Work location Title English: Portrait of Monsieur de Lavoisier and his Wife Year 1788 Technique English: Oil on canvas Dimensions 259.7 x 196 cm Current location Metropolitan Museum of Art New York PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisie r_and_His_Wife.jpg ![]() [2] Scientist: Lavoisier, Antoine Laurent (1743 - 1794) Discipline(s): Chemistry Print Artist: William G. Jackman, fl. 1841-1860 Medium: Engraving Original Artist: Jacques Louis David, 1744-1825 Original Dimensions: Graphic: 15.2 x 10.8 cm / Sheet: 24.7 x 13.9 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=L |
226 YBN [1774 CE] | 2258) Johann Gottlieb Gahn (CE 1745-1818) isolates metallic manganese. | Uppsala, Sweden | ![]() [1] Manganese GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Mangan_1.jpg ![]() [2] Johan Gottlieb Gahn Ljus från Sverige Född: 1745, Samtida med: Gustav III, Gustav IV Adolf Nyckelord: kemist, mangan Död: 1818 PD/COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.bgf.nu/ljus/u/gahn.ht ml |
224 YBN [07/04/1776 CE] | 1532) The colonists in America create a "Declaration of Independence" from the Kingdom of Great Britain. | Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, (modern: United States) | ![]() [1] The original image of the Declaration of Independence (with annotations on it) This is a high-resolution image of the United States Declaration of Independence (article source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Us_declaration_independence.jpg |
222 YBN [1778 CE] | 1204) Samuel Crompton (December 3, 1753 - June 26, 1827), invents the "spinning mule" by combining the Water Frame and Spinning Jenny. | England | ![]() [1] Samuel Crompton (1753-1827), English inventor. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Samuel_Crompton.jpg |
222 YBN [1778 CE] | 2203) Karl Wilhelm Scheele (sAlu) (CE 1742-1786) identifies the element Molybdenum. | Köping, Sweden (presumably) | ![]() [1] Karl Wilhelm Scheele Library of Congress PD source: http://www.answers.com/Karl+Wilh elm+Scheele+?cat=technology ![]() [2] Chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele from Svenska Familj-Journalen 1874. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Carl_Wilhelm_Scheele_from_Familj-Jour nalen1874.png |
222 YBN [1778 CE] | 2218) Antoine Laurent Lavoisier (loVWoZYA) (CE 1743-1794) announces that air consists of two gases, one that supports combustion and one which does not. | Paris, France (presumably) | ![]() [1] Creator/Artist Name English: Jacques-Louis David Alternative names English: David Date of birth/death 1748-08-30 1825-12-29 Location of birth/death English: Paris Work location Title English: Portrait of Monsieur de Lavoisier and his Wife Year 1788 Technique English: Oil on canvas Dimensions 259.7 x 196 cm Current location Metropolitan Museum of Art New York PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisie r_and_His_Wife.jpg ![]() [2] Scientist: Lavoisier, Antoine Laurent (1743 - 1794) Discipline(s): Chemistry Print Artist: William G. Jackman, fl. 1841-1860 Medium: Engraving Original Artist: Jacques Louis David, 1744-1825 Original Dimensions: Graphic: 15.2 x 10.8 cm / Sheet: 24.7 x 13.9 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=L |
221 YBN [1779 CE] | 2112) Jan Ingenhousz (iNGeNHoUZ) (CE 1730-1799) describes photosynthesis, by showing that plants take in carbon dioxide but only in the light, and in the dark, plants, like animals give off carbon dioxide and absorb oxygen. | London, England | ![]() [1] Jan Ingenhousz PD? source: http://www.americanchemistry.com /s_acc/sec_learning.asp?CID=1020&DID=401 6 ![]() [2] Ingenhousz, detail of an engraving BBC Hulton Picture Library Related Articles: Ingenhousz, Jan (Encyclop�dia Britannica) Dutch-born British physician and scientist who is best known for his discovery of the process of photosynthesis, by which green plants in sunlight absorb carbon dioxide and release oxygen. To cite this page: * MLA style: ''Ingenhousz, Jan.'' Online Photograph. Encyclop�dia Britannica Online. 12 Nov. 2007 PD COPYRIGHTED source: http://images.google.com/imgres? imgurl=http://cache.eb.com/eb/image%3Fid %3D10796%26rendTypeId%3D4&imgrefurl=http ://www.britannica.com/ebc/art-11958/Inge nhousz-detail-of-an-engraving&h=300&w=24 8&sz=20&hl=en&start=6&um=1&tbnid=t9wu82P uoXVatM:&tbnh=116&tbnw=96&prev=/images%3 Fq%3DJan%2BIngenhousz%26ndsp%3D18%26svnu m%3D10%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26safe%3Doff%2 6sa%3DN |
221 YBN [1779 CE] | 2219) Antoine Laurent Lavoisier (loVWoZYA) (CE 1743-1794) names the gas that can support combustion "oxygen" and the gas in the air that does not support combustion "Azote" (in 1790 renamed Nitrogen by Chaptal) | Paris, France (presumably) | ![]() [1] Creator/Artist Name English: Jacques-Louis David Alternative names English: David Date of birth/death 1748-08-30 1825-12-29 Location of birth/death English: Paris Work location Title English: Portrait of Monsieur de Lavoisier and his Wife Year 1788 Technique English: Oil on canvas Dimensions 259.7 x 196 cm Current location Metropolitan Museum of Art New York PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisie r_and_His_Wife.jpg ![]() [2] Scientist: Lavoisier, Antoine Laurent (1743 - 1794) Discipline(s): Chemistry Print Artist: William G. Jackman, fl. 1841-1860 Medium: Engraving Original Artist: Jacques Louis David, 1744-1825 Original Dimensions: Graphic: 15.2 x 10.8 cm / Sheet: 24.7 x 13.9 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=L |
220 YBN [1780 CE] | 1208) Aimé Argand, Swiss physicist and chemist, improves the oil lamp, inventing the Argand lamp. The argand lamp greatly improves on the home lighting oil lamp of the day, producing 5 to 10 times the light of a candle, and significantly brighter than the traditional oil lamp. It has a circular wick mounted between two cylindrical metal tubes so that air moves through the center of the wick, as well as outside of it. A cylindrical glass chimney around the wick is used to steady the flame and to improve the flow of air. The argand lamp uses liquid oil. Argand finds that purified spermaceti (whale) oil is optimal, though a good grade of olive oil can be used too. Aside from the improvement in brightness, the more complete combustion of the wick and oil requires much less frequent snuffing (trimming) of the wick. The Argand lamp will quickly replace all other varieties of oil lamps until about 1850 when kerosene lamps, which use a flat wick in a cup with a bellied chimney, are introduced. Kerosene is considerably cheaper than whale oil, and many Argand lamps will be converted to the new form. In France, these lamps are known as "Quinquets" named after the man that copied the design from Argand and popularized it in France. | Switzerland? | |
219 YBN [03/13/1781 CE] | 2840) William Herschel (CE 1738-1822) German-English astronomer, identifies the planet Uranus. This is the first new planet to be discovered since prehistoric times. | Bath, England | ![]() [1] Wilhelm Herschel, German-British astronomer. from fr. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:William_Herschel01.jpg ![]() [2] William Herschel AKA Frederick William Herschel Born: 15-Nov-1738 Birthplace: Hannover, Hanover, Germany Died: 25-Aug-1822 Location of death: Slough, Buckinghamshire, England Cause of death: unspecified Gender: Male Race or Ethnicity: White Occupation: Astronomer Nationality: England Executive summary: Mapped heavens, discovered Uranus PD/COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.nndb.com/people/661/0 00096373/ |
219 YBN [1781 CE] | 2147) William Murdoch (CE 1754-1839) is credited for inventing the sun-and-planet gear, which converts the reciprocating (back and forth) motion of a steam engine into a rotary motion. | Birmingham, England (presumably) | ![]() [1] Schematic animation of Watt's sun and planet gears. The Sun is yellow, the planet red, the reciprocating crank is blue, the flywheel is green and the driveshaft is grey. Notice that the sun and flywheel rotate twice for every rotation of the planet. Schematic animation of Watt's Sun and Planet gears, drawn by me using Xarax Emoscopes 03:36, 4 March 2006 (UTC) GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun _and_planet_gear ![]() [2] William Murdoch, reproduction of a portrait by John Graham Gilbert in the City Museum and Art Gallery, Birmingham. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:William_Murdoch_%281754-1839%29.jpg |
219 YBN [1781 CE] | 2196) Anders Johan Lexell (CE 1740-1784), is the first to show that the orbit of Hershel's object (Uranus) is that of a planet and not a comet as Hershel had thought. | St. Petersburg, Russia (presumably) | ![]() [1] Anders Johan Lexell (1740-1784) PD/COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.astro.utu.fi/kurssit/ ttpk1/ttpkI/22Suomi.html |
219 YBN [1781 CE] | 2263) Peter Hjelm (YeLM) (CE 1746-1813) isolates molybdenum. | Uppsala, Sweden (presumably) | ![]() [1] Molybdenum sample GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Mo%2C42.jpg ![]() [2] Molybdenum ingot COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.molybdenum.com/molyin fo/molyinfo.html |
218 YBN [1782 CE] | 2148) James Watt (CE 1736-1819) Scottish engineer patents the double-acting engine, in which the piston pushes as well as pulls. | Birmingham, England (presumably) | ![]() [1] From http://www.lib.utexas.edu/photodraw/port raits/index.html, in the public domain original source: Helmolt, H.F., ed. History of the World. New York: Dodd, Mead and Company, 1902. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:James_Watt.jpg ![]() [2] James Watt, oil painting by H. Howard; in the National Portrait Gallery, London. Courtesy of The National Portrait Gallery, London PD COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art -15159/James-Watt-oil-painting-by-H-Howa rd-in-the-National?articleTypeId=1 |
218 YBN [1782 CE] | 2190) Franz Joseph Müller (mYylR) (CE 1740-1825) identifies the new element "tellurium". | Transylvania, Romania (was Hungary at time) | ![]() [1] Image by Daniel Mayer or GreatPatton and released under terms of the GNU FDL GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Te-TableImage.png ![]() [2] English: Tellurium sample. GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Te%2C52.jpg |
217 YBN [05/26/1783 CE] | 2076) Velocity of light particles understood to change because of gravity. | Thornhill, Yorkshire, England | |
217 YBN [06/04/1783 CE] | 2192) The Montgolfier brothers fly an empty hot air balloon. | Annonay, France | ![]() [1] First public demonstration in Annonay, 1783-06-04. Library of Congress PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Early_flight_02562u_%282%29.jpg ![]() [2] Jacques Étienne Montgolfier (1745-1799), inventor of the hot air balloon. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Jacques_%C3%89tienne_Montgolfier.jpg |
217 YBN [07/15/1783 CE] | 2206) Marquis Claude de Jouffroy d'Abbans (CE 1751-1832) travels upstream on the Saône River near Lyon, France in his "Pyroscaphe", the first successful steamboat. | Saône River, near Lyon, France | ![]() [1] Model of a steamship, built by d'Abbans in 1784. Musee de la Marine. GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:D%27AbbansSteamshipModel.jpg |
217 YBN [08/27/1783 CE] | 2264) Jacques Charles (soRL) (CE 1746-1823) constructs the first hydrogen balloon. | Paris, France (presumably) | ![]() [1] First flight by Prof. Jacques Charles with Ainé Roberts, December 1, 1783. Illustration from the late 19th Century. N°. 5 - Premier voyage aérien par Charles et Robert (1783) First aerial voyage by Charles and Robert · Erste Flugreise mit Charles und Robert Library of Congress PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Early_flight_02562u_%285%29.jpg ![]() [2] Jacques Alexandre César Charles, 1820 Jacques Alexandre César Charles, French scientist, mathematician, and balloonist. This image is from the Library of Congress online collection, and is in the public domain. It has been cropped for concision. See catalog information below. TITLE: Charles, (Jacques Alexandre César.) né Beaugency-sur-Loire, le 11 novembre 1746, élu en 1793 / Jul. Bailly, 1820. CALL NUMBER: LOT 13400, no. 22 [P&P] Check for an online group record (may link to related items) REPRODUCTION NUMBER: LC-DIG-ppmsca-02185 (digital file from original print) LC-USZ62-70373 (b&w film copy neg.) No known restrictions on publication. SUMMARY: Head-and-shoulders portrait of French balloonist Jacques Alexandre César Charles, who made the first flight in a hydrogen balloon, Dec. 1, 1783. MEDIUM: 1 print : lithograph. CREATED/PUBLISHED: [S.l. : s.n., 1820] NOTES: ''Institut royal de France, Académie des sciences (physique génle.)''--printed above title. Title from item. Tissandier collection. SUBJECTS: Charles, Jacques Alexandre César, 1746-1823. Balloonists--French--1820. FORMAT: Portrait prints 1820. Lithographs 1820. REPOSITORY: Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, D.C. 20540 USA DIGITAL ID: (digital file from original print) ppmsca 02185 http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/ppmsca.02185 (b&w film copy neg.) cph 3b17771 http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3b17771 CARD #: 2002716398 PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Jacques_Alexandre_C%C3%A9sar_Charles. jpg |
217 YBN [11/21/1783 CE] | 2194) The first untethered balloon flight with a human passenger is made by François de Rozier (CE 1754-1785) and the Marquis d'Arlandes in Paris. | Paris, France | ![]() [1] This image is available from the United States Library of Congress Prints and Pictures division under the digital ID ppmsca.02562 The first untethered balloon flight, by Rosier and the Marquis d'Arlandes on 21 November 1783. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Early_flight_02562u_%284%29.jpg ![]() [2] REPRODUCTION NUMBER: LC-DIG-ppmsca-02227 (digital file from original print) LC-USZ62-15586 (b&w film copy neg.) No known restrictions on publication. SUMMARY: Oval head-and-shoulders portrait of French balloonist Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier, who took the first balloon flight in 1783. MEDIUM: 1 print : etching with engraving. CREATED/PUBLISHED: [S.l.] : Chez Mr. Pujos, peintre, [between 1783 and 1800] RELATED NAMES: Pujos, André, 1738-1788, artist. NOTES: ''Et se trouve chez Mr. Pujos Peintre, Quai Pelletier prés la Greve''-- at bottom of print. Title from item. Tissandier collection. SUBJECTS: Pilâtre de Rozier, Jean-François, 1754-1785. Balloonists--French--1780-1800. FORMA T: Portrait prints 1780-1800. Etchings 1780-1800. REPOSITORY: Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, D.C. 20540 USA DIGITAL ID: (digital file from original print) ppmsca 02227 http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/ppmsca.02227 (b&w film copy neg.) cph 3a17830 http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3a17830 CARD #: 2002724820 PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Pilatre_de_Rozier.jpg |
217 YBN [1783 CE] | 1207) Henry Cort (1740 - 1800), an English iron-maker, invents the puddling process of iron making. Cort makes a puddling furnace to create wrought iron from the pig iron produced in a blast furnace. Pig iron contains high amounts of carbon and other impurities, making it brittle. The puddling furnace burns off these impurities to produce a malleable low-carbon steel or wrought iron. The furnace is constructed to pull the hot air over the iron without it coming into direct contact with the fuel, a system generally known as a reverberatory furnace or open-hearth process. After lighting and being brought to a low temperature, the furnace is prepared for use by "fettling"; painting the grate and walls around it with iron oxides, typically hematite. Iron is then placed on the grate, normally about 600 lbs, and allowed to melt on top, mixing with the oxides. The mixture is then stirred vigorously with a "rabbling-bar", a long iron rod with a hook formed into one end. This causes the oxygen from the oxides to react with impurities in the pig iron, notably silicon, manganese (to form slag) and to some degree sulfur and phosphorus, which form gases and are removed out the chimney. More fuel is then added and the temperature raised. The iron completely melts and the carbon starts to burn off as well. The carbon dioxide formed in this process causes the slag to "puff up" on top, giving the rabbler a visual indication of the progress of the combustion. As the carbon burns off the melting temperature of the mixture rises, so the furnace has to be continually fed during this process. Eventually the carbon is mostly burned off and the iron 'comes to nature', forming into a spongy plastic material, indicating that the process is complete, and the material can be removed. The hook on the end of the bar is then used to pull out large "puddle-balls" of the material, about 40 kg each. These are then hammered ('shingled') using a powered hammer, to expel slag and weld shut internal cracks, while breaking off chunks of impurities. The iron is then re-heated and rolled out into flat bars or round rods. For this, grooved rollers are used, the grooves being of successively descreasing size so that the bar is progressively reduced to the desired dimensions. The quality of this may be improved by faggoting (a process in which rods or bars of iron and/or steel are gathered (like a bundle of sticks or "faggot") and forge welded together. The faggot would then be drawn out lengthwise. The bar might then be broken and the pieces made into a faggot again or folded over, and forge welded again). The puddling furnace will be replaced with the introduction of the Bessemer Process, which produces mild steel or wrought iron for a fraction of the cost and time. For comparison, an average size charge for a puddling furnace is 600 lb, for a Bessemer converter it will be 15 short tons. The puddling process can not be scaled up, being limited by the amount that the puddler can handle. It can only be expanded by building more furnaces. | England | ![]() [1] Schematic drawing of a puddling furnace. A, the hearth; F. the grate or fireplace; C, the chimney with a damper at the summit to regulate the draught; D, a bridge separating the grate from the hearth, for preventing the direct contact of the fuel with the iron. Found on the web at http://www.mspong.org/cyclopedia/metallu rgy_pics.html Scanned from The Household Cyclopedia by Henry Hartshorne, 1881. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Puddling_furnace.jpg |
217 YBN [1783 CE] | 2114) Henry Cavendish (CE 1731-1810), English chemist and physicist, is the first to measure the weight of particular volumes of gas to determine their density. (Show how Cavendish does this) He finds Hydrogen to be very light with only 1/14 the density of air. The lightness and flammability of Hydrogen makes Cavendish think he found Stahl's phlogiston a view which Scheele will adopt. | London, England | ![]() [1] Henry Cavendish Henry CavendishBorn: 10-Oct-1731 Birthplace: Nice, France Died: 24-Feb-1810 Location of death: Clapham, England PD? source: http://www.nndb.com/people/030/0 00083778/ ![]() [2] Old picture from F. Moore's History of Chemistry, published in 1901 PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Cavendish_Henry.jpg |
217 YBN [1783 CE] | 2183) William Herschel (CE 1738-1822) understands that the Sun is moving towards the constellation Hercules. | Slough, England | ![]() [1] Wilhelm Herschel, German-British astronomer. from fr. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:William_Herschel01.jpg ![]() [2] William Herschel AKA Frederick William Herschel Born: 15-Nov-1738 Birthplace: Hannover, Hanover, Germany Died: 25-Aug-1822 Location of death: Slough, Buckinghamshire, England Cause of death: unspecified Gender: Male Race or Ethnicity: White Occupation: Astronomer Nationality: England Executive summary: Mapped heavens, discovered Uranus PD/COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.nndb.com/people/661/0 00096373/ |
217 YBN [1783 CE] | 2221) Antoine Laurent Lavoisier (loVWoZYA) (CE 1743-1794) names Cavendish's inflammable gas "Hydrogen". | Paris, France (presumably) | ![]() [1] Creator/Artist Name English: Jacques-Louis David Alternative names English: David Date of birth/death 1748-08-30 1825-12-29 Location of birth/death English: Paris Work location Title English: Portrait of Monsieur de Lavoisier and his Wife Year 1788 Technique English: Oil on canvas Dimensions 259.7 x 196 cm Current location Metropolitan Museum of Art New York PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisie r_and_His_Wife.jpg ![]() [2] Scientist: Lavoisier, Antoine Laurent (1743 - 1794) Discipline(s): Chemistry Print Artist: William G. Jackman, fl. 1841-1860 Medium: Engraving Original Artist: Jacques Louis David, 1744-1825 Original Dimensions: Graphic: 15.2 x 10.8 cm / Sheet: 24.7 x 13.9 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=L |
217 YBN [1783 CE] | 2320) Fausto D'elhuyar (DeLUYoR) (CE 1755-1833) with his brother Juan José D'elhuyar, isolate tungsten (also known as wolfram). | Vergara, Spain | ![]() [1] Fausto Elhuyarren urteurrena (1755-1833) PD/COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.zientzia.net/argazkik onts.asp?Artik_kod=3751 ![]() [2] FAUSTO FERMÃN DE ELHUYAR (1757-1833) PD/COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.minas.upm.es/inicio/M useo%20Historico/Ingles/history.htm |
216 YBN [01/15/1784 CE] | 2115) Henry Cavendish (CE 1731-1810) is the first to show that water is created from burning hydrogen gas in oxygen gas. Before this both water is thought to be an element. | London, England | ![]() [1] Henry Cavendish Henry CavendishBorn: 10-Oct-1731 Birthplace: Nice, France Died: 24-Feb-1810 Location of death: Clapham, England PD? source: http://www.nndb.com/people/030/0 00083778/ ![]() [2] Old picture from F. Moore's History of Chemistry, published in 1901 PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Cavendish_Henry.jpg |
215 YBN [02/17/1785 CE] | 3463) Diffraction Grating. | Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA | ![]() [1] David Rittenhouse from an original Picture in the possession of Mrs. Sergeant. PD/Corel source: http://books.google.com/books?id =_J8RAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=dav id+rittenhouse#PPP6,M1 |
215 YBN [04/??/1785 CE] | 2184) William Herschel (CE 1738-1822) publishes a catalog with 1000 (previously unknown) "nebulae" (galaxies) and star clusters. This enlarges the map of the known universe. | Datchet, England | ![]() [1] Wilhelm Herschel, German-British astronomer. from fr. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:William_Herschel01.jpg ![]() [2] William Herschel AKA Frederick William Herschel Born: 15-Nov-1738 Birthplace: Hannover, Hanover, Germany Died: 25-Aug-1822 Location of death: Slough, Buckinghamshire, England Cause of death: unspecified Gender: Male Race or Ethnicity: White Occupation: Astronomer Nationality: England Executive summary: Mapped heavens, discovered Uranus PD/COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.nndb.com/people/661/0 00096373/ |
215 YBN [1785 CE] | 1239) The power loom is built by Edmund Cartwright (April 24, 1743 - October 30, 1823). The power loom automates the cloth making process and allows large amounts of cloth to be made in a shorter time than can be made by human labor. | England | ![]() [1] Edmund Cartwright (1743-1823), English inventor. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Edmund_Cartwright_2.jpg ![]() [2] Some of the 1200 power looms at the Plevna factory building, completed in 1877, at the Finlayson & Co Cotton mills in Tampere, Finland source: http://www.finlayson.fi/kodintekstiilit/ histo07.htm PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Finlayson_%26_Co_-_Plevna_1877.jpg |
215 YBN [1785 CE] | 1240) William Samuel Henson (1812-1888) and John Stringfellow (1799-1883) invent a steam-engine powered airplane (Aerial Steam Carriage). This design can not fly, but an improved design in 1848 will be able to fly for small distances within a hanger. This is the first device built to use machine powered flight. | England | ![]() [1] William Samuel Henson and the Aerial Transit Company's publicity engraving of the ''Aerial Steam Carriage'' of 1843. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Henson-Willliam_02.jpg ![]() [2] Patent drawing for the Henson Aerial Steam Carriage of 1843. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Henson-Willliam_03.jpg |
215 YBN [1785 CE] | 2083) James Hutton (CE 1726-1797) Scottish geologist puts forward the "uniformitarian principle", the theory that slow changes change the earth's surface. | Edinburgh, Scotland | ![]() [1] JAMES HUTTON (1726-1797) PD source: http://www.uwmc.uwc.edu/geograph y/hutton/hutton.htm ![]() [2] http://www.usgs.gov/museum/575005.html James Hutton(1726-1797) is considered to be the founder of modern Geology. His studies of the rock formations of his native Scotland helped him to formulate his most famous work, ''Theory of the Earth''. This work was interpreted and used by many as the basis for geological theory. Hutton made many observations about rock formations and how they were effected by erosion. His terminology and rock formation theories became known as ''Huttonian'' Geology. Several of the watercolors on this page are reproductions of works that he did while in the field. This portrait of him was done by Abner Lowe in the 1920s. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:James_Hutton.jpg |
215 YBN [1785 CE] | 2116) Henry Cavendish (CE 1731-1810) shows that air is a mixture of gases by using electrolysis. Before this air was thought to be an element. Cavendish observes that air contains a small volume of gas (1/120) that is not phlogisticated air (nitrogen) or dephlogisticated air (oxygen). | London, England | ![]() [1] Figure from Experiments on Air. By Henry Cavendish, Esq. F.R.S. and A.S. Journal Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 75 - 1785 Pages 372-384 DOI 10.1098/rstl.17 85.0023 PD? source: http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac. uk/content/002m322p050qv423/?p=d80161c90 5fe4831aa63484ba66ccb98&pi=6 ![]() [2] Henry Cavendish Henry CavendishBorn: 10-Oct-1731 Birthplace: Nice, France Died: 24-Feb-1810 Location of death: Clapham, England PD? source: http://www.nndb.com/people/030/0 00083778/ |
215 YBN [1785 CE] | 2167) Charles Augustin Coulomb (KUlOM) (CE 1736-1806) proves that electrical and magnetic attraction and repulsion are both inversely related to distance squared. This will eventually lead to the famous equation now called Coulomb's law: F=kq1q2/r^ 2 (state who is the first to formally state this equation) Coulomb finds that the force between electrical and magnetic objects is identical, a strong indication that a magnetic field is actually just an electrical field. However Coulomb maintains that the electrical and magnetic fluids are not identical. I think that this is strong evidence that a magnetic field is simply an electrical field, which implies that in every permanent magnet has a current of particles which creates an electric field running through it. | Paris?, France (presumably) | ![]() [1] Portrait by Hippolyte Lecomte PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Coulomb.jpg ![]() [2] Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, detail of a bronze bust. H. Roger-Viollet COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art -9659/Charles-Augustin-de-Coulomb-detail -of-a-bronze-bust?articleTypeId=1 |
215 YBN [1785 CE] | 2168) Charles Augustin Coulomb (KUlOM) (CE 1736-1806) finds that electrical and magnetic attraction and repulsion are both proportional to amount of charge and inversely proportional to distance squared. This will eventually lead to the famous equation now called Coulomb's law: F=kq1q2/r^ 2 (state who is the first to formally state this equation) Asimov states that: Joseph Priestly came to this conclusion a few years earlier. Henry Cavendish found this before Coulomb but didn't publish his results. The quantity of electric charge will be named in honor of Coulomb. In this equation F is the force in Newtons between two charged objects, k is a constant which depends on the medium in which the charged bodies are immersed, q1 and q2 are the two charges in Coulombs, and r is the distance in meters between the centers of the two charged objects. k in a vacuum equals 8.98 x 10^9 Nm^2/C^2 Newton-meters squared per coulombs squared. Coulomb never explicitly states this relationship in the formal equation that will be first created by ?. This view implies to many that there exists a force of electricity, which is similar to, but different from a force of gravity. | Paris?, France (presumably) | ![]() [1] Portrait by Hippolyte Lecomte PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Coulomb.jpg ![]() [2] Charles-Augustin de Coulomb, detail of a bronze bust. H. Roger-Viollet COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art -9659/Charles-Augustin-de-Coulomb-detail -of-a-bronze-bust?articleTypeId=1 |
214 YBN [1786 CE] | 1209) The thrashing machine, or, in modern spelling, threshing machine, is invented by Scottish mechanical engineer Andrew Meikle (1719 - November 27, 1811). The threshing machine is used to separate the seeds (or grains) of cereal plants from their stalks and outer husks. For thousands of years, grain was separated by hand with flails (two or more sticks attached by a short chain or leather thong; one stick is held and swung, causing the other to strike a pile of grain, loosening the husks), and was very laborious and time consuming. Mechanization of this process will increase the speed and quantity of production, in addition to lowering the cost. Early threshing machines are hand fed and horse powered. They are small by today's standards and are about the size of an upright piano. Although threshing removes the straw and the chaff (seed casing and other inedible materials of a plant), it does not remove the bran (Bran is the hard outer layer of cereal grains, and consists of combined aleurone and pericarp. Along with germ (the embyro of the seed), it is an integral part of whole grains, and is often produced as a by-product of milling in the production of refined grains. When bran is removed from grains, they lose a portion of their nutritional value. Bran is present in and may be milled from any cereal grain, including rice, wheat, maize, oats, and millet.). | East Lothian, Scotland, United Kingdom | ![]() [1] Threshing machine from 1881 Source: cropped from http://www.unige.ch/lareh/Archives/Archi ves-images/Images/Dictionnaire-arts-indu striels/Page%20585%20-%20batteuse.jpg 1 881 Dictionnaire d'arts industriels. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Batteuse_1881.jpg ![]() [2] Flail PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Dreschflegel.jpg |
213 YBN [08/27/1787 CE] | 2265) Jacques Alexandre César Charles (soRL) (CE 1746-1823) states that the volume of a fixed quantity of gas at constant pressure is inversely proportional to its temperature (Charles' law). | Paris, France (presumably) | ![]() [1] Jacques Alexandre César Charles, 1820 Jacques Alexandre César Charles, French scientist, mathematician, and balloonist. This image is from the Library of Congress online collection, and is in the public domain. It has been cropped for concision. See catalog information below. TITLE: Charles, (Jacques Alexandre César.) né Beaugency-sur-Loire, le 11 novembre 1746, élu en 1793 / Jul. Bailly, 1820. CALL NUMBER: LOT 13400, no. 22 [P&P] Check for an online group record (may link to related items) REPRODUCTION NUMBER: LC-DIG-ppmsca-02185 (digital file from original print) LC-USZ62-70373 (b&w film copy neg.) No known restrictions on publication. SUMMARY: Head-and-shoulders portrait of French balloonist Jacques Alexandre César Charles, who made the first flight in a hydrogen balloon, Dec. 1, 1783. MEDIUM: 1 print : lithograph. CREATED/PUBLISHED: [S.l. : s.n., 1820] NOTES: ''Institut royal de France, Académie des sciences (physique génle.)''--printed above title. Title from item. Tissandier collection. SUBJECTS: Charles, Jacques Alexandre César, 1746-1823. Balloonists--French--1820. FORMAT: Portrait prints 1820. Lithographs 1820. REPOSITORY: Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division Washington, D.C. 20540 USA DIGITAL ID: (digital file from original print) ppmsca 02185 http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/ppmsca.02185 (b&w film copy neg.) cph 3b17771 http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3b17771 CARD #: 2002716398 PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Jacques_Alexandre_C%C3%A9sar_Charles. jpg ![]() [2] First flight by Prof. Jacques Charles with Ainé Roberts, December 1, 1783. Illustration from the late 19th Century. N°. 5 - Premier voyage aérien par Charles et Robert (1783) First aerial voyage by Charles and Robert · Erste Flugreise mit Charles und Robert Library of Congress PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Early_flight_02562u_%285%29.jpg |
213 YBN [1787 CE] | 2178) William Herschel (CE 1738-1822) identifies two moons of Uranus, Titania and Oberon. | Old Windsor, England (presumably) | ![]() [1] Wilhelm Herschel, German-British astronomer. from fr. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:William_Herschel01.jpg ![]() [2] William Herschel AKA Frederick William Herschel Born: 15-Nov-1738 Birthplace: Hannover, Hanover, Germany Died: 25-Aug-1822 Location of death: Slough, Buckinghamshire, England Cause of death: unspecified Gender: Male Race or Ethnicity: White Occupation: Astronomer Nationality: England Executive summary: Mapped heavens, discovered Uranus PD/COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.nndb.com/people/661/0 00096373/ |
212 YBN [06/21/1788 CE] | 1529) The United States Constitution is ratified by 9 of 13 states and the United States Government is formed, a representative democracy, won after an 8 year war against the Kingdom of Great Britain (a Parliamentary Monarchy). This is the first major representative democracy not ruled by any hereditary king of planet earth. | New Hampshire, USA | ![]() [1] First page of Constitution of the United States. Source http://www.archives.gov/national-archiv es-experience/charters/charters_download s.html Date 1787 Author Constitutional Convention PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Constitution_Pg1of4_AC.jpg ![]() [2] Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States The Philadelphia Convention PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Scene_Constitution.jpg |
211 YBN [08/28/1789 CE] | 2181) William Herschel completes the construction of the largest telescope on earth and identifies two new satellites of Saturn, Enceladus and Mimas for a total of 7 moons for Saturn. | Slough, England | ![]() [1] Wilhelm Herschel, German-British astronomer. from fr. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:William_Herschel01.jpg ![]() [2] William Herschel AKA Frederick William Herschel Born: 15-Nov-1738 Birthplace: Hannover, Hanover, Germany Died: 25-Aug-1822 Location of death: Slough, Buckinghamshire, England Cause of death: unspecified Gender: Male Race or Ethnicity: White Occupation: Astronomer Nationality: England Executive summary: Mapped heavens, discovered Uranus PD/COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.nndb.com/people/661/0 00096373/ |
211 YBN [1789 CE] | 2230) Martin Heinrich Klaproth (KloPrOT) (CE 1743-1817) identifies the element Uranium. | Berlin, (was Prussia) Germany (presumably) | ![]() [1] # Title: Martin Heinrich Klaproth # Author:Ambroise Tardieu (engraving) after original portrait by Eberhard-Siegfried Henne # Year: unknown # Source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections /hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm (reworked) Scientist: Klapproth, Martin Heinrich (1743 - 1817) Discipline(s): Chemistry Print Artist: Ambroise Tardieu, 1788-1841 Medium: Engraving Original Artist: Eberhard-Siegfried Henne, 1759-1828 Original Dimensions: Graphic: 7.5 x 10.3 cm / Sheet: 21.2 x 14.3 cm PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Martin_Heinrich_Klaproth.jpg ![]() [2] Scientist: Klapproth, Martin Heinrich (1743 - 1817) Discipline(s): Chemistry Original Artist: Eberhard-Siegfried Henne, 1759-1828 Original Dimensions: Graphic: 10.7 x 9.2 cm / Sheet: 14.9 x 9.2 cm PD source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=K |
211 YBN [1789 CE] | 2231) Martin Heinrich Klaproth (KloPrOT) (CE 1743-1817) identifies the element "zirconium". | Berlin, (was Prussia) Germany (presumably) | ![]() [1] Zircon crystal Origin:Peixes, Goiás, Brazil Description = One single brown zircon crystal (2x2 cm) Source = the authors are owner Date = created 2005-12-07 Authors = Eurico Zimbres (FGEL-UERJ) / Tom Epaminondas (mineral collector) Permission = Free for all use CC source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Zirc%C3%A3o.jpeg ![]() [2] # Title: Martin Heinrich Klaproth # Author:Ambroise Tardieu (engraving) after original portrait by Eberhard-Siegfried Henne # Year: unknown # Source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections /hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm (reworked) Scientist: Klapproth, Martin Heinrich (1743 - 1817) Discipline(s): Chemistry Print Artist: Ambroise Tardieu, 1788-1841 Medium: Engraving Original Artist: Eberhard-Siegfried Henne, 1759-1828 Original Dimensions: Graphic: 7.5 x 10.3 cm / Sheet: 21.2 x 14.3 cm PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Martin_Heinrich_Klaproth.jpg |
210 YBN [1790 CE] | 2077) John Michell (MicL) (CE 1724-1793) English geologist and astronomer, constructs a torsion balance to measure gravitational attraction and therefore the (mass) of the Earth. Henry Cavendish (1731-1810), will use the device John Michell, in his famous experiment to measure gravity between two test masses. Michell invents a torsion balance similar to and independently of the torsion balance that the French physicist Charles-Augustin de Coulomb will invent. | Thornhill, Yorkshire, England (presumably) | |
209 YBN [05/03/1791 CE] | 1530) The King of Poland approves the first modern constitution in Europe, transforming the nation of Poland into a constitutional parliamentary monarchy. In this Constitution, Dynasties must be elected, and discrimination on religious grounds is abolished. | ![]() [1] May 3rd Constitution (painting by Jan Matejko, 1891). King Stanisław August (left, in ermine-trimmed cloak), enters St. John's Cathedral, where Sejm deputies will swear to uphold the new Constitution; in the background, Warsaw's Royal Castle, where the Constitution had just been adopted. Painting by Jan Matejko from 1891 Source: en:Image:Konstytucja_3_Maja.jpg; originally at http://pl.wikipedia.org/upload/3/3c/Ko nstytucja_3_Maja.jpg PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Konstytucja_3_Maja.jpg ![]() [2] Original manuscript of the May 3rd Constitution. PD with source statement: Source: http://www.president.pl/x.node?id=404274 5 source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Oryginal_Konstytucji_3_maja.jpg | |
209 YBN [12/15/1791 CE] | 1531) The "Bill of Rights", the first 10 amendments to the United States Constitution guarantees many human rights including freedom of religion, speech, the press, the right of peaceful assembly and petition, and the prohibition of "cruel and unusual punishments". | Virginia, USA | |
209 YBN [1791 CE] | 2175) Muscle contracted remotely by using electric spark and metal connected to nerve. Galvani makes an electric pendulum using a frog leg, brass hook and silver box. | Bologna, Italy | ![]() [1] Italian physicists Luigi Galvani Source http://www.museopalazzopoggi.unibo.it //poggi_eng/palazzo/foto/prot Date 18-19 th century Author Unknown PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Luigi_Galvani%2C_oil-painting.jpg ![]() [2] The electrochemical behavior of two dissimilar metals [(zinc (Z) and copper (C)] in a bimetallic arch, in contact with the electrolytes of tissue, produces an electric stimulating current that elicits muscular contraction. [Malmivuo, J., & Plonsey, R. (1995). Bioelectromagnatism: Principles and applications of bioelectric and biomagnetic fields. New York: Oxford University Press., Ch.1] URL: http://butler.cc.tut.fi/~malmivuo/bem/be mbook/01/01.htm Diagram of Luigi Galvani's frog legs (~1770s) PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Galvani%27s_legs.gif |
209 YBN [1791 CE] | 2342) William Gregor (CE 1761-1817) identifies titanium. | Cornwall, England | ![]() [1] In 1791, while studying ilmenite from the Manaccan valley, he isolated the calx of an unknown metal which he named manaccanite.[3 wiki] * Italiano: Ilmenite, dall'Italia. Foto di Sebastian Socha, 2006. * Polski: Ilmenit, pochodzenie Włochy; autor zdjęcia Sebastian Socha. 11.10. 2006 r. GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Ilmenit%2C_W%C5%82ochy.jpg |
208 YBN [09/21/1792 CE] | 1534) A National Convention in France ends the monarchy and establishes a republic in France. | Paris, France | ![]() [1] Sketch by Jacques-Louis David of the National Assembly taking the Tennis Court Oath David, le serment du Jeu de Paume. Tennis Court Oath. Painting by Jacques-Louis David (1748-1825) PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Serment_du_jeu_de_paume.jpg ![]() [2] The storming of the Bastille, 14 July 1789 Painting by Jean-Pierre Houël (1735-1813), entitled Prise de la Bastille (''The Storming of the Bastille''). Watercolor painting; 37,8 x 50,5 cm. Published 1789. Visible in the center is the arrest of Bernard René Jourdan, marquis de Launay (1740-1789). PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Prise_de_la_Bastille.jpg |
206 YBN [1794 CE] | 2336) Johan Gadolin identifies the first rare earth (Lanthanoid) element. | (was Ã…bo is now)Turku, Finland | ![]() [1] Gadolinite The mineral that Gadolin examined was named gadolinite in 1800.[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johan _Gadolin] GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Gadolinitas.jpg ![]() [2] Portrait of Johan Gadolin (1760-1852). Scanned from the book Johan Gadolin 1760-1852 in memoriam (published in 1910). Artist unknown but most probably born many years before 1852, so the copyright has expired. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Johan_Gadolin.jpg |
205 YBN [1795 CE] | 2085) James Hutton explains natural selection before Charles Darwin, writing that species less adapted are more like to die while those better adapted will continue. | Edinburgh, Scotland (presumably) | ![]() [1] JAMES HUTTON (1726-1797) PD source: http://www.uwmc.uwc.edu/geograph y/hutton/hutton.htm ![]() [2] http://www.usgs.gov/museum/575005.html James Hutton(1726-1797) is considered to be the founder of modern Geology. His studies of the rock formations of his native Scotland helped him to formulate his most famous work, ''Theory of the Earth''. This work was interpreted and used by many as the basis for geological theory. Hutton made many observations about rock formations and how they were effected by erosion. His terminology and rock formation theories became known as ''Huttonian'' Geology. Several of the watercolors on this page are reproductions of works that he did while in the field. This portrait of him was done by Abner Lowe in the 1920s. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:James_Hutton.jpg |
204 YBN [07/01/1796 CE] | 2280) Edward Jenner (CE 1749-1823), English physician, confirms that having cow pox disease provide immunity from the more severe small pox disease. | Berkeley, England (presumably) | ![]() [1] Source: http://www.edward-jenner.com/family-life .html PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Edward_Jenner2.jpg ![]() [2] Figure 1: Portrait of Edward Jenner painted in about 1800 by William Pearce. Note the cows in the background, the source of the cowpox virus he used to vaccinate people against smallpox. PD/COPYRIGHTED source: http://openlearn.open.ac.uk/file .php/2642/formats/S320_1_rss.xml |
203 YBN [1797 CE] | 2338) James Hall (CE 1761-1832) produces marble by heating limestone (calcium carbonate). | ![]() [1] Sir James Hall, Scottish chemist and geologist, late 18th century. Photo of Sir James Hall, Scottish chemist and geologist, late 18th century. Oil painting by Angelica Kauffman of Sir James Hall (1761-1832), 4th Baronet of Dunglass. Hall discovered that by heating calcium carbonate under pressure a rock substance similar to marble is formed. His work on the creation of rocks also proved that igneous rocks in Scotland had been produced under heat. Picture Reference: 10301789 Subject: PERSONALITIES > Personalities > Hall, James'' Credit: Science Museum PD/COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.scienceandsociety.co. uk/results.asp?image=10301789&wwwflag=2& imagepos=1 | |
203 YBN [1797 CE] | 2344) Louis Nicolas Vauquelin (VoKloN) (CE 1763-1829), identifies Chromium. | Paris, France | ![]() [1] Chrom Source http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Chr om_1.jpg PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Chrom_1.jpg ![]() [2] Louis Nicolas Vauquelin from en:Wikipedia PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Louis_Nicolas_Vauquelin.jpg |
202 YBN [1798 CE] | 2117) Henry Cavendish (CE 1731-1810) indirectly measures Newton's gravitational constant by using a torsion balance created by John Michell and calculate the density of the Earth. Cavendish the mass of Earth to be 6.6e21 tons, the density being 5.48 times that of water. Using this constant Cavendish calculates the mass and density of the planet Earth. | London, England | ![]() [1] Henry Cavendish Henry CavendishBorn: 10-Oct-1731 Birthplace: Nice, France Died: 24-Feb-1810 Location of death: Clapham, England PD? source: http://www.nndb.com/people/030/0 00083778/ ![]() [2] Old picture from F. Moore's History of Chemistry, published in 1901 PD source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Caven dish_Henry.jpg |
202 YBN [1798 CE] | 2345) Louis Nicolas Vauquelin (VoKloN) (CE 1763-1829), identifies beryllium. | Paris, France | ![]() [1] Louis Nicolas Vauquelin from en:Wikipedia PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Louis_Nicolas_Vauquelin.jpg ![]() [2] Portrait de Vauquelin situé dans la Salle des actes de la Faculté de pharmacie, 4 avenue de l'Observatoire à Paris PD/COPYRIGHTED source: http://euromin.w3sites.net/Nouve au_site/mineralogiste/biographies/Vauque linf.htm |
202 YBN [1798 CE] | 2353) Alois Senefelder (CE 1771-1834), invents lithography which a printing process based on the inability of oil and water to mix. | Munich, {Bavaria, now} Germany | ![]() [1] Two pictures showing the negative litography stone and the resulting positive print, with an old map of Munich. This is the origin map, with the north tower of the Frauenkirche in the lower corner. All other maps of this series are referenced to this corner. The map also shows the Hofgarten and the Englischer Garten. Due to the nature of the printing process, the negative shows everything in reverse. Picture taken as part of the Lange Nacht der Museen in Munich See also Image:Litography print of a Map of Munich.jpg and Image:Litography stone of a Map of Munich.jpg for the original images GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Litography_negative_stone_and_positiv e_paper.jpg ![]() [2] Description Lithograph, 'Portrait of Senefelder'. Lithograph of Senefelder, from Specimens of Polyautography. Source http://www.nga.gov.au/FirstImpression s/index.cfm [1] Date 1818 Author Lorenz Quaglio. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Senefelder.jpg |
201 YBN [08/??/1799 CE] | 1237) The "Rosetta Stone" is found in Egypt. | Rashid, Egypt | |
201 YBN [1799 CE] | 2315) Joseph Louis Proust (PrUST) (CE 1754-1826) shows that elements combine in definite proportions. Joseph Louis Proust (PrUST) (CE 1754-1826) French chemist, shows that elements combine in definite proportions. This will be known as the "law of definite proportions" (or "Proust's law"). | Segovia, Spain | ![]() [1] Joseph Proust French chemist Source Originally from en.wikipedia; description page is/was here. Date 2005-10-15 (original upload date) Author Original uploader was HappyApple at en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this image) PD-AUTHOR; Released into the public domain (by the author). PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Proust_joseph.jpg ![]() [2] Joseph-Louis Proust, medallion by Pierre-Jean David H. Roger-Viollet To cite this page: * MLA style: ''Proust, Joseph-Louis: portrait coin.'' Online Photograph. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13 Dec. 2007 source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art -30847/Joseph-Louis-Proust-medallion-by- Pierre-Jean-David?articleTypeId=1 |
200 YBN [03/20/1800 CE] | 2250) Alessandro Volta (VOLTo) (CE 1745-1827) builds an electric battery. This battery provides a continuous source of electrical current. | Pavia, Italy | ![]() [1] Description Alessandro Giuseppe Antonio Anastasio Volta Source http://www.anthroposophie.net/bibliot hek/nawi/physik/volta/bib_volta.htm Dat e 2006-03-02 (original upload date) PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Alessandro_Volta.jpeg ![]() [2] Scientist: Volta, Alessandro (1745 - 1827) Discipline(s): Physics Original Dimensions: Graphic: 11.9 x 9.7 cm / Sheet: 18.2 x 12.3 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=V |
200 YBN [05/02/1800 CE] | 2307) William Nicholson (CE 1753-1815) separates water into hydrogen and oxygen gas using electric current. Nicholson has reversed Cavendish's find that hydrogen and oxygen gas can unite to form water, by showing that water can be separated into hydrogen and oxygen gas. Electrolysis is the reverse of Volta's find which showed that a chemical reaction can produce electricity, by showing that electricity can cause a chemical reaction. Nicholson and Carlisle discover that the amount of hydrogen and oxygen set free by the current is proportional to the amount of current used. | London, England (presumably) | ![]() [1] William Nicholson, ca. 1812, engraving by T. Blood after a portrait painted by Samuel Drummond (1765-1844) PD/COPYRIGHTED source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor y/nicholson.html ![]() [2] The example of Nicholson's Hydrometer at the right is 25 cm high, and is in the Greenslade Collection. COPYRIGHTED source: http://physics.kenyon.edu/EarlyA pparatus/Fluids/Nicholsons_Hydrometer/Ni cholsons_Hydrometer.html |
200 YBN [09/17/1800 CE] | 2436) Johann Wilhelm Ritter (CE 1776-1810) collects hydrogen and oxygen gas separately. | Jena, Germany (presumably) | ![]() [1] Undatiertes Portrait von J. W. Ritter PD/COPYRIGHTED source: http://www2.uni-jena.de/biologie /ehh/forum/ausstellungen/Physik_als_Kuns t/Physik_als_Kunst.htm ![]() [2] Johann Wilhelm Ritter. Undated woodcut, courtesy Deutsches Museum, Munich. Reproduced in Ritter 1986. PD/COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.sil.si.edu/silpublica tions/dibner-library-lectures/scientific -discoveries/text-lecture.htm |
200 YBN [11/??/1800 CE] | 2437) Johann Wilhelm Ritter (CE 1776-1810) discovers electroplating. | Jena, Germany (presumably) | ![]() [1] Undatiertes Portrait von J. W. Ritter PD/COPYRIGHTED source: http://www2.uni-jena.de/biologie /ehh/forum/ausstellungen/Physik_als_Kuns t/Physik_als_Kunst.htm ![]() [2] Johann Wilhelm Ritter. Undated woodcut, courtesy Deutsches Museum, Munich. Reproduced in Ritter 1986. PD/COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.sil.si.edu/silpublica tions/dibner-library-lectures/scientific -discoveries/text-lecture.htm |
200 YBN [1800 CE] | 2179) William Herschel (CE 1738-1822) recognizes that an invisible portion of the spectrum of light beyond the color red (later named infrared) heats up a thermometer more than any other color. Hersche l tests portions of the sun's spectrum by thermometer to find any difference in heat the different colors deliver. Herschel finds that the temperature rise is highest in no color at all, but in a place beyond the red end of the spectrum. Hershel concludes that sunlight contains invisible light beyond the red. This is now called infrared radiation. | Slough, England | ![]() [1] Wilhelm Herschel, German-British astronomer. from fr. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:William_Herschel01.jpg ![]() [2] William Herschel AKA Frederick William Herschel Born: 15-Nov-1738 Birthplace: Hannover, Hanover, Germany Died: 25-Aug-1822 Location of death: Slough, Buckinghamshire, England Cause of death: unspecified Gender: Male Race or Ethnicity: White Occupation: Astronomer Nationality: England Executive summary: Mapped heavens, discovered Uranus PD/COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.nndb.com/people/661/0 00096373/ |
200 YBN [1800 CE] | 4541) Secret: Electric microphone invented. | unknown | |
200 YBN [1800 CE] | 4542) Secret: Invisible light particle communication (radio) invented but kept secret. Radio transmitter and receiver invented. | unknown | |
199 YBN [11/12/1801 CE] | 2405) Humans measure the frequencies of light. Humans measure frequency and wavelength (or photon interval) of light, and use glass diffraction gratings. Theory of light interference. Thomas Young (CE 1773-1829) determines the wavelength (alternatively photon interval) of different colors of light and uses a glass diffraction grating. Young understands that different colors can be created by adding different wavelengths of light. Young puts forward the theory of light wave interference (to explain lines of diffraction). This theory states that two (or more) light waves interfere with each other, where light waves can add together and subtract or cancel each other out, similar to the way two sound waves can add to or cancel each other out to produce silence. Young supports the theory of light as a wave in an aether medium (aether being like air for sound), which Grimaldi, Huygens, Hooke, Malebranche, Euler and others supported. Young refers to this theory as the "undulatory" theory. Young proposes that instead of the retina containing an infinite number of particles each capable of vibrating in unison with every possible color, there is only a need for one sensor for each principle color red, yellow and blue. | London, England | ![]() [1] [t Table of light wavelengths and frequencies calculated by Young from Theory of Light and Colours 11/12/1801] The inch used in the table is the French (Paris) inch of 27.07mm. PD/Corel source: Young_Thomas_1802_on_the_theory_ of_light_and_colours.pdf ![]() [2] http://journals.royalsociety.org/content /q3r7063hh2281211/?p=422e575bae414c9a974 a16d595c628d0Ï€=24 The Bakerian Lecture: On the Theory of Light and Colours Journal Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 92 - 1802 Pages 12-48 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1802 .0004 Young_Thomas_1802_on_the_theory_o f_light_and_colours.pdf [t Young writes: ''Let the concentric lines in Fig. 1 (Plate I.) represent the contemporaneous situation of similar parts of a number of successive undulations diverging from the point A; they will also represent the successive situations of each individual undulation: let the force of each undulation be represented by the breadth of the line, and let the cone of light ABC be admitted through the apeture BC; then the principal undulations will proceed in a recilinear direction towards GH, and the faint radiations on each side will diverge from B and C as centres, without receiving any additional force from any intermediate point D of the undulation, on account of the inequality of the lines DE and DF. But if we allow some little lateral divergence from the extremities of the undulations, it must diminish their force, without adding materially to that of the dissipated light; and their termination, instead of the right line BG, will assume the form CH; since the loss of force must be more considerable near to C than at greater distances. This line corresponds with the boundary of the shadow in NEWTON's first observation, Fig. 1; and it is much more probable that such a dissipation of light was the cause of the increase of the shadow in that observation, than that it was owing to the action of the inflecting atmosphere, which must have extended a thirtieth of an inch each way in order to produce it; especially when it is considered that the shadow was not diminished by surrounding the hair with a denser medium than air, which must in all probability have weakened and contracted its inflecting atmosphere. In other circumstances, the lateral divergence might appear to increase, instead of diminishing, the breadth of the beam.''] PD/COPYRIGHTED source: http://journals.royalsociety.org /content/q3r7063hh2281211/?p=422e575bae4 14c9a974a16d595c628d0Ï€=24 |
199 YBN [1801 CE] | 2349) Andrès Manuel Del Rio (DeLrEO) (CE 1764-1849) identifies vanadium. | Mexico City, Mexico (presumably) | ![]() [1] Andrés Manuel del RÃo (1764-1849), Spanish-Mexican geologist and chemist. This image is a picture of an oil painting dated from the XIX century. The Painting is on public display at the Palacio de MinerÃa in Mexico City. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Del_Rio.jpg ![]() [2] Vanadium is not found in the native state, but is present in minerals such as vanadinite, Pb5(VO4)3Cl. GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Vanadinita_Mibladen%2C_Midelt_Marruec os.png |
199 YBN [1801 CE] | 2350) Charles Hatchett (CE 1765-1847) identifies the new element Niobium. | ![]() [1] Image of chemist en:Charles Hatchett PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Charles_Hatchett.jpg ![]() [2] Ferrocolumbite Photo Copyright © Keith Compton - This image is copyrighted. Unauthorized reproduction prohibited. Locality: Giles Columbite-Beryl Pegmatite (Giles Prospect), Spargoville, Coolgardie Shire, Western Australia, Australia Single black terminated Ferrocolumbite xl. 36mm x 25mm x 14mm Personal collection and photo. COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.mindat.org/min-1514.h tml | |
199 YBN [1801 CE] | 2438) Johann Wilhelm Ritter (CE 1776-1810) identifies ultraviolet light. | Jena, Germany (presumably) | ![]() [1] Undatiertes Portrait von J. W. Ritter PD/COPYRIGHTED source: http://www2.uni-jena.de/biologie /ehh/forum/ausstellungen/Physik_als_Kuns t/Physik_als_Kunst.htm ![]() [2] Johann Wilhelm Ritter. Undated woodcut, courtesy Deutsches Museum, Munich. Reproduced in Ritter 1986. PD/COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.sil.si.edu/silpublica tions/dibner-library-lectures/scientific -discoveries/text-lecture.htm |
199 YBN [1801 CE] | 4543) Secret: Electronic camera transmitter invented but kept secret. This device uses light particles to transmit images to distant receivers. At first this is a simple one sensor light dark device. But soon, arrays of sensors, with more and more sensors, smaller and smaller in size are developed - all secretly for a small group of wealthy people of each nation. | unknown | |
198 YBN [03/??/1802 CE] | 2332) Heinrich Olbers (oLBRS or OLBRZ) (CE 1758-1840), finds the second known minor planet (asteroid) Pallas. | Bremen, Germany | ![]() [1] Heinrich Wilhelm Matthäus Olbers (October 11, 1758 - March 2, 1840) was a German astronomer, physician and physicist. Source http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-ide ntity/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Heinrich_Wilhelm_Olbers.jpg ![]() [2] Olbers, detail from an engraving Courtesy of the trustees of the British Museum; photograph, J.R. Freeman & Co. Ltd. PD/COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art -30472/Olbers-detail-from-an-engraving?a rticleTypeId=1 |
198 YBN [08/03/1802 CE] | 2845) Gian Domenico Romagnosi (CE 1761-1835) publishes a finding of an electric effect deflecting a magnetic needle. | Trento, Italy | ![]() [1] Description Portrait of Gian Domenico Romagnosi, by painter: E. Moscatelli (copy of Giuseppe Molteni's painting); Museo del Risorgimento (Milan). PD source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Romag nosi.jpg ![]() [2] Gian Domenico Romagnosi from Cantu 1861 PD/Corel source: http://ppp.unipv.it/Collana/Page s/Libri/Saggi/Nuova%20Voltiana3_PDF/cap4 /4.pdf * Romagnosi and Volta"s pile: Early difficulties in the interpretation of voltaic electricity romagnosi_4.pdf |
198 YBN [1802 CE] | 2365) William Hyde Wollaston (WOLuSTuN) (CE 1766-1828) identifies spectral lines. William Hyde Wollaston (WOLuSTuN) (CE 1766-1828) identifies dark spectral lines in the spectrum of light from the Sun. | London, England | ![]() [1] William Wollaston Fiure 3 from 1802 Philosophical Transactions PD/Corel source: Wollaston_William_1802_PT.pdf ![]() [2] Scientist: Wollaston, William Hyde (1766 - 1878) Discipline(s): Chemistry ; Physics ; Medicine Print Artist: James Thomson, 1789-1850 Medium: Lithograph Original Artist: J. Jackson Original Dimensions: Graphic: 11.5 x 8.7 cm / Sheet: 24.5 x 16 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W |
198 YBN [1802 CE] | 2377) Anders Gustaf Ekeberg (IKuBRG) (CE 1767-1813) identifies tantalum. | Uppsala, Sweden | ![]() [1] This image was copied from en.wikipedia.org. The original description was: Tantalum sample. GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Ta%2C73.jpg ![]() [2] Anders Gustaf Ekeberg (1767-1813) PD/COPYRIGHTED source: http://homepage.mac.com/dtrapp/E lements/myth.html |
198 YBN [1802 CE] | 2439) Johann Wilhelm Ritter (CE 1776-1810) invents the first dry voltaic cell. | Gotha, Germany | ![]() [1] Undatiertes Portrait von J. W. Ritter PD/COPYRIGHTED source: http://www2.uni-jena.de/biologie /ehh/forum/ausstellungen/Physik_als_Kuns t/Physik_als_Kunst.htm ![]() [2] Johann Wilhelm Ritter. Undated woodcut, courtesy Deutsches Museum, Munich. Reproduced in Ritter 1986. PD/COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.sil.si.edu/silpublica tions/dibner-library-lectures/scientific -discoveries/text-lecture.htm |
197 YBN [10/21/1803 CE] | 2375) John Dalton (CE 1766-1844), shows chemically how all matter is made of atoms. John Dalton (CE 1766-1844) provides a chemical basis for the theory that all matter is made of atoms of different size and mass. Dalton makes the first table of elements by atomic mass. Dalton theorizes that atoms of different elements vary in size and mass. Dalton creates the "Law of Multiple Proportions" which states that when two elements form more than one compound, the masses of one element that combine with a fixed mass of the other are in a ratio of whole numbers. Dalton's paper contains the first table of atomic weights. | Manchester, England | ![]() [1] Engraving of a painting of John Dalton Source Frontispiece of John Dalton and the Rise of Modern Chemistry by Henry Roscoe Date 1895 Author Henry Roscoe (author), William Henry Worthington (engraver), and Joseph Allen (painter) [t right one finger = ?] PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Dalton_John_desk.jpg ![]() [2] John Dalton John Dalton, 1766-1844, English chemist and Fellow of the Royal Society. [t this pose, hand in coat=?, famous Napoleon pose] PD/COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.english.upenn.edu/Pro jects/knarf/People/dalton.html |
197 YBN [1803 CE] | 2235) Cerium is identified by Berzelius with Hisinger and independently by Klaproth. | Berlin, (was Prussia) Germany (presumably) | ![]() [1] # Title: Martin Heinrich Klaproth # Author:Ambroise Tardieu (engraving) after original portrait by Eberhard-Siegfried Henne # Year: unknown # Source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections /hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm (reworked) Scientist: Klapproth, Martin Heinrich (1743 - 1817) Discipline(s): Chemistry Print Artist: Ambroise Tardieu, 1788-1841 Medium: Engraving Original Artist: Eberhard-Siegfried Henne, 1759-1828 Original Dimensions: Graphic: 7.5 x 10.3 cm / Sheet: 21.2 x 14.3 cm PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Martin_Heinrich_Klaproth.jpg ![]() [2] Scientist: Klapproth, Martin Heinrich (1743 - 1817) Discipline(s): Chemistry Original Artist: Eberhard-Siegfried Henne, 1759-1828 Original Dimensions: Graphic: 10.7 x 9.2 cm / Sheet: 14.9 x 9.2 cm PD source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=K |
196 YBN [01/01/1804 CE] | 1533) Haiti, a nation on the island of Hispaniola, declares its independence from France after the first and only successful slave rebellion. Haiti is the second independent country in the Americas, establishing a free republic. | Haiti | ![]() [1] Unofficially leading the nation politically during the revolution, Toussaint L'Ouverture is considered the father of Haiti. Toussaint Louverture. From a group of engravings done in post-Revolutionary France. (1802) PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Toussaint_L%27Ouverture.jpg ![]() [2] Jean Jacques Dessalines became Haiti's first emperor in 1804. Jean-Jacques Dessalines (1760 - 1806). PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Dessalines.jpg |
196 YBN [1804 CE] | 2362) William Hyde Wollaston (WOLuSTuN) (CE 1766-1828) isolates pure platinum metal. | London, England | ![]() [1] Scientist: Wollaston, William Hyde (1766 - 1878) Discipline(s): Chemistry ; Physics ; Medicine Print Artist: James Thomson, 1789-1850 Medium: Lithograph Original Artist: J. Jackson Original Dimensions: Graphic: 11.5 x 8.7 cm / Sheet: 24.5 x 16 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W ![]() [2] Scientist: Wollaston, William Hyde (1766 - 1828) Discipline(s): Chemistry ; Physics ; Medicine Original Artist: J. Jackson Original Dimensions: Graphic: 13.8 x 11 cm / Sheet: 27.4 x 18.3 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W |
196 YBN [1804 CE] | 2363) William Hyde Wollaston (WOLuSTuN) (CE 1766-1828) isolates palladium. | London, England | ![]() [1] Scientist: Wollaston, William Hyde (1766 - 1878) Discipline(s): Chemistry ; Physics ; Medicine Print Artist: James Thomson, 1789-1850 Medium: Lithograph Original Artist: J. Jackson Original Dimensions: Graphic: 11.5 x 8.7 cm / Sheet: 24.5 x 16 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W ![]() [2] Scientist: Wollaston, William Hyde (1766 - 1828) Discipline(s): Chemistry ; Physics ; Medicine Original Artist: J. Jackson Original Dimensions: Graphic: 13.8 x 11 cm / Sheet: 27.4 x 18.3 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W |
195 YBN [1805 CE] | 2364) William Hyde Wollaston (WOLuSTuN) (CE 1766-1828) isolates rhodium. | London, England | ![]() [1] Rhodium foil and wire. Image taken by User:Dschwen on January 12th 2006. GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Rhodium_foil_and_wire.jpg ![]() [2] Scientist: Wollaston, William Hyde (1766 - 1878) Discipline(s): Chemistry ; Physics ; Medicine Print Artist: James Thomson, 1789-1850 Medium: Lithograph Original Artist: J. Jackson Original Dimensions: Graphic: 11.5 x 8.7 cm / Sheet: 24.5 x 16 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W |
193 YBN [03/29/1807 CE] | 2333) Heinrich Olbers (oLBRS or OLBRZ) (CE 1758-1840), finds the planetoid (asteroid) Vesta. | Bremen, Germany | ![]() [1] Vesta PD source: http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Sect19/ Sect19_2.html ![]() [2] To prepare for the Dawn spacecraft's visit to Vesta, astronomers used Hubble's Wide Field Planetary Camera 2 to snap new images of the asteroid. The image was taken on May 14 and 16, 2007. Using Hubble, astronomers mapped Vesta's southern hemisphere, a region dominated by a giant impact crater formed by a collision billions of years ago. The crater is 285 miles (456 kilometers) across, which is nearly equal to Vesta's 330-mile (530-kilometer) diameter. If Earth had a crater of proportional size, it would fill the Pacific Ocean basin. The impact broke off chunks of rock, producing more than 50 smaller asteroids that astronomers have nicknamed ''vestoids.'' The collision also may have blasted through Vesta's crust. Vesta is about the size of Arizona. Source http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar chive/releases/2007/27/image/a/, http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive /releases/2007/27/image/c/ PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Vesta-HST-Color.jpg |
193 YBN [10/06/1807 CE] | 2476) Humphry Davy (CE 1778-1829), identifies and isolates potassium. | London, England | ![]() [1] Image:Kmetal.jpg Size of this preview: 800 × 600 pixels Full resolution (4,000 × 3,000 pixels, file size: 4.83 MB, MIME type: image/jpeg) [t Does metal oxide? Is volatile in water?] CC source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Kmetal.jpg ![]() [2] Flame test Kalium, violett Source: German Wikipedia, original upload 24. Jan 2005 by Herge (selfmade) PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Flammenf%C3%A4rbungK.png |
193 YBN [10/13/1807 CE] | 2477) Humphry Davy (CE 1778-1829), identifies and isolates sodium. | London, England | ![]() [1] Sodium metal from the Dennis s.k collection. CC source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Nametal.JPG.jpg ![]() [2] The flame test for sodium displays a brilliantly bright yellow emission due to the so called ''sodium D-lines'' at 588.9950 and 589.5924 nanometers. 13. jun 2005 GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Flametest--Na.swn.jpg |
193 YBN [1807 CE] | 2380) Joseph Fourier (FURYAY) (CE 1768-1830) explains "Fourier's theorem" (or the "Fourier transform") that any periodic oscillation can be reduced to a sum of simple trigonometric (sine,cosine, etc) wave motions. | Grenoble, France | ![]() [1] http://br.geocities.com/saladefisica3/fo tos/fourier.jpg PD/CC source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Fourier2.jpg ![]() [2] Scientist: Fourier, Jean Baptiste Joseph (1768 - 1830) Discipline(s): Mathematics ; Physics Print Artist: Julien Leopold Boilly, 1796-1874 Medium: Lithograph Original Dimensions: Graphic: 16.3 x 16.5 cm / Sheet: 30.1 x 19.5 cm PD source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=F |
192 YBN [06/21/1808 CE] | 2465) Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (GAlYUSoK) (CE 1778-1850) and Thénard isolate boron. | Paris, France (presumably) | ![]() [1] English: Boron sample. GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:B%2C5.jpg ![]() [2] Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Gaylussac.jpg |
192 YBN [1808 CE] | 1224) Ludwig van Beethoven (December 16, 1770 - March 26, 1827) completes his fifth symphony at age 38. This is perhaps the most recognized and popular musical work of human history. | Germany | ![]() [1] Ludwig van Beethoven Part of a painting by W.J. Mähler, 1804 Archiv für Kunst und Geschichte, Berlin Source: http://www.audio-muziek.nl/cd-recensies/ cd-aw/beethoven06.htm PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Beethoven_3.jpg |
192 YBN [1808 CE] | 2478) Humphry Davy (CE 1778-1829), identifies, isolates and names barium, strontium, calcium and magnesium. | London, England | ![]() [1] This image was copied from en.wikipedia.org. The original description was: Barium sample.GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Ba%2C56.jpg ![]() [2] This image was copied from en.wikipedia.org. The original description was: Strontium sample. GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Sr%2C38.jpg |
191 YBN [1809 CE] | 2240) Lamarck writes that the most simple forms of life were created from heat, light and electricity acting on inorganic materials and that more complex organisms evolved from simple organisms over a long time. | Paris, France (presumably) | ![]() [1] La bildo estas kopiita de wikipedia:fr. La originala priskribo estas: Deuxième portrait de Lamarck Sujet : Lamarck. Source : Galerie des naturalistes de J. Pizzetta, Ed. Hennuyer, 1893 (tomb� dans le domaine public) GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Jean-baptiste_lamarck2.jpg ![]() [2] An engraving of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck at 35 years of age. Source Alpheus Spring Packard's 1901 Lamarck, the Founder of Evolution: His Life and Work with Translations of His Writings on Organic Evolution, page 20. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Lamarckat35.PNG |
191 YBN [1809 CE] | 2466) Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (GAlYUSoK) (CE 1778-1850) identifies that gases combine in small whole number ratios by volume. Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (GAlYUSoK) (CE 1778-1850) describes the "Law of combining volumes", that gases combine in small whole number ratios by volume as long as temperature and pressure are constant(Gay-Lussac stated that temperature and pressure must be constant?). For example, two parts of hydrogen unite with one part nitrogen to form ammonia. | Paris, France (presumably) | ![]() [1] Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Gaylussac.jpg ![]() [2] Scientist: Gay-Lussac, Joseph Louis (1778 - 1850) Discipline(s): Chemistry ; Physics Original Dimensions: Graphic: 10 x 6.4 cm / Sheet: 25 x 19.3 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=g |
191 YBN [1809 CE] | 2481) Humphry Davy (CE 1778-1829) builds the first electric light and arc lamp. | London, England | ![]() [1] Humphry Davy demonstrates his new electric light for the members of the Royal Institution of London. Power is drawn from the banks of batteries in the basement and rapidly used up by the intense light. Electric light was then only a scientific curiosity, practical only when expense was no object. Humphry Davy Demonstrating the Arc Light, 1809 PD/COPYRIGHTED source: http://people.clarkson.edu/%7Eek atz/scientists/davy.htm ![]() [2] http://www.nndb.com/people/028/000083776 /humphry-davy-2-sized.jpg [left finger 1: ''left'' viewed as educated intellectuals in 1800s England? just coincidence?] PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Sir_Humphry_Davy2.jpg |
190 YBN [10/24/1810 CE] | 656) Secret: Humans hear and record the sounds heard by a brain by measuring electricity from human nerves. Secret: Humans hear the sounds heard by a brain by examining low (heat) frequency light. This begins an amazing adventure of interpretting light emitted from brains, although terribly kept secret from the public. Using this same technique people will then hear the sounds made by thought. Soon after this they will see the images seen and thought by brains. In addition, they learn how to send sounds and images back to the brain (neuron writing) using x-particles (x-rays), sending sounds to be heard in the mind, or as if outside the body and sending images to appear in the mind or in outside space as if actually in front of them, and (better estimate at accurate chronology) The exact date, time, location, invention, and even inventor are not clear because of the secrecy that still surrounds this technology. William Hyde Wollaston (WOLuSTuN) (CE 1766-1828) may be the first to see what the eyes see in the infrared (heat) frequencies of light which pass through and are emited (sic) by the human brain. Many later scientists, such as Faraday will use the word "tenable" and there is a double meaning in that thought is first seen in 1810 but also that Wollaston, the possible first to see, was the assistant of Smithson Tennant. Possibly, people use electronic oscillating circuits to detect heat. In addition, initially, sounds heard by the brain, may have been detected using electromagnetic induction by using the greater aurical nerve of the ear as the primary wire of current, and using a secondary inductor to record the current produced by sound. | London, England | ![]() [1] 1807 engraving of camera lucida in use Obtained from the university website http://www.usc.edu/schools/annenberg/asc /projects/comm544/library/ images/448.jpg, image edited for size and clarity. I emailed the contact at that site and said > http://www.usc.edu/schools/annenberg/asc /projects/comm544/library/ images/448.jpg > is described as an 1807 picture of a camera lucida. Can you confirm > that it isn't under copyright? Is it OK with you if I use it in a > Wikipedia (free Internet encyclopedia) article on the camera lucida? I got this reply Daniel, This work is not copyrighted, so far as I know--and after 196 years, I'm quite certain any original copyright would have long ago expired, don't you think? Your own use is entirely up to you--I wish you every success. -- Jim Beniger PD source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W ![]() [2] Optics of Wollaston camera lucida From W. H. C. Bartlett, Elements of Natural Philosophy, 1852, A. S. Barnes and Company. Photocopy kindly provided by Tom Greenslade, Department of Physics, Kenyon College. This image was scanned from the photocopy and cleaned up by Daniel P. B. Smith. This version is licensed by Daniel P. B. Smith under the terms of the Wikipedia Copyright. PD source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W |
190 YBN [10/24/1810 CE] | 657) Secret: Humans hear and record the sounds of thought by measuring electricity directly from human nerves. Secret: Humans hear and record the sounds of thought by measuring electricity from human nerves. Soon, the sounds brains hear and think will be recorded remotely by electromagnetic induction and amplification. The exact date, time, location, invention, and even inventor are not clear because of the secrecy that still surrounds this technology. | London, England (presumably) | |
190 YBN [1810 CE] | 2480) Humphry Davy (CE 1778-1829), names "chlorine" and identifies chlorine as an element. Davy shows that hydrochloric acid contains no oxygen proving Lavoisier incorrect that all acids contain oxygen. Davy shows that chlorine can also support combustion as oxygen does. (chronology) Davy correctly suggests that the content of hydrogen is characteristic of acids. (verify) | London, England | ![]() [1] http://www.nndb.com/people/028/000083776 /humphry-davy-2-sized.jpg [left finger 1: ''left'' viewed as educated intellectuals in 1800s England? just coincidence?] PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Sir_Humphry_Davy2.jpg ![]() [2] Taken from The Life of Sir Humphry Davy by John A. Paris, London: Colburn and Bentley, 1831. Engraving from about 1830, based on a portrait by Sir Thomas Lawrence (1769 - 1830) PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Humphry_Davy_Engraving_1830.jpg |
189 YBN [1811 CE] | 658) Secret: Images that the brain sees are seen and recorded by measuring the electricity the images produce in the human nerves. (add image) Secret: Images that the brain sees are seen and recorded by measuring the electricity the images produce in the human nerves. Secret: Images that the brain sees are seen and recorded using the electricity they produce in the human nerves. Possibly images of thought are also seen at this time. The exact date, time, location, invention, and even inventor are not clear because of the secrecy that still surrounds this technology. | London, England (presumably) | |
189 YBN [1811 CE] | 2432) Amedeo Avogadro (oVOGoDrO) (CE 1776-1856) creates the concept of a molecule and distinguishes between atoms and molecules. Avogadro claims that equal volumes of all gases at the same temperature and pressure contain the same number of molecules. (Does Avogadro explicitly state that pressure must also be equal?) Avogadro describes the correct molecular formula for water, ammonia, carbon monoxide and other compounds. | Vercelli, Italy | ![]() [1] [t [3 wiki] describes as ''Caricature of Amedeo Avogadro'', is this not an accurate portrait? and no photo by 1856?] Amedeo Avogadro - chemist PD source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik i/Image:Amedeo_Avogadro.gif ![]() [2] Amedeo Avogadro, lithograph, 1856. The Granger Collection, New York PD/COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art -15471/Amedeo-Avogadro-lithograph-1856?a rticleTypeId=1 |
189 YBN [1811 CE] | 2441) Bernard Courtois (KURTWo) (CE 1777-1838), French chemist, identifies and isolates iodine. | Dijon, France | ![]() [1] Pure iodine crystals, heated slightly, showing some solid iodine escaping directly to the air as obvious violet colored vapors. Because of this ''sublimation'' property, exposures include dermal contact with solid crystals and inhalation of vapors which may not be quite as visible as this at room temperature. Photographer, Charles Salocks. PD source: http://www.dtsc.ca.gov/SiteClean up/ERP/Clan_Labs.cfm ![]() [2] Bernard Courtois PD/COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.iodinesource.com/Hist oryOfIodine.asp |
188 YBN [1812 CE] | 4539) Secret: Images that the brain thinks of are seen and recorded by measuring the electricity the thought-images produce in the human nerves. (add image) Secret: Images that the brain thinks of are seen and recorded by measuring the electricity the thought-images produce in the human nerves. Secret: Images that the brain thinks of are seen and recorded by measuring the electricity the thought-images produce in the human nerves. The exact date, time, location, invention, and even inventor are not clear because of the secrecy that still surrounds this technology. | London, England (presumably) | |
188 YBN [1812 CE] | 4540) Secret: Nerve cell made to fire remotely. (neuron writing) (add image) Secret: Nerve cell made to fire remotely (without having to touch the nerve directly). (neuron writing) Perhaps initially a frog leg muscle is made to contract using an x-ray (x-particle) beam. Then a human finger muscle is made to contract by using remote particle beam. Then a sound is made to be heard by a human by remote particle beam. Probably around the same time, light is caused to be seen by a human by remotely using an x-ray or some other particle beam. In 1791 Luigi Galvani had made a nerve cell fire directly by touching the nerve. Being able to remotely make a nerve cell fire allows the very important muscle contraction, and sending sounds and images directly to brains from a remote location without having to physically touch the nerve possible. Images that the brain thinks of are seen and recorded by measuring the electricity the thought-images produce in the human nerves. The exact date, time, location, invention, and even inventor are not clear because of the secrecy that still surrounds this technology. Very quickly after this the first murder of a human by remote muscle contraction using neuron writing as the murder weapon occurs. Since this time, the number of humans murdered by neuron writing must be in the tens or hundreds of thousands, and it would not surprise me to find that over a million humans have been murdered by neuron writing since it's invention. One of the worst aspects of the neuron writer as a weapon is that it may murder leaving little or no trace, for example in the case of contracting and holding a heart or lung muscle until a person is dead. | London, England (presumably) | |
187 YBN [1813 CE] | 2492) Jöns Jakob Berzelius (BRZElEuS) (CE 1779-1848), suggests elements be represented with one or more letter. | Stokholm, Sweden (presumably) | ![]() [1] http://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/i mages/Berzelius3c.jpg PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius.jpg ![]() [2] Scientist: Berzelius, Jons Jakob (1779 - 1848) Discipline(s): Chemistry Print Artist: Charles W. Sharpe, d. 1875(76) Medium: Engraving Original Artist: Johan Olaf Sodermark, 1790-1848 Original Dimensions: Graphic: 26.8 x 18.2 cm / Sheet: 31.6 x 23 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=B |
186 YBN [1814 CE] | 2433) Amedeo Avogadro (oVOGoDrO) (CE 1776-1856) describes the molecular formulas for carbon dioxide, carbon disulfide, sulfur dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide. | Vercelli, Italy | ![]() [1] [t [3 wiki] describes as ''Caricature of Amedeo Avogadro'', is this not an accurate portrait? and no photo by 1856?] Amedeo Avogadro - chemist PD source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik i/Image:Amedeo_Avogadro.gif ![]() [2] Amedeo Avogadro, lithograph, 1856. The Granger Collection, New York PD/COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art -15471/Amedeo-Avogadro-lithograph-1856?a rticleTypeId=1 |
186 YBN [1814 CE] | 2571) Fraunhofer explains that each substance emits specific frequencies of light and invents a spectroscope. Joseph von Fraunhofer (FroUNHoFR or HOFR?) (CE 1787-1826) uses a telescope (in his "theodolite" spectroscope) to map nearly 600 spectral lines. Fraunhofer measures the wavelength of the spectral lines and understands that the spectra of elements are constant no matter what the source. (Fraunhofer never appears to calculate any wavelengths in this 1814 paper. Does he later?) (equates position of spectral line with specific wavelength of light - how is wavelength measured? and how is ratio of line position to wavelength (interval) determined?) Fraunhofer recognizes that the dark lines in the light emitted by stars do not match those dark lines in the light from the Sun. Fraunhofer examines (and maps?) the spectra of light from the Sun, the star Sirius, the planet Venus, candle-light and electric light (from a glass fiber between two electrodes). Fraunhofer finds that the spectra of the light from the planets is basically the same as that from the Sun, but different from the spectra of other stars. (Is Fraunhofer the first to examine the spectrum of other stars?) (Show any images from Fraunhofer of the spectra of other stars if any exist) | Benedictbeuern (near Munich), Germany | ![]() [1] Figures from Frauhofer's 1823 paper PD/Corel source: Fraunhofer_1823.pdf ![]() [2] Fraunhofer's Theodolite spectroscope [t verify that this is in Fraunhofer's 1814 paper] source: http://books.google.com/books?id =mpwRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA13&dq=fraunhofer+1814 &lr=&as_brr=1#PPA14,M1 |
185 YBN [10/??/1815 CE] | 2589) A paper on diffraction interpreted with a (longitudinal) wave theory for light by Augustin Jean Fresnel (FrAneL) (CE 1788-1827) is published by the Academy of Sciences and this is the first public acknowledgment and support of Young's reintroduction of a wave theory for light in France. | Paris, France | ![]() [1] Scientist: Fresnel, Augustin Jean (1788 - 1827) Discipline(s): Physics Print Artist: Ambroise Tardieu, 1788-1841 Medium: Engraving Original Dimensions: Graphic: 10.9 x 7.9 cm / Sheet: 21.5 x 14.7 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=f ![]() [2] Fresnel Lens displayed in the Mus�e national de la marine in Paris, France CeCILL source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:MuseeMarine-phareFresnel-p1000466.jpg |
185 YBN [1815 CE] | 2544) William Prout (CE 1785-1850), proposes that the atomic weights of elements are multiples of the atomic weight of hydrogen. | London, England (presumably) | ![]() [1] William Prout (1785-1850) PD/COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.uam.es/departamentos/ ciencias/qorg/docencia_red/qo/l0/1830.ht ml |
184 YBN [1816 CE] | 2351) The first photograph. Joseph Nicéphore Niepce (nYePS) (CE 1765-1833) creates the first photograph. Joseph Nicéphore Niepce (nYePS) (CE 1765-1833), French inventor, creates the first photograph on paper sensitized with silver chloride which Niepce can only fix partially with nitric acid. | Chalon-sur-Saône, France | ![]() [1] C. Laguiche. Joseph Nicéphore Niépce. ca1795. Ink and watercolor. 18.5 cm in diameter. PD/COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/exhibi tions/permanent/wfp/3.html ![]() [2] English: By Nicéphore Niépce in 1826, entitled ''View from the Window at Le Gras,'' captured on 20 × 25 cm oil-treated bitumen. Due to the 8-hour exposure, the buildings are illuminated by the sun from both right and left. This photo is generally considered the first successful permanent photograph. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:View_from_the_Window_at_Le_Gras%2C_Jo seph_Nic%C3%A9phore_Ni%C3%A9pce.jpg |
183 YBN [1817 CE] | 2408) Thomas Young (CE 1773-1829) proposes that light waves are transverse (oscillate at right angle to direction of travel) waves through an aether medium. | London, England | ![]() [1] Scientist: Young, Thomas (1773 - 1829) Discipline(s): Physics Print Artist: G. Adcock, 19th C. Medium: Engraving Original Artist: Thomas Lawrence, 1769-1830 Original Dimensions: Graphic: 11.1 x 8.7 cm / Sheet: 19.6 x 12.5 cm PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Thomas_Young_%28scientist%29.jpg ![]() [2] Scientist: Young, Thomas (1773 - 1829) Discipline(s): Physics Print Artist: Henry Adlard, 19th C. Medium: Engraving Original Artist: Thomas Lawrence, 1769-1830 Original Dimensions: Graphic: 11.2 x 9 cm / Sheet: 24.8 x 16.6 cm PD source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=Y |
183 YBN [1817 CE] | 2431) Friedrich Strohmeyer (also Stromeyer) (sTrOmIR) (CE 1776-1835) identifies cadmium. | Göttingen, Germany | ![]() [1] Cadmium metal PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:CadmiumMetalUSGOV.jpg ![]() [2] Friedrich Stromeyer PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Friedrich_Strohmeyer.jpg |
183 YBN [1817 CE] | 2493) Jöns Jakob Berzelius (BRZElEuS) (CE 1779-1848), identifies selenium. This leads to the electric camera. | Stokholm, Sweden (presumably) | ![]() [1] Selenium sample. GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Se%2C34.jpg ![]() [2] black, grey and red Selene Source http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:S elen_1.jpg Date 03/2006 Author http://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?t itle=Benutzer:Tomihahndorf&action=edit PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Selen_1.jpg |
183 YBN [1817 CE] | 2600) Theory that chemicals contain light. | Heidelberg, Germany | ![]() [1] Scientist: Gmelin, Leopold (1788 - 1853) Discipline(s): Chemistry Print Artist: George Cook, 1793-1849 Medium: Engraving Original Artist: J. Woelfyle Original Dimensions: Graphic: 15.2 x 12 cm / Sheet: 26.9 x 18.4 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=G |
181 YBN [1819 CE] | 2598) Augustin-Jean Fresnel (FrAneL) (CE 1788-1827) and François Arago (oroGO) (CE 1786-1853) discover that two beams of light, polarized in perpendicular directions, do not interfere with each other (using double-refracting crystal and a metal cylinder to produce interference bands). In other words Arago and Fresnel find no interference bands typical of unpolarized or one-plane polarized light. (I have doubts about this, and a video should be made showing this experiment. For example, the bands which I interpret as being from reflection would be there, theoretically no matter how the beams are polarized. Although I can see that a polarized surface might not reflect light polarized to a different plane, absorbing that light instead since matter would not be aligned to reflect such beams.) | Paris, France | ![]() [1] Scientist: Fresnel, Augustin Jean (1788 - 1827) Discipline(s): Physics Print Artist: Ambroise Tardieu, 1788-1841 Medium: Engraving Original Dimensions: Graphic: 10.9 x 7.9 cm / Sheet: 21.5 x 14.7 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=f ![]() [2] Fresnel Lens displayed in the Musée national de la marine in Paris, France CeCILL source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Musee Marine-phareFresnel-p1000466.jpg |
180 YBN [04/21/1820 CE] | 2454) Electricity understood to cause magnetism. Hans Christian Ørsted (RSTeD) (CE 1777-1851) finds that electricity moves a magnetic compass needle. Hans Christian Ørsted (RSTeD) (CE 1777-1851), Danish physicist, finds that electric current running through a wire causes a magnetic compass needle to move. This establishes a connection between electricity and magnetism. This is the first electromagnet, a magnet created by electric current, although William Sturgeon will produce far stronger electromagnets by shaping wire in a helix around a soft iron cylinder. | Copenhagen, Denmark | ![]() [1] A younger Hans Christian Ørsted, painted in the 19th century. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:%C3%98rsted.jpg ![]() [2] Picture number :317 CD number :9 Picture size :757x859[pixels], 66x75[mm] Date taken :0000-00-00 Date added :2000-04-13 Fotographer/Owner :Engrave d Location :Denmark Description H.C. Oersted (1777-1851). Danish physicist. Here as a youngster. The picture was donated to the Danish Polytech Institute, Copenhagen, by his daughter Miss Mathilde Oersted, April 19, 1905. PD/COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.polytechphotos.dk/ind ex.php?CHGLAN=2&CatID=286 |
180 YBN [09/18/1820 CE] | 2423) André Marie Ampère (oMPAR) (CE 1775-1836) relates direction of current in a wire to magnetic force. | Paris, France | ![]() [1] André-Marie Ampère (1775-1836) PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Ampere1.jpg ![]() [2] Scientist: Ampère, André-Marie (1775 - 1836) Discipline(s): Mathematics ; Chemistry ; Physics Print Artist: L. Deymarie Medium: Engraving Original Dimensions: Graphic: 42.5 x 31.5 cm / PD/COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=A |
180 YBN [09/25/1820 CE] | 2424) André Marie Ampère (oMPAR) (CE 1775-1836) understands that magnetism is caused by an electric current, that magnetism is actually electricity. André Marie Ampère (oMPAR) (CE 1775-1836) observes that two parallel wires attract each other when carrying current in the same direction and repel each other when carrying current in opposite directions. Ampère shows that a wire free to rotate will rotate 180 degrees and stop so that current is aligned between itself and a stationary wire. (chronology) (Are these wires part of the same circuit or different circuits? Same of different battery?) Ampère and Arago understand the principle behind the inductor. Ampère and Arago both recognize that in theory, wire in a spiral (helix, or spring) shape will behave like a bar magnet. (make more exact chronology) André Marie Ampère (oMPAR) (CE 1775-1836) understands that a magnetic field is actually an electric field caused by a current within the metal of the magnet, in other words that all magnetism can be attributed to electric currents. Ampere is the first to differentiate between the rate of the movement of current from the driving force that moves the current (voltage). (ex: what is the current in an electromagnet that equals the theoretical current in a permanent magnet of the same size?) | Paris, France | ![]() [1] [t Figure 1 and 2 from 10/02/1820 paper] PD/Corel source: http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr/i-corp uspic/tab/Oeuvres/annales_chimie_15/077. jpg ![]() [2] André-Marie Ampère (1775-1836) PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Ampere1.jpg |
180 YBN [10/30/1820 CE] | 2418) Jean Baptiste Biot (BYO) (CE 1774-1862), and the physicist Félix Savart find that the intensity of the magnetic field created by a current flowing through a wire is inversely proportional to the distance from the wire. This relationship is now known as the Biot-Savart law. | Paris, France (presumably) | ![]() [1] [t Figure from Biot book] PD/Corel source: Tricker, R. A. R., "Early Electrodynamics - The First Law of Circulation", (Pergamon, NY), 1965, p120. ![]() [2] [t Table from Biot book] PD/Corel source: Tricker, R. A. R., "Early Electrodynamics - The First Law of Circulation", (Pergamon, NY), 1965, p130. |
180 YBN [1820 CE] | 2486) Johann Salomo Christoph Schweigger (sViGGR) (CE 1779-1857), German physicist invents the first galvonometer, finding that a deflecting needle can be used to measure a current and that wrapping a wire several turns around a compass needly increases the effect. | Halle, Germany | ![]() [1] Diagram of Schweigger's multiplier. From Journal für Chemie und Physik 31 (Neue Reihe, Bd. I, 1821), Plate I (after p. 114), Fig. 10. Smithsonian neg. no. 46,825. PD source: http://siarchives.si.edu/history /jhp/joseph21.htm ![]() [2] Multiplier (Multiplicator) In 1820, Schweigger built a rectangular wooden frame on which he wound an insulated wire. This was called the Schweigger multiplier. A magnetic needle was suspended from a thin thread inside the coil. In the absence of electrical current the needle is oriented according to the magnetic meridian. When an electrical current is passed through the coil on the frame, the needle changes direction; the stronger the current, the more marked the deflection. PD?/COPYRIGHTED source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor y/schweigger.html |
180 YBN [1820 CE] | 3374) Gas combustion engine. Hydrogen gas combustion vacuum engine. | (Magdalen College) Cambridge, England | ![]() [1] W. Cecil's hydrogen combustion vacuum engine PD/Corel source: http://www.eng.cam.ac.uk/DesignO ffice/projects/cecil/images/isometricalv iew.jpg ![]() [2] Cecil's figures PD/Corel source: http://books.google.com/books?id =hgYFAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi tions:0iE3HbhCd9wmSagF2t&as_brr=1#PPA230 ,M1 |
179 YBN [06/??/1821 CE] | 2595) (Like Thomas Young), Augustin Jean Fresnel (FrAneL) (CE 1788-1827) describes light as a transverse wave vibration of an aether medium. Although this theory will be proven incorrect by Michelson and Morley in the early 1900s, this belief of light as a transverse wave is still popular today, and therefore stands, like deities, creationism, the big bang, and time-dilation, as being an inaccurate theory that holds popular belief for many years. | Paris, France | ![]() [1] Scientist: Fresnel, Augustin Jean (1788 - 1827) Discipline(s): Physics Print Artist: Ambroise Tardieu, 1788-1841 Medium: Engraving Original Dimensions: Graphic: 10.9 x 7.9 cm / Sheet: 21.5 x 14.7 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=f ![]() [2] Fresnel Lens displayed in the Musée national de la marine in Paris, France CeCILL source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:MuseeMarine-phareFresnel-p1000466.jpg |
179 YBN [07/05/1821 CE] | 2883) Electrical current in air and in gassless space is moved by a magnet. Humphry Davy (CE 1778-1829), finds that electrical current in air and in gassless space (a vacuum) is moved by a magnet. | London, England | ![]() [1] A. The tube, of the usual diameter. B. The wire for communicating electricity. E. A small cylinder of metallic foil, to place as a cap on tubes not having the wire B, to make a coated surface. C. The surface of the quicksilver, or fused tin. D. The part of the tube to be exhausted by the stop-cock F, after being filled by means of the same stop-cock, when necessary, with hydrogene. G. The moveable[err] tube connected with the air-pump. It is evident, that by introducing more mercury, the leg D may be filled with mercury, and the stop-cock closed upon it, so as to leave only a torricellian vacuum in the tube, in which the mercury may be boiled. I have found that the experiment tried in this way, offers no difference of result. PD source: http://journals.royalsociety.org /content/cu3223052t214156/?p=a822388f3bd 34c1f976f9a6152c9ebcbπ=55 Farther Researches on the Magnetic Phaenomena Produced by Electricity; With Some New Experiments on the Properties of Electrified Bodies in Their Relations to Conducting Powers and Temperature Davy_magnetic_full.pdf p74 ![]() [2] http://www.nndb.com/people/028/000083776 /humphry-davy-2-sized.jpg [left finger 1: ''left'' viewed as educated intellectuals in 1800s England? just coincidence?] PD source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Sir_H umphry_Davy2.jpg |
179 YBN [09/07/1821 CE] | 1535) The Republic of Gran Colombia is established, with Simón BolÃvar as the founding President. | ![]() [1] Simón BolÃvar. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar.jpg | |
179 YBN [09/11/1821 CE] | 2701) The electric motor. Michael Faraday (CE 1791-1867) invents the first electric motor. Michael Faraday (CE 1791-1867) invents the first electric motor, which creates sustained mechanical motion from electricity. | (Royal Institution in) London, England | ![]() [1] The first electric motors - Michael Faraday, 1821 From the Quarterly Journal of Science, Vol XII, 1821 PD source: http://www.sparkmuseum.com/MOTOR S.HTM ![]() [2] Description Michael Faraday, oil, by Thomas Phillips Source Thomas Phillips,1842 Date 1842 Author Thomas Phillips[3 wiki] The portrait shown here was painted by Thomas Phillips (1770-1845), oil on canvas, The National Portrait Gallery, London.[7] PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:M_Faraday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg |
179 YBN [1821 CE] | 2434) Amedeo Avogadro (oVOGoDrO) (CE 1776-1856) describes the molecular formulas for alcohol (C2H6O) and for ether (C4H10O). | Turin, Italy (presumably) | ![]() [1] [t [3 wiki] describes as ''Caricature of Amedeo Avogadro'', is this not an accurate portrait? and no photo by 1856?] Amedeo Avogadro - chemist PD source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik i/Image:Amedeo_Avogadro.gif ![]() [2] Amedeo Avogadro, lithograph, 1856. The Granger Collection, New York PD/COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art -15471/Amedeo-Avogadro-lithograph-1856?a rticleTypeId=1 |
177 YBN [06/14/1823 CE] | 3297) Fraunhofer is the first to calculate wavelength (or particle-interval) of light using a diffraction grating using the equation nλ=Dsinθ which equates wave-length of spectral line to spacing between grating grooves and the angle between spectral line and grating. | Benedictbeuern (near Munich), Germany (presumably) | ![]() [1] T is the angle made with the plane of the grating by a colored beam after diffraction. E is grating spacing, v is order of spectrum, w is wavelength Adapter equation 5 from: Kurzer Bericht von den Resultaten neurer Versuche über die Gesetze des Lichtes, und die Theorie derselben, ''Annalen der Physik'', LXXIV, 1823, pp. 337-378. Excerpts in English translation ''SHORT ACCOUNT OF THE RESULTS OF NEW EXPERIMENTS ON THE LAWS OF LIGHT AND THEIR THEORY'' : J. S. Ames (ed.), Prismatic and Diffraction Spectra: Memoirs by Joseph von Fraunhofer, New York 1898, pp. 39-61. http://books.google.com/books?hl =en&id=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Dif fraction+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von +Fraunhofer&printsec=frontcover&source=w eb&ots=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErI WZX5pLtn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&c t=result#PPP11,M1 {Fraunhofer_Joseph_vo n_Prismatic_and_diffraction_spectra_1823 0714.pdf} others: Gilbert's Annalen der Physlk, Band 74, p. 337-378. Edinburgh Journal of Science, VII, VIII, 1827, 1828. PD source: http://books.google.com/books?hl =en&id=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Dif fraction+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von +Fraunhofer&printsec=frontcover&source=w eb&ots=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErI WZX5pLtn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&c t=result#PPP11,M1 ![]() [2] English: Joseph von Fraunhofer was a German physicist. Quelle: Engraving in the Small Portraits collection, History of Science Collections, University of Oklahoma Libraries. http://hsci.cas.ou.edu/exhib its/exhibit.php?exbid=34&exbpg=1 PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Fraunhofer_2.jpg |
177 YBN [1823 CE] | 3383) Samuel Brown builds (the earliest) gas combustion vacuum engine (known to be put to work around a city). The earliest known gas engine to be designed was by John Barber in 1791. In 1820 Farish and Cecil are claimed to have built the earliest known working gas engine. Brown's engines are the first to actually work in London and the neighbourhood. In 1823 Samuel Brown invents an important gas engine. It is an atmospheric engine, with water-jacket to cool the cylinder. A gas jet is kept constantly burning outside the cylinder, and ignites a mixture of inflammable gas and air below the piston. Part of the expanded gases is allowed to escape through valves in the piston; then by cooling with water, a vacuum is effected, and the atmospheric pressure outside drives down the piston. In his patent, No 4874 of 1823, he describes three applications of this principle to different kinds of machinery first to turn a water wheel; second, to raise water; and the third, to drive pistons. This engine is double acting, a piston being attached to each end of the crossbeam or level by a rod and chain. The arrangement somewhat resembles Newcomen's atmospheric engine. 20 engines are patented between 1826 and 1860 when Lenoir's engine is patented. | London, England | ![]() [1] [t Samuel Brown's engine used to raise water] PD/Corel source: http://books.google.com/books?id =8e9MAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22r obert+street%22+patent+engine&source=web &ots=zXhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ 0kuNyVI&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum =1&ct=result#PPA105,M1 |
176 YBN [1824 CE] | 2494) Jöns Jakob Berzelius (BRZElEuS) (CE 1779-1848) isolates silicon. (how?) | Stokholm, Sweden (presumably) | ![]() [1] Close up photo of a piece purified silicon. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:SiliconCroda.jpg ![]() [2] Date: 02.04.1998 Title: SILICON WAFER WITH MIRROR FINISH Description: SILICON WAFER WITH MIRROR FINISH ID: C-1998-00319 Credit: NASA Glenn Research Center (NASA-GRC) PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:1998_00319L.jpg |
175 YBN [1825 CE] | 2526) William Sturgeon (CE 1783-1850) builds the first practical electromagnet (also known as an inductor). Soft iron is iron that when exposed to a magnetic field become a magnet but loses this magnetism when the magnetic field is removed. Hard iron is iron that when exposed to a magnetic field becomes a magnet, but remains a magnet when the magnetic field is removed (State chemical and/or molecular difference between soft and hard iron). Only certain metals can be magnets and are called "ferromagnetic". Besides iron are nickel, cobalt, and alnico, an aluminum-nickel-cobalt alloy (list all others, so iron is not the only element that can produce and retain a magnetic field. Presumably any metal and electrical conductor that can carry current can produce an electric (and magnetic) field.). At first a piece of lodestone was used as a compass needle, then hard iron was used.(state when and add record) | Surrey, England (presumably) | ![]() [1] Sturgeon's electro- magnet of 1824 PD/COPYRIGHTED source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor y/sturgeon.html ![]() [2] [t presumably the 1825 electromagnet] PD/COPYRIGHTED source: same |
174 YBN [03/??/1826 CE] | 3454) Talbot understands that the spectrum of a flame can be used to detect the presence of chemical compounds. William Henry Fox Talbot (CE 1800-1877), English inventor, understands that the spectrum of a flame can be used to detect the presence of chemical compounds. | London, England | ![]() [1] The AMICO Library™ from RLG - William Henry Fox Talbot. Leaves of Orchidea (negative). 1839. J. Paul Getty Museum. [JPGM86.XM.621] PD/Corel source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:William_Fox_Talbot.jpg ![]() [2] William Henry Fox Talbot Photogenic drawing. C. 1835 PD/Corel source: http://www.edinphoto.org.uk/pp_n /pp_szabo.htm |
174 YBN [07/05/1826 CE] | 3440) Electrical oscillation (the basis of alternating current and photon or wireless communication). | (Bureau des Longitudes) Paris, France (presumably) | |
174 YBN [1826 CE] | 2355) Joseph Niepce (nYePS) (CE 1765-1833) creates the first permanent photo. | Chalon-sur-Saône, France | ![]() [1] English: By Nicéphore Niépce in 1826, entitled ''View from the Window at Le Gras,'' captured on 20 × 25 cm oil-treated bitumen. Due to the 8-hour exposure, the buildings are illuminated by the sun from both right and left. This photo is generally considered the first successful permanent photograph. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:View_from_the_Window_at_Le_Gras%2C_Jo seph_Nic%C3%A9phore_Ni%C3%A9pce.jpg ![]() [2] Joseph-Nicéphore Niépce. © Bettmann/Corbis PD/COPYRIGHTED source: http://concise.britannica.com/eb c/art-59378/Joseph-Nicephore-Niepce |
174 YBN [1826 CE] | 2915) The element Bromine is discovered. | (Montpellier École de Pharmacie) Montpellier, France | ![]() [1] This image was copied from en.wikipedia.org. The original description was: Bromine sample (liquid). Photo by RTC. GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Br%2C35.jpg ![]() [2] Description Foto des Chemikers de:Antoine-Jérôme Balard (1802-1876) Source http://www.nndb.com/people/586/000114 244/balard-1.jpg PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Antoine-Jerome_Balard.jpg |
174 YBN [1826 CE] | 3384) Gas combustion engine car. Samuel Brown builds (the earliest) gas combustion vacuum engine powered car and boat. | London, England | ![]() [1] [t Samuel Brown's engine used to raise water] PD/Corel source: http://books.google.com/books?id =8e9MAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22r obert+street%22+patent+engine&source=web &ots=zXhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ 0kuNyVI&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum =1&ct=result#PPA105,M1 |
173 YBN [05/01/1827 CE] | 2606) Georg Simon Ohm (OM) (CE 1789-1854) defines the concept of electrical resistance and describes "Ohm's law", I=V/R (or V=IR), where current (I, in Amps) equals voltage (electric potential, or electromotive force) divided by resistance (R in Ohms). | Berlin, Germany (written in Cologne?) | ![]() [1] [t Figures from 1827 work of Ohm] PD source: Ohm_Georg_1827.pdf ![]() [2] Georg Simon Ohm PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Ohm3.gif |
173 YBN [1827 CE] | 2415) Robert Brown (CE 1773-1858) identifies the motion of fine powder in water. This is now called "Brownian motion", and is evidence of atoms. | London, England (presumably) | ![]() [1] Robert Brown, a Scotish botanist. Source: Robert Brown (15:41, 5 August 2005 . . Neon (Talk source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Brown.robert.jpg ![]() [2] contribs) . . 300x357 (15,406 bytes) (Robert Brown's Picture, who invented brownian motion ) PD/GNU source: http://www.abdn.ac.uk/mediarelea ses/release.php?id=341 |
173 YBN [1827 CE] | 3591) Electronic dot printer. | New York City NY (presumably) | |
172 YBN [02/??/1828 CE] | 2857) First organic molecule (urea) produced from inorganic sources. Friedrich Wöhler (VOElR) (CE 1800-1882), German chemist, is the first to produce an "organic" (or biotic) compound {molecule} from an "inorganic" (or abiotic) compound, the compound "urea", which forms crystals when ammonium cyanate is heated. Wöhler finds that urea has the same composition as ammonium cyanate, and Berzelius will call these "isomers". (Isomers must be molecules made of the same ratio of atoms but in different structure. What explains isomerism?) | (Berlin Gewerbeschule (trade school)) Berlin, Germany | ![]() [1] * Title: Friedrich Wöhler * Year: unknown * Source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections /hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm * Licence: Public Domain PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Friedrich_W%C3%B6hler_Stich.jpg ![]() [2] Friedrich Wöhler, German chemist Source: http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/ PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Friedrich_woehler.jpg |
171 YBN [03/27/1829 CE] | 2844) Electricity produced from a magnet. A human produces electric current with a permanent magnet. Phenomenon of Dynamic electrical induction observed. Francesco Zantedeschi (CE 1797-1873) produces electric current with a permanent magnet. Zantedeschi explicitly makes the analogy between a North magnetic Pole and the zinc pole of a voltaic battery. | Pavia, Italy | ![]() [1] Francesco Zantedeschi PD/Corel source: http://www.liceofoscarini.it/sto ria/bio/zantedeschi.html ![]() [2] Image of Francesco Zantedeschi 1797 to 1873 to illustrate that article. Uploaded from http://www.jergym.hiedu.cz/~canovm/objev ite/objev4/zan.htm and http://www.jergym.hiedu.cz/~canovm/objev ite/objev4/zan2.htm (English translation) This portrait of Francesco Zantedeschi was published by Stefano de Stefani, president of the Academy of Agriculture, Arts and Commerce of Verona, on March 21, 1875 to accompany his eulogy to Zantedeschi on the occasion of the transport of his ashes to the cemetery at Verona. Black and white version PD source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Franc esco_Zantedeschi_bw.jpg |
171 YBN [1829 CE] | 2495) Jöns Jakob Berzelius (BRZElEuS) (CE 1779-1848) identifies thorium. (how?) | Stokholm, Sweden (presumably) | ![]() [1] Thorium metal foil (approximately 0.5 mm thick) sealed in a glass ampoule under an argon atmosphere to prevent oxidation. Sample is from the personal collection of Justin Urgitis. CC source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Thorium.jpg ![]() [2] http://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/i mages/Berzelius3c.jpg PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius.jpg |
170 YBN [1830 CE] | 4699) Secret: Electric motor millimeter in size. First hovering and flying electric motor device. | London, England (guess) | |
169 YBN [02/17/1831 CE] | 2702) The transformer. Michael Faraday (CE 1791-1867) produces electrical current from an electromagnet, inventing the first transformer. After Oersted's 1820 demonstration of producing magnetic force from an electric current, many people try to reverse the phenomenon by producing an electric current from a magnetic force. In 1829 Francesco Zantedeschi (CE 1797-1873) publishes the first account of a permanent magnet producing a current. Michael Faraday (CE 1791-1867) also produces a current from the movement of a permanent magnet, in addition to producing an electric current from the magnetic field of an electromagnet. Faraday also is the first to publish the use of a secondary coil in which to induce a current. Faraday winds a thick iron ring on one side with insulated wire that is connected to a battery. This circuit can be opened or closed by a key (which is a switch). (This is (presumably) a short circuit, with only the resistance from the wire slowing the current.) If Faraday closes the circuit a magnetic field is created in the coil as Amp�re had shown. Sturgeon (had theorized) that this magnetic field will be focused (or centered?) in the iron ring. If a second coil is then wrapped around the opposite side of the iron ring and connected to a galvanometer (which measures current), the magnetic field created in the iron ring by the first coil might create (by reverse action) a current in the second coil, and the galvanometer would indicate that current. ({see image} So the circular bar of iron has a separate insulated wire wrapped on each side, with one coiled wire attached to a battery and switch while the other coiled wire is attached to a galvanometer.) Faraday closes the primary circuit and, to his delight see the galvanometer needle (briefly move). A current was induced in the secondary coiled wire by a current in the primary coil. The experiment works and this is the first transformer, but it doesn't work in the way that Faraday expects it to. There is no steady flow of electricity in the second coil to match the steady magnetic force created in the iron ring (or the steady current in the first coil). Instead there is a momentary flash of current in the galvanometer when Faraday closes the circuit and another when Faraday opens (or breaks) the circuit. When Faraday opens the circuit, he is surprised to see the galvanometer (needle again move briefly but this time) in the opposite direction. Ten years before Amp�re observed the same fact but it didn't fit with his theories and he dismissed it. Somehow, turning off the current also created an induced current in the secondary circuit, equal and opposite to the original (pulse of) current. (Perhaps a very fast pulsed current is one way of getting a relatively constant current.)(yes, I think this creates an alternating current in the secondary coil and is the basis of modern AC generators if I am not mistaken.) (EX: Does fast switching on and off of current cause a constant current? Is there some switching speed for which there is a maximum current (for example 1 THz, or 1GHz etc)?) This phenomenon (of a flash of current in the second coiled wire in opposite directions when an electric current in the first wire is turned on and off) leads Faraday to propose what he called the "electrotonic" state of particles in the wire, which he considered a state of tension. According to Faraday, a current appears to be the creation of such a state of tension or the collapse of such a state. Although he could not find experimental evidence for the electrotonic state, Faraday never entirely abandoned the concept, and it shapes most of Faraday's later work. Faraday draws "lines of force" from observing the regular patterns metal fillings form on paper above various magnets when the paper is tapped (as Peter Peregrinus has 600 years before). With these lines it is possible to visualize the magnet field around a bar magnet, horseshoe magnet, or even a sphere like the earth. This is the beginning of the view of the universe as consisting of fields of various types, as opposed to the purely mechanical picture of Galileo and Newton. (Basically gravity and electricity, but somehow people expand this into a more complex picture, and the fields are mechanical too. One big mystery is what particles if any are in an electric field? Are these photons, electrons or are there no particles at all but just some effect?) Maxwell and Einstein will make use of the "field universe". When a circuit is closed magnetic lines of force spring outward into space, and when the circuit is broken they collapse inward again. (EX: Do they in fact collapse inward? Perhaps that can be measured, it must happen quickly, and then EX: How quickly can a magnetic field be created and destroyed?) Faraday decides that an electric current is induced in a wire only when lines of force cut across it. In his transformer when the current starts in the first coil of wire, the expanding lines of force cut across the wire of the second coil and account for the short burst of current. Once the original current is established, the lines of force no longer move and there is no current in the second coil. When the circuit is broken the collapsing lines of force cut across the second coil in the opposite direction and a burst of current results again but in the opposite direction of the first. (so actually the current in coil2 of a high frequency current in coil1 would go back and forth at the same frequency while the current in coil1 only goes in one direction.) Faraday demonstrates his theory of lines of force creating current by inserting a (bar) magnet into a coil of wire attached to a galvanometer. While the magnet is being inserted or removed, current flows through the wire. If the magnet is held stationary and the coil moved over it one way or the other there is a current in the wire. (I want to repeat this simple experiment myself. And here the magnetic lines of force are moving up and down, not out and in, and so this is different from the idea of the electromagnet where presumably the lines of force are moving in to out, perhaps in all 3 dimensions this effect happens.) In either case the magnetic lines of force of the magnet are cut by the wire. There is no current if the magnet and coil are not moving. Therefore Faraday recognizes the principle of electrical induction, a principle Joseph Henry, a physicist in the USA recognizes around the same time. (this is how a magnetic field can make a current in a coil, does it work only if the magnet is in the center of the coil or can the magnet be next to the coil?) (Perhaps a very fast pulsed current is one way of getting a relatively constant current. Although do the currents neutralize each other because they must travel back and forth? Perhaps by switching fast enough one direction would prevail? Clearly this is the principle of alternating current, and that can move in one direction.) (EX: Can a wire induce a current in a second wire that is parallel and very close to but not touching the first wire? Theoretically when the two wires touch the current is shared and divided equally between them.) | (Royal Institution in) London, England | ![]() [1] Description Michael Faraday, oil, by Thomas Phillips Source Thomas Phillips,1842 Date 1842 Author Thomas Phillips[3 wiki] The portrait shown here was painted by Thomas Phillips (1770-1845), oil on canvas, The National Portrait Gallery, London.[7] PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:M_Faraday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg ![]() [2] Michael Faraday - Project Gutenberg eText 13103 From The Project Gutenberg eBook, Great Britain and Her Queen, by Anne E. Keeling http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/ 13103 PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Michael_Faraday_-_Project_Gutenberg_e Text_13103.jpg |
169 YBN [09/??/1831 CE] | 2705) The electric generator. Michael Faraday (CE 1791-1867) invents the electric generator by using mechanical movement to produce a constant electric current. In September of 1831 Faraday invents the first electrical generator. Faraday wants to generate continuous electricity and not just in short spurts and he accomplishes this by adapting the reverse of an experiment first described by Arago. Arago had shown that a rotating copper wheel can deflect a magnet suspended over it. Faraday understands that the wheel is cutting through the magnetic lines of force so that electric currents are being created in it, these in turn create a magnetic field that deflects the magnet. Where Arago had used an electric current to create a magnetic field, Faraday uses a magnetic field to create an electric current, by turning a copper wheel so that its edge passes between the poles of a permanent magnet. An electric current is created in the copper disc and it continues to flow as long as the wheel continues to turn. That current can be led off and put to work, and Faraday had therefore has invented the first electrical generator. (Interesting how by cutting the magnetic lines, Faraday creates a constant current, how does voltage relate? Where is the voltage being created? Interesting that the metal needs to move in between the two poles of a magnet, why not simply next to a magnet? That probably works too, anywhere in the magnetic field.) Asimov argues that Faraday's invention of the first electrical generator is probably the greatest single electrical discovery in history. (This invention enables coal to be transformed into electricity, large electrical generators that burn coal will allow many people to have electricity in their houses, and electricity will eventually cover and light the planet Earth.) A steam engine or water power can be used to turn the copper disc and the heat of burning fuel or force of falling water can be converted into electricity. Until Faraday the only source of electricity was the chemical battery, which is expensive and small scale. Now there is for the first time the possibility of a large and cheap supply of electric current. This is the first dynamo and is also the direct ancestor of electric motors, because reversing the flow of electricity, to feed an electric current to the disk, causes the disk to rotate. | (Royal Institution in) London, England | ![]() [1] Description Michael Faraday, oil, by Thomas Phillips Source Thomas Phillips,1842 Date 1842 Author Thomas Phillips[3 wiki] The portrait shown here was painted by Thomas Phillips (1770-1845), oil on canvas, The National Portrait Gallery, London.[7] PD source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:M_Far aday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg ![]() [2] Michael Faraday - Project Gutenberg eText 13103 From The Project Gutenberg eBook, Great Britain and Her Queen, by Anne E. Keeling http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/ 13103 PD source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Micha el_Faraday_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_131 03.jpg |
169 YBN [1831 CE] | 2414) Robert Brown (CE 1773-1858) names the cell "nucleus". | London, England (presumably) | ![]() [1] Robert Brown, a Scotish botanist. Source: Robert Brown (15:41, 5 August 2005 . . Neon (Talk source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Brown.robert.jpg ![]() [2] contribs) . . 300x357 (15,406 bytes) (Robert Brown's Picture, who invented brownian motion ) PD/GNU source: http://www.abdn.ac.uk/mediarelea ses/release.php?id=341 |
168 YBN [01/03/1832 CE] | 2808) Joseph Henry (CE 1797-1878), US physicist, identifies self induction, and that a changing magnetic field also causes induced current to flow. | Albany, NY, USA | ![]() [1] In 1846, the Smithsonian Board of Regents chose Joseph Henry as the Institution's first secretary. PD/Corel source: http://www.150.si.edu/chap2/2man .htm ![]() [2] Description Portrait of Joseph Henry Source http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/bigs/per s0124.jpg Date 1879 Author Henry Ulke (1821-1910) Permission (Reusing this image) Public domain. PD source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Jospe h_Henry_%281879%29.jpg |
168 YBN [1832 CE] | 2514) Plastic. Henri Braconnot (BroKunO) (CE 1781-1855), prepares "xyloidine" (what Schonbein will name cellulose nitrate also know as nitrocellulose) the first polymer or plastic. | Nancy, France | ![]() [1] Henri Braconnot French chemist and pharmacist This image is from http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/braco nnot.htm (copyright free). Permission to copy content here was kindly granted by the author, Claude Leray. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Henri_Braconnot.jpg |
168 YBN [1832 CE] | 2704) Faraday's (CE 1791-1867) laws of electrolysis. | (Royal Institution in) London, England | ![]() [1] Description Michael Faraday, oil, by Thomas Phillips Source Thomas Phillips,1842 Date 1842 Author Thomas Phillips[3 wiki] The portrait shown here was painted by Thomas Phillips (1770-1845), oil on canvas, The National Portrait Gallery, London.[7] PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:M_Faraday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg ![]() [2] Michael Faraday - Project Gutenberg eText 13103 From The Project Gutenberg eBook, Great Britain and Her Queen, by Anne E. Keeling http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/ 13103 PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Michael_Faraday_-_Project_Gutenberg_e Text_13103.jpg |
166 YBN [01/01/1834 CE] | 1247) The reaper is invented in the USA by Robert Hall McCormick (1780-1846). The reaper is a horse drawn device to cut small grain crops, replacing the manual cutting of the crop with scythes and sickles. | Rockbridge County, Virginia, USA | ![]() [1] New Reaper, Getreidemäher New Reaper, Stein der Weisen 1889 PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Agriculture_2.jpg ![]() [2] Robert Hall McCormick. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Robertmccormick.gif |
166 YBN [1834 CE] | 2853) Jean Baptiste André Dumas (DYUmo) (CE 1800-1884), French chemist introduces the substitution theory (or "Law of Substitution") which states that hydrogen atoms (electropositive) can be substituted by chlorine or oxygen atoms (electronegative) in certain organic reactions without any drastic alteration in the structure. (Is this theory still supported? It seems unusual that a negatively charged atom would replace a positively charged atom.) | (Ecole Polytechnique) Paris, France (presumably) | ![]() [1] French chemist Jean Baptiste André Dumas (1800-1884) from English wikipedia original text: - Magnus Manske (164993 bytes) from http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-identi ty/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=d PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Jean_Baptiste_Andr%C3%A9_Dumas.jpg ![]() [2] Scientist: Dumas, Jean-Baptiste (1800 - 1884) Discipline(s): Chemistry Print Artist: Samuel Freeman, 1773-1857 Medium: Engraving Original Artist: Emililen Desmaisons, 1812-1880 Original Dimensions: Graphic: 14.7 x 12.3 cm / Sheet: 27.8 x 19.2 cm PD/Corel source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz e/SIL14-D5-08a.jpg |
166 YBN [1834 CE] | 2899) Measurement of velocity of electricity in wire. Measurement of velocity of electricity in wire using a rotating mirror. | (King's College) London, England | ![]() [1] Figure from [7 591] PD source: An Account of Some Experiments to Measure the Velocity of Electricity and the Duration of Electric Light Journal Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 124 - 1834 Author Charles Wheatstone DOI 10.1098/rstl.1834.0031 Wheatstone_velocity.pdf 591 ![]() [2] Figure from [7 592] PD source: An Account of Some Experiments to Measure the Velocity of Electricity and the Duration of Electric Light Journal Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 124 - 1834 Author Charles Wheatstone DOI 10.1098/rstl.1834.0031 Wheatstone_velocity.pdf 592 |
165 YBN [02/06/1835 CE] | 2810) Joseph Henry (CE 1797-1878), US physicist, invents the electrical relay which allows a telegraph current to be carried over long distances. | Princeton, NJ, USA | ![]() [1] In 1846, the Smithsonian Board of Regents chose Joseph Henry as the Institution's first secretary. PD/Corel source: http://www.150.si.edu/chap2/2man .htm ![]() [2] Description Portrait of Joseph Henry Source http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/bigs/per s0124.jpg Date 1879 Author Henry Ulke (1821-1910) Permission (Reusing this image) Public domain. PD source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Jospe h_Henry_%281879%29.jpg |
164 YBN [1836 CE] | 2813) Nicholas Joseph Callan (CE 1799-1864) builds an induction coil. | Maynooth, Ireland | ![]() [1] Nicholas Joseph Callan, Professor of Natural Philosophy PD/Corel source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat z/scientists/callan.html ![]() [2] The ''Great Coil'' of Nicholas Callan, 1837 COPYRIGHTED source: same |
164 YBN [1836 CE] | 3070) Theodor Schwann (sVoN) (CE 1810-1882), German physiologist, isolates and names pepsin, a substance responsible for digestion in the stomach. This is the first enzyme prepared from animal tissue. | (University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany | ![]() [1] Theodor Schwann Library of Congress PD source: http://content.answers.com/main/ content/img/scitech/HStheodo.jpg ![]() [2] Autore: Pasquale Baroni Fonte: foto Gonella Copyright © Museo di Anatomia Umana ''Luigi Rolando'', Torino olio su tela PD? COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.torinoscienza.it/img/ orig/it/s00/00/0011/000011a0.jpg |
164 YBN [1836 CE] | 3071) Theodor Schwann (sVoN) (CE 1810-1882), German physiologist, observes the formation of yeast spores and recognizes that fermentation of sugar and starch is the result of a living organism. | (University of Louvain) Louvain, Belgium (verify) | ![]() [1] Theodor Schwann Library of Congress PD source: http://content.answers.com/main/ content/img/scitech/HStheodo.jpg ![]() [2] Autore: Pasquale Baroni Fonte: foto Gonella Copyright © Museo di Anatomia Umana ''Luigi Rolando'', Torino olio su tela PD? COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.torinoscienza.it/img/ orig/it/s00/00/0011/000011a0.jpg |
162 YBN [1838 CE] | 2540) Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel (CE 1784-1846), measures the parallax of a different star. Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel (CE 1784-1846), is the first to measure the parallax of a different star (and therefore the distance to a star). Bessel measures the parallax of the star 61 Cygni, a star barely visible to the naked eye and known to have a very large proper motion and therefore presumed to be very close compared to other stars. Parallax is the apparent difference in location of an object as seen from two different points (compared to a more distant object). Bessel measures a tiny parallax by comparing the position of 61 Cygni, to two other more distant stars (state star names). Bessel shows that, after correcting for the proper motion, the star appears to move in an ellipse every year. This back and forth motion, is caused by the motion of the Earth around the Sun. Using this parallax, Bessel estimates that 61 Cygni is 35e12 miles away (km) (actual units measured?). The velocity of light is 186,282 miles/second , so this star is around 6 light years away. The size of the universe is therefore enlarged in the minds of people. Kepler had thought the entire sphere of stars to be .1 light year away, Newton had increased this to 2 light-years. This is the final confirmation of the moving earth first postulated by Aristarchos, and shows that the earth does move relative to the other stars, although they are so far away that their apparent change in position is very small. | Königsberg, (Prussia now:) Germany | ![]() [1] Example of lunar parallax: Occultation of Pleiades by the Moon Example of lunar parallax from 4 points on earth This is a simulated image, combining of 4 views of the sky and the moon's location relative to the background stars at a single point in time. The bright stars visible are the star cluster Pleiades. The date March 22, 1988 was chosen because the moon occulted stars within the pleides as visible from North America. NOTE: This diagram is geometrically accurate, although not physically possible to see since the moon was not actually above the horizon in half the views. Specifically you can never see the Pleiades from the south pole! They were just picked as extreme views from the earth, the limit of what might be seen from a set of four locations in a square on a great circle and a moon just above the horizon in all four locations. Credit: Tom Ruen, Full Sky Observatory * This image was generated by my own solar system viewing software. * Source bitmap for projection from Nasa's Clementine Spacecraft: o USGS: Global simple cylindrical projection at 10 km/pixel. (http://astrogeology.usgs.gov/Projects/C lementine/images/albedo.simp750.jpeg) P D source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Lunarparallax_22_3_1988.png ![]() [2] Stellar parallax motion PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Stellarparallax2.svg |
162 YBN [1838 CE] | 2934) Cell theory. Matthias Jakob Schleiden (slIDeN) (CE 1804-1881) creates cell theory. | (University of Jena) Jena, Germany | ![]() [1] Matthias Jakob Schleiden Library of Congress PD source: http://www.answers.com/Matthias+ Jakob+Schleiden+?cat=technology ![]() [2] 01 Jan 1870 Matthias Schleiden (Photo by Kean Collection/Getty Images ) [t again large side burns looks to be mid to late 1800s] PD source: http://www.viewimages.com/Search .aspx?mid=50898741&epmid=1&partner=Googl e |
161 YBN [01/09/1839 CE] | 2617) Louis Jacques Mandé Daguerre (DoGAR) (CE 1789-1851), reduces the time to make a photograph from 8 hours to 30 minutes. Louis Jacques Mandé Daguerre (DoGAR) (CE 1789-1851), French artist and inventor, makes public his daguerreotype process, a process that reduces the time to make a photograph from 8 hours to 30 minutes. | Paris, France | ![]() [1] Description English: Daguerreotype of Louis Daguerre in 1844 by Jean-Baptiste Sabatier-Blot (died 1881) Source Originally from en.wikipedia; description page is/was here. Date 2007-01-23 (first version); 2007-01-23 (last version) Author Jean-Baptiste Sabatier-Blot Original uploader was Aepryus at en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this image) This image is in the public domain due to its age. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Louis_Daguerre_2.jpg ![]() [2] Louis-Jacques-Mandé Daguerre (18 November 1787 - 10 July 1851) Source from English Wiki Date November 1787 July 1851 PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Louis_Daguerre.jpg |
161 YBN [07/29/1839 CE] | 3308) Photovoltaic cell. | (University of Paris) Paris, France | ![]() [1] Scientist: Becquerel, Alexandre Edmond (1820 - 1891) Discipline(s): Physics Print Artist: Charles Jeremie Fuhr, b.1832 Medium: Lithograph Original Artist: Pierre Petit, 1832-1885 Original Dimensions: Graphic: 25.5 x 19 cm / Sheet: 30.6 x 20.1 cm PD/Corel source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz e/SIL14-B2-07a.jpg ![]() [2] Diagram of apparatus described by Becquerel (1839) COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.udel.edu/igert/pvcdro m/MANUFACT/Images/BECQ.GIF |
161 YBN [1839 CE] | 2800) Carl Gustav Mosander (mOSoUNDR) (CE 1797-1858), Swedish chemist, discovers the element Lanthanum. | (Caroline Medical Institute) Stockholm, Sweden | ![]() [1] The Lanthanum metal GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Lanthanum.jpg ![]() [2] Carl Gustav Mosander (1797-1858), PD/Corel source: http://www.vanderkrogt.net/eleme nts/elem/la.html |
161 YBN [1839 CE] | 3072) Cell theory extended to all animals and plants. Theodor Schwann (sVoN) (CE 1810-1882) extends the cells theory to all animals and plants. Schwann describes embryonic development as a succession of cell divisions. Schwann understands cellular differentiation (the series of events involved in the development of a specialized cell having specific structural, functional, and biochemical properties). | (University of Louvain) Louvain, Belgium | ![]() [1] Theodor Schwann Library of Congress PD source: http://content.answers.com/main/ content/img/scitech/HStheodo.jpg ![]() [2] Autore: Pasquale Baroni Fonte: foto Gonella Copyright © Museo di Anatomia Umana ''Luigi Rolando'', Torino olio su tela PD? COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.torinoscienza.it/img/ orig/it/s00/00/0011/000011a0.jpg |
157 YBN [1843 CE] | 2801) Carl Gustav Mosander (mOSoUNDR) (CE 1797-1858), Swedish chemist, identifies the elements erbium, and terbium. | (Caroline Medical Institute) Stockholm, Sweden | ![]() [1] Carl Gustav Mosander (1797-1858), PD/Corel source: http://www.vanderkrogt.net/eleme nts/elem/la.html ![]() [2] Element: Yttrium Atomic Weight of Yttrium: 88.9059 Electron Configuration of Yttrium: [Kr]5s14d1 Atomic Radius of Yttrium: 181 pm Melting Point of Yttrium: 1522 ºC Boiling Point of Yttrium: 3345 ºC Oxidation States of Yttrium: 3 A. L. Allred Electronegativity of Yttrium: 1.22 COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.chemicalforums.com/in dex.php?page=periodictable#Y |
156 YBN [1844 CE] | 2795) Carl Ernst Claus (KloWZ) (also Karl Karlovich Klaus) (CE 1796-1864) isolates and names "ruthenium". | St. Petersberg, Russia | ![]() [1] English: Ruthenium sample. This image was copied from en.wikipedia.org. The original description was: Ruthenium sample. Photo by RTC. GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Ru%2C44.jpg ![]() [2] Name, Symbol, Number Ruthenium, Ru, 44 Chemical series transition metals GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Ru-TableImage.png |
155 YBN [04/??/1845 CE] | 2839) Humans recognize spiral galaxies. A human sees the spiral shape of spiral galaxies. William Parsons, (Third Earl of Rosse) (CE 1800-1867), Irish astronomer recognizes the spiral shape of spiral galaxies (thought at the time to be nebulae). Parsons completes a 72 inch reflector telescope. | (Birr Castle) Parsonstown, Ireland | ![]() [1] Abb. 2 - Lord Rosse's drwaing of M 51 showing its spiral structure. [t Notice that Parsons numbers stars which appear to be part of the galaxy] PD/Corel source: http://www.klima-luft.de/steinic ke/Artikel/birr/birr_e.htm ![]() [2] en: This is the sketch made by Lord Rosse of the Whirlpool Galaxy in 1845. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:M51Sketch.jpg |
155 YBN [1845 CE] | 2828) Smokeless gunpowder. | (University of Basel) Basel, Switzerland | ![]() [1] 19th century photograph. public domain. PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Sch%C3%B6nbein.jpg ![]() [2] Scientist: Schönbein, Christian (1799 - 1868) Discipline(s): Chemistry Original Dimensions: Graphic: 8.3 x 7 cm PD source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=s |
155 YBN [1845 CE] | 3227) Kolbe (KOLBu) synthesizes acetic acid (an organic molecule) from inorganic molecules. | (University of Marburg) Marburg, Germany | ![]() [1] Description Adolph Wilhelm Hermann Kolbe (1818-1884) Source unknown Date 19th century PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/b/b1/Adolph_Kolbe.jpg ![]() [2] Hermann Kolbe. Historia-Photo PD/Corel source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id= 10412&rendTypeId=4 |
154 YBN [09/23/1846 CE] | 3073) Planet Neptune is observed. Planet Neptune is observed. German astronomer Johann Gottfried Galle (GoLu) (CE 1812-1910) finds the planet Neptune after only only an hour of searching, using the predicted location given to Galle by Le Verrier. Galle finds Neptune within 1 degree of the position calculated by Le Verrier. | Berlin, Germany (and Paris, France) | ![]() [1] Scientist: Le Verrier, Urbain Jean Joseph (1811 - 1877) Discipline(s): Astronomy Print Artist: Auguste Bry, 19th C. Medium: Lithograph Original Dimensions: Graphic: 12.5 x 10 cm / Sheet: 26.1 x 17 cm PD/Corel source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/8/89/Urbain_Le_Verrier.jpg ![]() [2] Scientist: Le Verrier, Urbain Jean Joseph (1811 - 1877) Discipline(s): Astronomy Print Artist: E. Buechner Medium: Engraving Original Dimensions: Graphic: 14.5 x 13 cm / Sheet: 19.5 x 14.2 cm PD/Corel source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz e/SIL14-L003-01a.jpg |
154 YBN [10/10/1846 CE] | 2824) William Lassell (CE 1799-1880), English astronomer, is the first to see Triton, the largest satellite of Neptune. | (Starfield Observatory) Liverpool, England | ![]() [1] Picture of Triton made by Voyager 2 in 1989. [t Find original drawing from Lassell] PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Triton_%28moon%29.jpg ![]() [2] William Lassell PD/Corel source: http://www.klima-luft.de/steinic ke/ngcic/persons/lassell.htm |
154 YBN [12/12/1846 CE] | 3601) Alexander Bain (CE 1811-1877) patents a facsimile machine (fax), which can transmit images drawn in perforated paper (Morse code and letters) and a perforated paper automatic message feed system in which holes in a paper strip complete a circuit switching electrical current on and off. | Edinburgh, Scotland | ![]() The annexed diagram represents a piece of the punched paper with the symbols of the word ''Bain''. [t from 1853] PD/Corel source: http://books.google.com/books?id =h4oDAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA9&source=gbs_toc_r&ca d=0_0#PPA169,M1 ![]() [1] Brain's 1843 telegraph [t from patent? - here is shows clearly that the message is moved vertically while the pendulum swings horizontally.] PD/Corel source: http://www.hffax.de/assets/image s/a_Bain.gif |
153 YBN [1847 CE] | 3606) Electronic sending and printing of handwritten messages. | London, England | ![]() [1] [t Bakewell's Copying telegraph - sending aluminum foil and receiving paper. The strip ''C'' is used to syncronize the receiver to the sender.] PD/Corel source: http://books.google.com/books?id =h4oDAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA9&source=gbs_toc_r&ca d=0_0#PPA171,M1 ![]() [2] Bakewell 's system involved writing or drawing on a piece of metal foil with a special insulating ink. The foil was then wrapped around a cylinder (C). This cylinder formed a part of a machine, which rotated it slowly on its axis, as in a lathe. The cylinder rotated at a uniform rate by means of a clock mechanism (M). A metal stylus driven by a screw thread (T) traveled along the surface of the cylinder as it turned, tracing out a path over the complete piece of foil. Each time the stylus crossed a line of the insulating ink, the electrical current running through the foil to the stylus was interrupted. At the receiver, a similar pendulum-driven stylus marked chemically treated paper with an electric current as the receiving cylinder rotated. PD/Corel source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor y/bakewell_fax3.jpg |
152 YBN [1848 CE] | 3477) William Thomson (CE 1824-1907) creates the absolute temperature scale, determining -273°C to be absolute 0, where all molecules stop moving. | (University of Glasgow) Glasgow, Scotland | ![]() [1] Baron Kelvin, William Thomson Library of Congress PD source: http://content.answers.com/main/ content/img/scitech/HSbaronk.jpg ![]() [2] Baron Kelvin, William Thomson Graphic: 23.9 x 19.1 cm / Sheet: 27.8 x 20.2 cm PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/a/a0/Lord_Kelvin_photograp h.jpg |
151 YBN [01/20/1849 CE] | 3280) Jean Bernard Léon Foucault (FUKo) (CE 1819-1868), finds 1) that an electric arc emits the same two spectral (D) lines that are missing in sunlight, and 2) that an electric arc between two charcoal electrodes absorbs the light with the frequency of the two D lines which darken the lines from a light source. | Paris, France (presumably) | ![]() [1] Reproduction of the first daguerrotype of the Sun. The original image was a little over 12 centimeters in diameter. Reproduced from G. De Vaucouleurs, Astronomical Photography, MacMillan, 1961 (plate 1). PD/Corel source: http://ams.astro.univie.ac.at/~n endwich/Science/SoFi/firstsunphoto.jpg ![]() [2] Daguerreotype of the Sun PD/Corel source: http://ams.astro.univie.ac.at/~n endwich/Science/SoFi/portrait.gif |
151 YBN [05/27/1849 CE] | 3299) Fizeau and Foucault measure no change in the speed of light due to the movement of Earth through an aether. | Paris, France | ![]() [1] scheme of Fizo experiment GNU source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/5/55/Fizo_experiment_schem e_ru.PNG ![]() [2] [t Rareand early photo of portrait not looking at camera. To me it may possibly be a clue that hidden cameras were in use, but also may reflect a view that the camera is unimportant, that cameras are everywhere, and it is better to go on with life...not to smile for the camera, but to go about your life and let the many cameras document everything...its like ...the thrill is over for the novelty of photography. It's perhaps a person for the transition to the more practical daily business of the cameras, in particular when robots walk and document everything. ] Hippolyte Fizeau PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/5/5d/Hippolyte_Fizeau.jpg |
151 YBN [07/23/1849 CE] | 3290) Fizeau measures the speed of light to be 315,300 kilometers per second, using a non-astronomical method. | Paris, France | ![]() [1] Fizeau's apparatus from Arago's ''Astronomie Populaire'' PD/Corel source: William Tobin, "The life and science of Léon Foucault: the man who proved the earth rotates", Cambridge University Press, 2003 ![]() [2] Eyepiece views for Fizeau's 1849 speed of light experiment COPYRIGHTED? source: William Tobin, "The life and science of Léon Foucault: the man who proved the earth rotates", Cambridge University Press, 2003 |
150 YBN [05/06/1850 CE] | 3281) Humans see that light moves slower in water than in air. Jean Bernard Léon Foucault (FUKo) (CE 1819-1868), measures that the light moves more slowly in water than in air, and that the speed of light is inversely proportional to the index of refraction of the medium. | Paris, France (presumably) | ![]() [1] Plan view of the optical layout of Foucault's 1850 rotating mirror experiment. COPYRIGHTED source: William Tobin, "The life and science of Léon Foucault: the man who proved the earth rotates", Cambridge University Press, 2003 ![]() [2] Eyepiece view of air and water Foucault 1850 experiment PD/Corel source: William Tobin, "The life and science of Léon Foucault: the man who proved the earth rotates", Cambridge University Press, 2003, p126. |
150 YBN [1850 CE] | 3332) Helmholtz measures the speed of electricity in nerves as 27 m/s (90 ft/s). | (University of Königsberg) Königsberg, Germany | ![]() [1] Figure from 1850 paper PD/Corel source: Helmholtz_Hermann_1850_lit1862_L o.pdf ![]() [2] Young Helmholtz German physiologist and physicist Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand Von Helmholtz (1821 - 1894). Original Publication: People Disc - HE0174 Original Artwork: From a daguerreotype . (Photo by Hulton Archive/Getty Images) * by Hulton Archive * * reference: 2641935 PD/Corel source: http://www.jamd.com/search?asset type=g&assetid=2641935&text=Helmholtz |
150 YBN [1850 CE] | 4544) Secret: walking robot using electromagnetic motors but kept secret. | unknown | |
150 YBN [1850 CE] | 4700) Secret: Electric motor micrometer in size. | London, England (guess) | |
149 YBN [02/03/1851 CE] | 3282) Foucault proves experimentally that the Earth rotates on its axis. Jean Bernard Léon Foucault (FUKo) (CE 1819-1868), proves the Earth rotates on its axis by showing that a pendulum keeps the same motion while the Earth turns around its axis, making the pendulum appear to change direction, where actually the pendulum frame is rotating relative to the motion of pendulum which remains in the same original direction. | Paris, France (presumably) | ![]() [1] Faucault's pendulum demonstration re-visited in 1902 PD/Corel source: http://books.google.com/books?id =UbMRmyxCZmYC&pg=PA55&lpg=PA55&dq=foucau lt+sun+daguerreotype+features&source=web &ots=sqQtMMzhko&sig=L_EL2qJEgsbAuU5PsDuO Dxa-NPA&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum =2&ct=result#PPP1,M1 ![]() [2] [t rotateable table-top pendulum illustrates principle of inertia] PD/Corel source: William Tobin, "The life and science of Léon Foucault: the man who proved the earth rotates", Cambridge University Press, 2003 |
149 YBN [1851 CE] | 2825) William Lassell (CE 1799-1880), English astronomer, identifies two satellites of Uranus (increasing the number of moons of Uranus known at the time to 4). Lassell names these Ariel and Umbriel. | Malta | ![]() [1] Uranus' Moon Ariel: Valley World Photo Credit: NASA, Voyager 2, Copyright Calvin J. Hamilton Explanation: What formed Ariel's valleys? This question presented itself when Voyager 2 passed this satellite of Uranus in January 1986. Speculation includes that heating caused by the ancient tides of Uranus caused moonquakes and massive shifting of the moon's surface. In any event, a huge network of sunken valleys was found to cover this frozen moon, and some unknown material now coats the bottoms of many of these channels. Ariel is the second closest to Uranus outside of Miranda, and is composed of roughly half water ice and half rock. Ariel was discovered by William Lassell in 1851. PD source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap9603 03.html ![]() [2] Umbriel, a moon of Uranus. Photo by Voyager PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Umbriel_moon_1.gif |
149 YBN [1851 CE] | 2952) Hugo von Mohl (mOL) (CE 1805-1872), German botanist states that new cells arise from cell division. | (University of Tübingen) Tübingen, Germany | ![]() [1] Hugo von Mohl, 1805-1872, aus: Hans Stubbe:Kurze Geschichte der Genetik bis zur Wiederentdeckung Gregor Mendels Jena, 2. Auflage 1965. Quellenangabe dort: aus Geschichte der Mikroskopie, Bd. 1, Biologie. Herausgeber H. Freund und A. Berg, Umschau- Verlag Frankfurt/Main 1963 PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Hugo_von_mohl.jpg ![]() [2] Hugo von Mohl � Peter v. Sengbusch - Impressum Das Werk Botanik online - Die Internetlehre - THE INTERNET HYPERTEXTBOOK einschlie�lich aller seiner Teile ist urheberrechtlich gesch�tzt. Jede Verwertung au�erhalb der engen Grenzen des Urheberrechtsgesetzes ohne Zustimmung des Rechteinhabers ist unzul�ssig. Das gilt insbesondere f�r Vervielf�ltigungen, �bersetzungen und die Einspeicherung und Verarbeitung in Datenverarbeitungssystemen zwecks kommerzieller Nutzung. Bei Kopien f�r nichtkommerzielle Zwecke ist diese Copyright-Notiz der Kopie anzuf�gen. PD/Corel source: http://www.biologie.uni-hamburg. de/b-online/d01/mohl.htm |
148 YBN [01/07/1852 CE] | 2880) Constant high voltage applied to empty and gas-filled evacuated tubes. William Robert Grove (CE 1811-1896), British physicist, applies an induction coil high voltage through an empty evacuated tube, and an evacuated tube with various gases, and performs electrolysis on gases. | London, England (presumably) | ![]() [1] Figures 1 to 10 show the spots and rings in the order referred to: it should be observed that printed figures give but a very imperfect notion of the actual effects. Fig 11 is the coil apparatus, the contact breaker being in front. Fig. 12. The air-pump, of a construction which I proposed many years ago, and have found most useful for electrical or chemical experiments on gases. P. An imperforate piston, with a conical end, which, when pressed down, fits accurately the end of the tube, the apex touching the valve V, which opens outwards. A. Aperture for the air to rush from the receiver when the piston has been drawn beyond it. B. Bladder containing the gas to be experimented on. The piston-rod works air-tight in a collar of leathers, and the operation of the pump will be easily understood without further description. If it be required to examine the gas after experiment, a bladder, or tube leading to a pneumatic trough, can be attached at the extrmeity over the valve V. [5 p101] PD source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat z/scientists/grove.htm Issue Volume 139 - 1849 Pages 49-59 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1849 .0005 Grove_W_R_1849.pdf p101 ![]() [2] Sir William Robert Grove (1811-1896), British scientist. PD source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Willi am_Robert_Grove.jpg |
148 YBN [05/10/1852 CE] | 3489) (Sir) Edward Frankland (CE 1825-1899), English chemist, creates the "theory of valence", the theory that each type of atom has a fixed capacity for combining with other atoms. | (Queenwood school) Hampshire, England | ![]() [1] [t table from Frankland 1852 paper] PD/Corel source: Frankland_Edward_1852.pdf ![]() [2] [t table from Frankland 1852 paper] PD/Corel source: Frankland_Edward_1852.pdf |
145 YBN [1855 CE] | 3131) Alexander Parkes (CE 1813-1890) creates parkesine plastic and sells plastic objects. | (Elkington and Mason copper smelting plant) Pembrey, South Wales, England | ![]() [1] A showcase of colourful plastics was displayed at the 1862 London International Exhibition. Although Vulcanite had been shown by both Hancock and Goodyear at the 1851 Great Exhibition, this was the first time that a colourful material that did not rely on a surface finish or dye had been put on public display. COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.plastiquarian.com/par kesine.htm ![]() [2] The following pictures show perhaps some of those original exhibits and justify Parkes' optimism and the award of a prize medal ''for excellence of product''. 1862 London exhibit COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.plastiquarian.com/par kesine.htm |
143 YBN [03/24/1857 CE] | 3999) Sound recorded onto paper around a cylinder. Sound recorded mechanically by drawing onto paper on cylinder. | Paris, France | ![]() [1] Figure from Leon Scott's 03/24/1857 patent of the phonautograph CC source: http://www.firstsounds.org/publi c/First-Sounds-Working-Paper-02.pdf ![]() [2] Description Edouard-Léon Scott de Martinville.jpg Portrait of French typographer Édouard-Léon Scott de Martinville (1817-1879), inventor of the phonautograph. Date 19th century Source http://www.evolutionofsound.org/con tent/biog/leonscott.html PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/3/33/Edouard-L%C3%A9on_Sco tt_de_Martinville.jpg |
143 YBN [12/27/1857 CE] | 2873) Julius Plücker (PlYUKR) (CE 1801-1868), German mathematician and physicist uses a magnet to move an electric arc in a evacuated tube. | (University of Bonn) Bonn, Germany | ![]() [1] rom here Source http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollecti ons/hst/scientific-identity/CF/display_r esults.cfm?alpha_sort=p Scientist: Plucker, Julius (1801 - 1868) Discipline(s): Mathematics ; Physics Print Artist: Rudolf Hoffmann, fl. ca. 1840 Medium: Lithograph Original Artist: Schafgans Original Dimensions: Graphic: 19 x 15 cm / Sheet: 33.1 x 23 cm PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:Julius_Pl%C3%BCcker.jpg ![]() [2] The Cathode Ray Deflecting tube demonstrates the influence of a magnetic field to the electron beam. The visible beam appears on the aluminum sheet covered with phosphor, will bent away from the center when a magnet is held near the tube. This phenomena was discovered by Julius Plücker and Johann Wilhelm Hittorf. Plücker published it in the Poggendorffs annalen der Physik und Chemie 1858. and Crookes Cathode Ray Deflecting tube. COPYRIGHTED source: http://members.chello.nl/~h.dijk stra19/page7.html |
142 YBN [07/01/1858 CE] | 3033) Humans understand their descent from a single ancestor and the process of natural selection. Humans understand their descent from a single ancestor and the process of natural selection. Charles Robert Darwin (CE 1809-1882) and Alfred Russel Wallace (CE 1823-1913) first publicly describe the theory of evolution by natural selection (in the "Journal of the Linnaean Society"). | (Linnean Society), London, England | ![]() [1] ''Charles Darwin, aged 51.'' Scanned from Karl Pearson, The Life, Letters, and Labours of Francis Galton. Photo originally from the 1859 or 1860. PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/4/42/Charles_Darwin_aged_5 1.jpg ![]() [2] Charles Darwin as a 7-year old boy in 1816 The seven-year-old Charles Darwin in 1816, one year before his mother's death. [t A rare smile, there are not many photos of Darwin smiling.] PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/en/6/6c/Charles_Darwin_1816.jpg |
141 YBN [09/23/1859 CE] | 3074) Leverrier (luVerYA) (CE 1811-1877) finds that the perihelion (the point of the orbit nearest the Sun) of Mercury advances 38 seconds of arc per century. | Paris, France | ![]() [1] Scientist: Le Verrier, Urbain Jean Joseph (1811 - 1877) Discipline(s): Astronomy Print Artist: Auguste Bry, 19th C. Medium: Lithograph Original Dimensions: Graphic: 12.5 x 10 cm / Sheet: 26.1 x 17 cm PD/Corel source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/8/89/Urbain_Le_Verrier.jpg ![]() [2] Scientist: Le Verrier, Urbain Jean Joseph (1811 - 1877) Discipline(s): Astronomy Print Artist: E. Buechner Medium: Engraving Original Dimensions: Graphic: 14.5 x 13 cm / Sheet: 19.5 x 14.2 cm PD/Corel source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz e/SIL14-L003-01a.jpg |
141 YBN [10/20/1859 CE] | 3087) Humans understand that light spectra can be used to determine atomic composition. Kirchhoff understands that the spectra of light can be used to determine the atomic composition of a substance. Robert Bunsen (CE 1811-1899), and Gustav Kirchhoff (KRKHuF) (CE 1824-1887) understand that the spectra of light relates to and can be used to determine the atomic (chemical) composition of a substance and develop the technique of spectroscopy. Bunsen (CE 1811-1899), and Kirchhoff (KRKHuF) (CE 1824-1887) build a spectroscope and develop the technique of spectroscopy. Bunsen and Kirchhoff (confirm clearly Fraunhofer's view that) each pure substance has its own characteristic spectrum. Kirchhoff supports the theory that each element emits and absorbs frequencies of light at the same specific frequencies. Kirchhoff recognizes that sodium and potassium exist in the sun's atmosphere, while lithium does not or does in undetectably small quantity. Kirchhoff recognizes that temperature of source and absorbing material makes a difference in absorption of spectral lines. | (University of Heidelberg), Heidelberg, Germany | ![]() [1] Bunsen-Kirchhoff spectroscope with the Bunsen burner (labeled D), from Annalen der Physik (1860). Chemical Heritage Foundation Collections. PD/Corel source: http://www.chemheritage.org/clas sroom/chemach/images/lgfotos/04periodic/ bunsen-kirchhoff2.jpg ![]() [2] [t Clearly and early spectroscope, is this from Bunsen?] PD/Corel source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat z/scientists/bunsen_spectrometer.jpg |
141 YBN [11/22/1859 CE] | 3035) Charles Robert Darwin (CE 1809-1882), English naturalist, publishes "On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life". There are two major parts to the theory of evolution by natural selection. The first is natural selection, in which those bodies that survive are more well adapted to their environment, and the second is the descent from a common ancestor. This theory of descent from a common ancestor, Darwin calls "descent", will only be called "evolution" by Darwin in the last 1872 edition of the "Origin of Species". | London, England (presumably) | ![]() [1] Origin of Species title page PD/Corel source: 1859. On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life. 1st ed. p. http://darwin-online.org.uk/contents.htm l#books {Darwin_1859_Origin_F373.pdf} ![]() [2] ''Charles Darwin, aged 51.'' Scanned from Karl Pearson, The Life, Letters, and Labours of Francis Galton. Photo originally from the 1859 or 1860. PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/4/42/Charles_Darwin_aged_5 1.jpg |
141 YBN [1859 CE] | 3373) Lenoir (lunWoR) (CE 1822-1900) invents the first successful (direct-acting) gas combustion engine. | ?, France | ![]() [1] Lenoir motor in the Musée des Arts et Métiers, Paris PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/7/7d/Lenoir_Motor_2.jpg ![]() [2] Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir PD/Corel source: http://www.tschoepe.de/auktion47 /bilder/frankreich/Moteurs_Lenoir_Photo. jpg |
140 YBN [04/16/1860 CE] | 3088) Robert Bunsen (CE 1811-1899) identifies cesium, the first element to be discovered spectroscopically. | (University of Heidelberg), Heidelberg, Germany | ![]() [1] 1860 Bunsen Kirchhoff figures ''Chemische Analyse durch Spectralbeobachtungen'', Annalen der Physik, Volume 189, Issue 7, (1861), pp337-381. PD/Corel source: Bunsen_Kirchhoff_Cesium_Rubidium ![]() [2] Pollucite (Caesium mineral) Source: http://resourcescommittee.house.gov/subc ommittees/emr/usgsweb/photogallery/ ; PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/f/f8/Pollucite%28CesiumMin eral%29USGOV.jpg |
140 YBN [1860 CE] | 4545) Secret: artificial muscles - molecule mimics muscles in contracting under electric potential. | unknown | |
140 YBN [1860 CE] | 4546) Secret: Microphone less than 1 micrometer in size. This microphone transmitter uses light particles to transmit sounds to distant receivers. | unknown | |
139 YBN [02/25/1861 CE] | 3089) Robert Bunsen (CE 1811-1899) identifies rubidium from its spectrum. | (University of Heidelberg), Heidelberg, Germany | ![]() [1] 1860 Bunsen Kirchhoff figures PD/Corel source: Bunsen_Kirchhoff_Cesium_Rubidium ![]() [2] Pollucite (Caesium mineral) Source: http://resourcescommittee.house.gov/subc ommittees/emr/usgsweb/photogallery/ ; PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/f/f8/Pollucite%28CesiumMin eral%29USGOV.jpg |
139 YBN [10/26/1861 CE] | 3997) Microphone, telephone and speaker. Microphone, telephone and speaker. | (built in workshop behind Reis's house and cabinet in Garnier's Institute, Friedrichsdorf, demonstrated before Physical Society) Frankfort, Germany | ![]() [1] Drawing of Philip Reiss telephone used for 10/26/1861 demonstration before Physical Society in Frankfort, Germany. PD source: http://books.google.com/books?id =Fdpuup7RSrUC&pg=PA110&lpg=PA110&dq=%22g alvanic+music%22&source=bl&ots=XSKEE-YQX 1&sig=LnqVekN9DrlsZbrt8uQvjga8znk&hl=en& ei=ze-eSqviJYOgswPdgpSCDg&sa=X&oi=book_r esult&ct=result&resnum=5#v=onepage&q=%22 galvanic%20music%22&f=false ![]() [2] portrait of Philip Reiss From Silvanus Thompson: ''Reis is here represented as holding in his hand the telephone with which he had a few days preceding (May 11, 1862) achieved such success at his lecture before the Freies Deutsches Hochstift (Free German Institute) in Frankfort. '' PD source: http://books.google.com/books?id =YkHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phi lip+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=one page&q=&f=false |
139 YBN [1861 CE] | 3320) Johann Joseph Loschmidt (lOsmiT) (CE 1821-1895) understands and draws double and triple chemical bonds. | (Vienna RealSchul) Vienna, (now:) Germany | ![]() [1] presumably from Chemische Studien I PD/Corel source: http://www.kfki.hu/chemonet/hun/ olvaso/histchem/mol/keplet.gif ![]() [2] [t compared to modern form] Molecular structural formulae, a few of the many appearing for the first time in Loschmidt's 1861 booklet,1 Chemische Studien I. Among its innovations are the depictions of double and triple carbon bonds for ethylene and acetylene; the structure of acetic acid; a correct prediction for cyclopropane 21 years before it was made; and the structures of benzoic acid and aniline, two aromatic molecules with benzene-like rings. Loschmidt's role in the later discovery that benzene itself is a monocyclic six-carbon structure is still being debated by historians. COPYRIGHTED source: http://scitation.aip.org/journal s/doc/PHTOAD-ft/vol_54/iss_3/images/45_1 fig4.jpg |
139 YBN [1861 CE] | 3324) Loschmidt (lOsmiT) (CE 1821-1895) estimates the size of a molecule to be 1 nm. | (Vienna RealSchul) Vienna, (now:) Germany | ![]() [1] Loschmidt, Johann Joseph (1821 - 1895). PD/Corel source: http://www.fisicanet.com.ar/biog rafias/cientificos/l/img/loschmidt.jpg ![]() [2] # Johann Josef Loschmidt (1821–1895) # aus: http://www.loschmidt.cz/loadframe.html?p hotos.html, PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/c/c6/429px-Johann_Josef_Lo schmidt.jpeg |
139 YBN [1861 CE] | 3645) First Color image projected. | (King's College, exhibit at the Royal Institution) London, England | ![]() [1] [t Note: This cannot be a photograph from 1861 - Maxwell apparently never created a color photograph in the sense of a single plate or paper with a multi-color image, but made 3 glass plates. So this is a digitized color photo of the projection of those three plates. The first color [photograph being created, at least publicly by: introduced in 1907 by A. Lumiere (eb1911 photography)] wikipedia: English: Tartan Ribbon, photograph taken by James Clerk Maxwell in 1861. Considered the first colour photograph. Maxwell had the photographer Thomas Sutton photograph a tartan ribbon three times, each time with a different colour filter over the lens. The three images were developed and then projected onto a screen with three different projectors, each equipped with the same colour filter used to take its image. When brought into focus, the three images formed a full colour image. The three photographic plates now reside in a small museum at 14 India Street, Edinburgh, the house where Maxwell was born. Source Scanned from The Illustrated History of Colour Photography, Jack H. Coote, 1993. ISBN 0-86343-380-4. Date 1861 Author James Clerk Maxwell (original picture) ; scan by User:Janke. PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/7/7f/Tartan_Ribbon.jpg ![]() [2] James Clerk Maxwell. The Library of Congress. PD/GOV source: "Henri Victor Regnault", Concise Dictionary of Scientific Biography, edition 2, Charles Scribner's Sons, (2000), p586. |
139 YBN [1861 CE] | 3672) Thallium identified from emission lines. | (private lab) London, England (presumably) | ![]() [1] Thallium Source http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Thalli um_1.jpg Date March 2006 Author Tomihahndorf PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/3/36/Thallium.jpg ![]() [2] Image by Daniel Mayer or GreatPatton and released under terms of the GNU FDL GNU source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/1/1a/Tl-TableImage.png |
139 YBN [1861 CE] | 4547) Secret: Two leg robots walk using artificial muscles. | unknown | |
138 YBN [11/04/1862 CE] | 3219) The machine gun. | Indianapolis, Indiana (presumably) | ![]() [1] Patent for first Gatlin gun PD/Corel source: http://patimg1.uspto.gov/.piw?Do cid=00036836&homeurl=http%3A%2F%2Fpatft. uspto.gov%2Fnetacgi%2Fnph-Parser%3FSect1 %3DPTO1%2526Sect2%3DHITOFF%2526d%3DPALL% 2526p%3D1%2526u%3D%25252Fnetahtml%25252F PTO%25252Fsrchnum.htm%2526r%3D1%2526f%3D G%2526l%3D50%2526s1%3D0036,836.PN.%2526O S%3DPN%2F0036,836%2526RS%3DPN%2F0036,836 &PageNum=&Rtype=&SectionNum=&idkey=NONE& Input=View+first+page ![]() [2] photograph of Richard Jordan Gatling PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/a/a8/Richard_Jordan_Gatlin g.jpg |
138 YBN [1862 CE] | 3375) (Jean-Joseph-) Étienne Lenoir builds the first gas (direct-acting) combustion powered carriage (car). | Paris, France (presumably) | ![]() [1] Voiture de JEAN JOSEPH ETIENNE LENOIR - 1860: PD/Corel source: http://www.forum-auto.com/upload s/200510/gv_creations_1129490448_voiture _jean_joseph_etienne_lenoir___1860.jpg ![]() [2] Lenoir motor in the Musée des Arts et Métiers, Paris PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/7/7d/Lenoir_Motor_2.jpg |
137 YBN [02/18/1863 CE] | 3427) Humans match spectral lines from elements to those from stars (other than the Sun). | (Tulse Hill)London, England | ![]() [1] ''The position in the stellar spectra corresponding to that of Fraunhofer's line D, from which the others are measured, has been obtained by coincidence with a sodium line, the position of which in the apparatus was compared directly with the line D in the solar spectrum. The lines in the drawings against which a mark is placed have been measured.'' PD/Corel source: http://journals.royalsociety.org /content/025553r323116j26/fulltext.pdf ![]() [2] William Huggins PD/Corel source: https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbe cker/ExploringtheCosmos/hugginsport.jpg |
137 YBN [1863 CE] | 3487) Indium is discovered using spectroscopic analysis. | (Freiberg University) Freiberg, Saxony, Germany | ![]() [1] Ferdinand Reich (1799-1882) PD/Corel source: http://www.jergym.hiedu.cz/~cano vm/objevite/objev/rei.htm ![]() [2] Hieronymus Theodor Richter (1824-1898) PD/Corel source: same |
136 YBN [09/08/1864 CE] | 3428) Nebulae (of exploded stars) (exo-nebulae) examined, and shown to be composed of gas from spectral analysis. | (Tulse Hill)London, England | ![]() [1] The Cat's Eye Nebula from Hubble Credit: NASA, ESA, HEIC, and The Hubble Heritage Team (STScI/AURA) PD/Corel source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/ 0705/catseye2_hst.jpg ![]() [2] Draco's spectrum ...The riddle of the nebulae was solved. The answer, which had come to us in the light itself, read: Not an aggregation of stars, but a luminous gas. --Huggins (1897) PD/Corel source: https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbe cker/ExploringtheCosmos/neblinesdraco.jp g |
135 YBN [01/11/1865 CE] | 3429) Nebulae (of newly formed stars) (endo-nebulae) examined and shown to be composed of gas from spectral analysis. | (Tulse Hill)London, England | ![]() [1] Hubble Captures the Orion Nebula PD source: http://www.nasa.gov/images/conte nt/149188main_orion_nebula.jpeg ![]() [2] Orion spectrum PD/Corel source: William Huggins, "The Science Papers of William Huggins". |
135 YBN [1865 CE] | 3403) Law of genetic inheritance (1:2:1 ratio of inheritance of a trait). | (Natural Science Society) Brünn, Austria (now: Brno, the Czech Republic) | ![]() [1] Gregor Mendel Source http://www.malaspina.com/jpg/mendel.j pg PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/8/87/Gregor_Mendel_portrai t.jpg ![]() [2] [t Gregor Mendel] PD/Corel source: http://joefelso.files.wordpress. com/2007/04/mendel2.jpg |
135 YBN [1865 CE] | 4548) Secret: Laser invented. Perhaps this is a CO2 laser. These devices are instantly recognized as dangerous and useful weapons, being much faster than a metal projectile gun, and can be developed to be much smaller than a projectile gun. In addition, the location of the weapon is difficult to determine. The laser probably quickly is strong enough to cut through flesh, and as is public now, can cut through even metal. Like microphones, cameras, neuron readers and writers, these laser devices will be reduced to micrometer size, and then nanometer size, and secretly distributed by the millions throughout the planet earth. | unknown | |
132 YBN [04/23/1868 CE] | 3435) (Sir) William Huggins (CE 1824-1910) calculates the (radial) velocity of a nebula and the star Sirius relative to the Earth using the Doppler shift of spectral lines. Huggins measures that Sirius is moving away from the Sun with a velocity of 29.4 miles per second. | (Tulse Hill)London, England | ![]() [1] William Huggins PD/Corel source: https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbe cker/ExploringtheCosmos/hugginsport.jpg ![]() [2] William Huggins' star-spectroscope PD/Corel source: https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbe cker/ExploringtheCosmos/hugginsspectrosc opeb.jpg |
132 YBN [11/23/1868 CE] | 3648) First permanent color photograph. | ?, France | ![]() [1] English: Early color photo of Agen, France, by Louis Ducos du Hauron, 1877. The cathedral in the scene is the Cathédrale Saint-Caprais d'Agen. [1] Source ? Date 1877 Author Louis Ducos du Hauron (1837 – 1920) PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/0/08/Duhauron1877.jpg ![]() [2] Louis Ducos du Hauron paved way for modern three-color photography. ''Cinémathèque Française'' PD/Corel source: http://www.marillier.nom.fr/coll odions/PGH/pics/photowasborn06.jpg |
131 YBN [03/06/1869 CE] | 3703) Periodic table of elements. | (University of St. Petersburg) St. Petersburg, Russia | ![]() [1] Table from abstract of 1869 paper: Zeitschrift für Chemie 12, 405-406 (1869); PD/Corel source: http://www.rsc.org/education/tea chers/learnnet/periodictable/pre16/devel op/mendel4.jpg ![]() [2] Draft for first version of Mendeleev's periodic table (17 February 1869). Courtesy Oesper Collection, University of Cincinnati. PD/Corel source: http://www.chemheritage.org/clas sroom/chemach/images/lgfotos/04periodic/ meyer-mendeleev1.jpg |
130 YBN [1870 CE] | 4701) Secret: Electric motor nanometer in size. | London, England (guess) | |
129 YBN [09/08/1871 CE] | 3113) Gelatin dry plate photography. | Woolston, Southhampton, England | ![]() [1] Dr. Richard Leach MADDOX (1816-1902) PD/Corel source: http://webh01.ua.ac.be/elmc/webs ite_FL/im_gesch/maddox.gif ![]() [2] Richard Leach Maddox, 1816 - 1902 PD/Corel source: http://www.cotianet.com.br/photo /hist/Images/maddox.jpg |
128 YBN [01/01/1872 CE] | 1249) The reaper-binder, or binder is invented by Charles Withington. The binder is a farm implement that improves upon the reaper. In addition to cutting the small-grain crop, the binder also ties the stems into small bundles, or sheaves. These sheaves are then 'shocked' into conical stooks, resembling small tipis, to allow the grain to dry for several days before being threshed. | ? | ![]() [1] McCormick Harvester and Binder of 1876 at work in the field -the first practical self-binder ever built Source McCormick Reaper Centennial Source Material (International Harvester Company: Chicago) 1931 PD source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima ge:McCormick_Harvester_and_Binder.gif |
127 YBN [02/12/1873 CE] | 3336) Photoelectric effect of Selenium. | Valentia, Ireland | ![]() [1] Willoughby Smith was an electrical engineer working for telegraph companies, but his the most important contribution to science was discovery of photo-conductivity of selenium in 1873. PD/Corel source: http://www.geocities.com/neveyaa kov/electro_science/smith1.jpg ![]() [2] Closed lid - high resistance, open lid - low resistance PD/Corel source: http://www.geocities.com/neveyaa kov/electro_science/smith_experiment.jpg |
126 YBN [1874 CE] | 3780) Gallium identified by spectroscopy. | (home lab) Cognac, France (presumably) | ![]() [1] English: Crystals of 99.999% gallium. SlovenÅ¡Äina: Kristaliziran galij. Crystals of 99.999% gallium, grown and photographed by myself in February 2003. These particular crystals took about 45 minutes to grow, sitting in a plastic dish near a cool window. The lumpiness on the surface of these crystals is caused mainly by me shifting the dish around to monitor the progression of the crystal growth. Crystals (of any material) need to be totally undisturbed in order to grow perfect, large, smooth facets. Each time I moved the liquid around, it interrupted the crystal growth. The ''lumps'' are actually tiny crystals that started growing on the larger facets, but got smoothed over due to the liquid motion. If I had placed this in a vibration-damped sandbox (similar to a holography table) and not disturbed it, the crystals would have been even larger, more coherent, and more stunning ;) GNU source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/0/0c/Gallium1_640x480.jpg ![]() [2] Description François Lecoq de Boisbaudran, discoverer of gallium, samarium, and dysprosium (died 28 May 1912) Source http://pagesperso-orange.fr/paysdaigre/ hpa/textes/biographies/images/lecocq.jpg Date Before 28 May 1912 PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/6/69/Lecoq_de_Boisbaudran. jpg |
124 YBN [1876 CE] | 3819) First practical refrigerator. | (Technische Hochschule) Munich, Germany | ![]() [1] The first Linde refrigeration machine ever sold, an improvement on the original model from 1871 started up in 1877 at the Creher Brewery in Trieste (now Italy) PD/Corel (presumably) source: http://www.linde.com/internation al/web/linde/like35lindecom.nsf/reposito rybyalias/pdf_ch_chronicle/$file/chronic le_e%5B1%5D.pdf ![]() [2] * by Frederick Muller * Reference: 3278404 circa 1890: German scientist Karl Paul Gottfried Linde. (Photo by Frederick Muller/Hulton Archive/Getty Images) PD/Corel source: http://www.jamd.com/image/g/3278 404 |
123 YBN [12/24/1877 CE] | 4002) Sound recording played out loud. Sound recording played back out loud (made audible). | (private lab) Menlo Park, New Jersey, USA | ![]() [1] Original Edison Tin Foil Phonograph. Photo courtesy of U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Edison National Historic Site. source: http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edcyl dr.html PD source: http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edht ml/tinfoil.jpg ![]() [2] Edison's 12/24/1877 patent for improvements to the phonograph. PD source: http://www.google.com/patents?id =SWg_AAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v =onepage&q=&f=false |
122 YBN [1878 CE] | 3188) Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac (morEnYoK) (CE 1817-1894), Swiss chemist, identifies the rare earth element yterrbium. | (University of Geneva) Geneva, Switzerland | ![]() [1] Description Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac (1817–1894) Swiss chemist who discoverered ytterbium in 1878 and codiscovered gadolinium in 1880. Source Ecole Nationale Supérieure des Mines de Paris Date ~ 1850 Author unknown PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/c/c4/Galissard_de_Marignac .jpg ![]() [2] Ytterbium sample. Photo by RTC. GNU source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/9/97/Yb%2C70.jpg |
122 YBN [1878 CE] | 3189) Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac (morEnYoK) (CE 1817-1894), Swiss chemist, and P.-É. Lecoq de Boisbaudran identify the element gadolinium. | (University of Geneva) Geneva, Switzerland | ![]() [1] Description Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac (1817–1894) Swiss chemist who discoverered ytterbium in 1878 and codiscovered gadolinium in 1880. Source Ecole Nationale Supérieure des Mines de Paris Date ~ 1850 Author unknown PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/c/c4/Galissard_de_Marignac .jpg ![]() [2] SlovenÅ¡Äina: Gadolinij v epruveti. This image was copied from en.wikipedia.org. The original description was: Gadolinium sample. Photo by RTC. GNU source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/f/fe/Gd%2C64.jpg |
122 YBN [1878 CE] | 3576) Practical electric light bulb. | Newcastle, England (presumably) | ![]() [1] Joseph Wilson Swan 1828 - 1914 PD/Corel source: http://www.hevac-heritage.org/ha ll_of_fame/lighting_&_electrical/joseph_ wilson_swan_s1.jpg ![]() [2] Joseph Swan 19th century (or early 20th century) photograph. public domain. PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/en/1/1c/Jswan.jpg |
121 YBN [03/24/1879 CE] | 3797) Element scandium identified spectroscopically. | (University of Uppsala) Uppsala, Sweden. | ![]() [1] Scandium sample. Photo by RTC. GNU source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/c/cc/Sc%2C21.jpg ![]() [2] English: Picture of Lars Fredrik Nilson, the Swedish chemist who discovered scandium Source Nilson Memorial Lecture in the Journal of the Chemical Society, volume 77, between pages 1276 and 1277 Date 1900 Author Otto Petterson Permission (Reusing this image) PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/9/9f/Nilson_Lars_Fredrik.j pg |
121 YBN [1879 CE] | 3782) Samarium identified by spectroscopy. | (home lab) Cognac, France (presumably) | ![]() [1] Summary: Samarium in a test tube under Argon gas Source: German wikipedia (http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Samar ium_1.jpg); This imageis already under Free license. GNU source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/en/2/21/427px-Samarium_1.jpg ![]() [2] Description François Lecoq de Boisbaudran, discoverer of gallium, samarium, and dysprosium (died 28 May 1912) Source http://pagesperso-orange.fr/paysdaigre/ hpa/textes/biographies/images/lecocq.jpg Date Before 28 May 1912 PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/6/69/Lecoq_de_Boisbaudran. jpg |
121 YBN [1879 CE] | 3796) Elements thulium and holmium identified using spectroscopy. | (University of Uppsala) Uppsala, Sweden. | ![]() [1] Holmium sample. Photo by RTC. GNU source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/6/6c/Ho%2C67.jpg ![]() [2] Thulium sample. Photo by RTC. GNU English: Picture of Per Theodor Cleve, the Swedish chemist and geologist Source Page 39 of Svenskt porträttgalleri http://books.google.co m/books?id=XL0DAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA39&dq=Per+T eodor+Cleve&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA39,M1 Date 1903 Author Albin Hildebrand PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/a/a7/Tm%2C69.jpg |
120 YBN [06/03/1880 CE] | 4038) Sound sent and received using photons. | (top of Franklin School) Washington, D. C., USA | ![]() [1] Alexander Bell's Photophone Patent of 08/28/1880 figures 1 and 2 PD source: http://www.google.com/patents?id =VpdyAAAAEBAJ&printsec=drawing&zoom=4#v= onepage&q=&f=false ![]() [2] (presumably Alexander Graham Bell with his ''Photophone'') PD source: http://www.utdallas.edu/~rms0230 00/photophone.jpg |
120 YBN [1880 CE] | 4348) Piezoelectricity. | (Sorbonne) Paris, France | ![]() [1] Beschreibung Jacques Curie (1856-1941, links) mit seinem Bruder Pierre Curie (1859-1906) und seinen Eltern Eugène Curie (1827-1910) und Sophie-Claire Depouilly (1832-1897) Quelle Françoise Giroud: Marie Curie. A Life. Holmes & Meier, New York London 1986, ISBN 0-8419-0977-6, nach Seite 138 Urheber bzw. Nutzungsrechtinhaber unbekannt Datum 1878 Genehmigung Bild-PD-alt-100 PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/de/3/3a/Curie%2C_Jacques_und_Pierr e_mit_Eltern.jpg ![]() [2] Pierre Curie UNKNOWN source: http://www.espci.fr/esp/MUSE/ima ge002.gif |
120 YBN [1880 CE] | 4549) Secret: Camera trasmitter 1 micrometer in size. "Microcamera" transmitter developed but kept secret. This device uses light particles to transmit images to distant receivers. | unknown | |
120 YBN [1880 CE] | 4550) Secret: Neuron reading transmitter is less than 1 micrometer in size. "Micro-neuronreader" or perhaps "micro-thought-camera" transmitter developed but kept secret. This device uses light particles to transmit thought-images and thought-sounds to distant receivers. | unknown | |
120 YBN [1880 CE] | 4551) Secret: Neuron writer micrometer in size. "Micro-neuron-writer" or perhaps "Micro-thought-writer" devices developed but kept secret. This device uses x particles (xray) to remotely write to neurons (make neurons fire) using very precise directional movement. | unknown | |
120 YBN [1880 CE] | 4552) Secret: Laser is micrometer in size. | unknown | |
119 YBN [01/05/1881 CE] | 3608) Photographic images sent electronically and printed. | London, England (presumably) | ![]() [1] Image of gas flame focused on transmitter figure 3 PD/Corel source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou rnal/v23/n589/pdf/023344a0.pdf ![]() [2] Image as reproduced by receiver figure 4 PD/Corel source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou rnal/v23/n589/pdf/023344a0.pdf |
119 YBN [1881 CE] | 4157) Albert Abraham Michelson (mIKuLSuN) or (mIKLSuN) (CE 1852-1931), German-US physicist designs an interferometer ("interferential refractometer") and uses it to find that a beam of light, split into 2 directions in a 90 degree angle, and reflected back onto each other do not interfere with each other as would be expected if light is a wave in an ether medium, therefore casting doubt on the theory of an aether and the wave-theory of light and opening the way for a re-examination of the light as a particle theory. | (University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany | ![]() [1] Figure from Michelson's 1881 paper PD source: http://books.google.com/books?id =S_kQAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi tions:0ocaawEfuqDVXP3-kAaE4N&lr=#v=onepa ge&q=michelson&f=false ![]() [2] Description Albert Abraham Michelson2.jpg Photograph of Nobel Laureate Albert Abraham Michelson. Date 2006-09-27 (original upload date) Source Photograph is a higher quality version of the public domain image available from AstroLab http://astro-canada.ca/_en/pho to690.php?a4313_michelson1 PD source: Michelson_Albert_Abraham_Michels on2.jpg |
117 YBN [1883 CE] | 3578) Plastic thread. | Newcastle, England (presumably) | ![]() [1] Joseph Wilson Swan 1828 - 1914 PD/Corel source: http://www.hevac-heritage.org/ha ll_of_fame/lighting_&_electrical/joseph_ wilson_swan_s1.jpg ![]() [2] Joseph Swan 19th century (or early 20th century) photograph. public domain. PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/en/1/1c/Jswan.jpg |
117 YBN [1883 CE] | 4245) Alternating current motor (Induction motor) and generator (dynamo). | Strasbourg, France | ![]() [1] Image from Tesla patent 391,968 submitted: 10/12/1887 ELECTRO-MAGNETIC MOTOR http://www.google.com/patents?id= z5FhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f =false PD source: http://www.google.com/patents?id =z5FhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=& f=false ![]() [2] Description Tesla young.jpg English: The image of en:Nikola Tesla (1856-1943) at age 23. Date image dated: circa 1878 original upload date: 2005-12-02 transfer date: 17:03, 29 July 2008 (UTC) Source Original downloaded from http://www.tesla-symp06.org/nikola_tesla .htm Author Original uploader was Antidote at en.wikipedia Transferred from en.wikipedia by User:emerson7. Permission (Reusing this file) This image is in the public domain PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/6/60/Tesla_young.jpg |
115 YBN [1885 CE] | 4329) Elements Praseodymium (PrAZEODiMEuM) and Neodymium (nEODiMEuM) identified. | (University of Vienna) Vienna | ![]() [1] http://images-of-elements.com/praseodymi um.php and position on periodic table CC source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pra seodymium ![]() [2] Karl Auer von Welsbach (1858-1929) PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/f/f7/Auer_von_Welsbach.jpg |
114 YBN [06/26/1886 CE] | 4139) Fluorine (gas) isolated. | (École Supérieure de Pharmacie) Paris, France | ![]() [1] Henri Moissan (1852-1907) PD source: http://www.shp-asso.org/albums/p ortrait01/Moissan.jpg ![]() [2] Fluorine sample (gas, doesn't look like much). GNU source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/f/f8/F%2C9.jpg |
114 YBN [1886 CE] | 3783) Dysprosium identified by spectroscopy. | (home lab) Cognac, France (presumably) | ![]() [1] This image was copied from en.wikipedia.org. The original description was: English: Dysprosium sample. SlovenÅ¡Äina: Disprozij v epruveti. GNU source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/1/17/Dy%2C66.jpg ![]() [2] Description François Lecoq de Boisbaudran, discoverer of gallium, samarium, and dysprosium (died 28 May 1912) Source http://pagesperso-orange.fr/paysdaigre/ hpa/textes/biographies/images/lecocq.jpg Date Before 28 May 1912 PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/6/69/Lecoq_de_Boisbaudran. jpg |
114 YBN [1886 CE] | 3786) Germanium identified and isolated. | (Freiberg School of Mining) Freiberg, Germany | ![]() [1] elementares Germanium Source: German Wikipedia, original upload 3. Sep 2004 by Gibe (selfmade) GNU source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/5/5e/Germanium.jpg ![]() [2] Description Picture of German chemist Clemens Winkler (who died in 1904) Source Edgar Fahs Smith Collection Date Before 1904 Author PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/9/9d/Winkler_Clemens.jpg |
113 YBN [03/??/1887 CE] | 4285) Electrical resonance (allows specific ranges of frequencies of light particle beams to be filtered). | (University of Karlsruhe) Karlsruhe, Germany | ![]() [1] Figure 6 from Hertz's March 1893 paper ''On Very Rapid Oscillations'' PD source: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E. Jones, "Electric Waves", 1893, 1962. ![]() [2] Figure 7 from Hertz's March 1893 paper ''On Very Rapid Oscillations'' PD source: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E. Jones, "Electric Waves", 1893, 1962. |
105 YBN [01/31/1895 CE] | 3842) Argon and inert gases identified. Element Argon and the series of inert gases is identified. | (Own Laboratory) Terling, England | ![]() [1] Figure 1 from Rayleigh 1893 PD source: self-made Author: Atanamir PD ![]() [2] William Ramsay (CE 1852-1916) PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/0/0b/Ar-TableImage.svg |
105 YBN [03/26/1895 CE] | 4141) Helium identified on earth. | (University College) London, England | ![]() [1] Figure 1 from Rayleigh 1893 PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/d/d2/William_Ramsay_workin g.jpg ![]() [2] William Ramsay PD source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz es/chemistry/laureates/1904/ramsay.jpg |
105 YBN [11/05/1895 CE] | 3936) X-rays Effects of high frequency (xray) photon beams observed. | (University of Würzburg) Würzburg, Germany | ![]() [1] English: Photo of Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen. Cleaned up version of http://images.google.com/hosted/life/l?i mgurl=6b3da250c6b5560f Source unknown source Date 1900 PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/7/71/Roentgen2.jpg ![]() [2] Anna Berthe Roentgen.gif Print of Wilhelm Röntgen's (1845-1923) first x-ray, the hand of his wife Anna taken on 1895-12-22, presented to Professor Ludwig Zehnder of the Physik Institut, University of Freiburg, on 1 January 1896. Source http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:An na_Berthe_Roentgen.gif Date 22 December 1895 (1895-12-22) Author Wilhelm Röntgen PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/6/6e/Anna_Berthe_Roentgen. gif |
104 YBN [03/02/1896 CE] | 4151) Invisible rays (radioactivity) detected from a uranium salt. | (École Polytechnique) Paris, France | ![]() [1] Photographic plate made by Henri Becquerel showing effects of exposure to radioactivity. Image of Becquerel's photographic plate which has been fogged by exposure to radiation from a uranium salt. The shadow of a metal Maltese Cross placed between the plate and the uranium salt is clearly visible. Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Becqu erel_plate.jpg PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/1/1e/Becquerel_plate.jpg ![]() [2] Antoine-Henri Becquerel (1852-1908) PD source: http://nautilus.fis.uc.pt/wwwqui /figuras/quimicos/img/becquerel.jpg |
104 YBN [05/06/1896 CE] | 3717) Motorized, heavier-than-air plane achieves sustained flight. | Potomac River, Washington DC, USA | ![]() [1] English: Category:Samuel Pierpont Langley's steam engine powered aircraft ''Aërodrome No. 5'' in flight on 1896 May 6.[1] An instantaneous photograph by Alexander Graham Bell.[1] (3 March 1847 – 2 August 1922). Source Page 4 from Aërial Locomotion: With a Few Notes Date printed 1907 Author Alexander Graham Bell PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/1/19/Samuel_Pierpont_Langl ey%27s_steam_A%C3%ABrodrome_No._5_in_fli ght.png ![]() [2] Samuel Pierpont Langley, pioneer aviator and 3rd Secretary of the Smithsonian Institute. This picture is undated but from the Smithsonian, so it was probably taken during his tenure there (1887-1906). It is in the public domain as produced by the United States Government, and also because published before 1923. From http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Samue l_Pierpont_Langley.jpg PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/9/97/Samuel_Pierpont_Langl ey.jpg |
103 YBN [04/30/1897 CE] | 4260) Humans determine that electricity is made of particles (the electron). This is the first particle known to be smaller than an atom. | (Cambridge University) Cambridge, England | ![]() [1] Figure 1 From Thomson, J.J., ''Cathode-rays.'', Phil. Mag. 44, 08/07/1897, 269. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z l0wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editi ons:UCALB3728216&lr=#v=onepage&q=thomson &f=false PD source: http://books.google.com/books?id =Zl0wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi tions:UCALB3728216&lr=#v=onepage&q=thoms on&f=false ![]() [2] Figure 2 From Thomson, J.J., ''Cathode-rays.'', Phil. Mag. 44, 08/07/1897, 269. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z l0wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editi ons:UCALB3728216&lr=#v=onepage&q=thomson &f=false PD source: http://books.google.com/books?id =Zl0wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi tions:UCALB3728216&lr=#v=onepage&q=thoms on&f=false |
103 YBN [1897 CE] | 4088) Oscilloscope. | (Physikal Institute) Strassburg, France | ![]() [1] Figure 1 from Braun's 1897 paper. PD source: Ferdinand Braun, "Ueber ein Verfahren zur Demonstration und zum Studium des zeitlichen Verlaufes variabler Ströme", Annalen der Physik und Chemie, vol. lx., 1897, p. 552-559. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/121 48/bpt6k15301j.image.f558.langFR {Braun _Ferdinand_oscilloscope_1897.pdf} Engli sh translation: Ferdinand Braun, "A Method of Demonstrating and Studying the Time-relations of Variable Currents.", Minutes of proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Volume 129, 1897, p464. http://books.google.com/books?id= rXgMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA464&lpg=PA464&dq=A+Met hod+of+Demonstrating+and+Studying+the+Ti me-relations+of+Variable+Currents.+Ferdi nand+Braun.&source=bl&ots=CY1GqwE3Ku&sig =7-zDHHHs-PeoCHn_veDdZXebryM&hl=en&ei=O0 bOSoKvC5L0sgPulqm2Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result &ct=result&resnum=1#v=onepage&q=A%20Meth od%20of%20Demonstrating%20and%20Studying %20the%20Time-relations%20of%20Variable% 20Currents.%20Ferdinand%20Braun.&f=false PD ![]() [2] Ferdinand Braun (1850-1918), Nobel laureate 1909. (in Physics) http://www.cathodique.net/FB raun.jpg PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/5/55/Ferdinand_Braun.jpg |
103 YBN [1897 CE] | 4093) Radio frequency light shown to exhibit the phenomena of interference, reflection, refraction and double refraction, diffraction, polarization and absorption. However, in my view all these phenomena can all be reduced to reflection and absorption. In my view, these experiments using 26mm interval light particles refracted to the focus of a lens are strong evidence that light beams have no amplitude but move in a straight line. | (Institute of Physics, University of Bologna) Bologna, Italy | ![]() [1] Figure from German translation of Righi's 1897 work PD source: http://books.google.com/books?id =H5cIAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Aug usto+Righi&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false ![]() [2] [t what is the black rectangle for or covering?] Italiano: Fotografia di Augusto Righi scattata oltre 70 anni fa, quindi di pubblico dominio. (Fonte: Sito del Museo di Fisica di Bologna) Date 2007-11-30 (original upload date) PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/e/ef/Augusto_Righi.jpg |
102 YBN [05/10/1898 CE] | 3824) Hydrogen liquefied. | (Royal Institution) London, England (presumably) | ![]() [1] Picture taken from page 230 of T. O’Connor Sloane's Liquid Air and the Liquefaction of Gases, second edition, published by Norman W. Henley and Co., New York, 1900. PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/en/8/89/Dewar_James.jpg ![]() [2] English: Picture of Sir James Dewar, the scientist Source Page 98 of History of Chemistry (book) Date 1910 Author Thomas Thorpe PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/2/2c/Dewar_James_flask.jpg |
102 YBN [06/03/1898 CE] | 4142) The inert gas Krypton identified and isolated. | (University College) London, England | ![]() [1] Krypton element 36 from Periodic Table GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kry pton ![]() [2] Figure 1 from Rayleigh 1893 PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/d/d2/William_Ramsay_workin g.jpg |
102 YBN [06/13/1898 CE] | 4143) The inert gas Neon identified and isolated. | (University College) London, England | ![]() [1] Neon, element 10 on the Periodic Table GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo n ![]() [2] Figure 1 from Rayleigh 1893 PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/d/d2/William_Ramsay_workin g.jpg |
102 YBN [07/18/1898 CE] | 4353) Polonium. | (École de Physique et Chimie Sorbonne) Paris, France | ![]() [1] Polonium foil [t verify] UNKNOWN source: http://periodictable.com/Samples /084.8/s12s.JPG ![]() [2] Description Mariecurie.jpg Portrait of Marie Skłodowska-Curie (November 7, 1867 – July 4, 1934), sometime prior to 1907. Curie and her husband Pierre shared a Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903. Working together, she and her husband isolated Polonium. Pierre died in 1907, but Marie continued her work, namely with Radium, and received a Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1911. Her death is mainly attributed to excess exposure to radiation. Date ca. 1898 Source http://www.mlahanas.de/Physics/Bios /MarieCurie.html PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/d/d9/Mariecurie.jpg |
102 YBN [07/18/1898 CE] | 4354) Radium. | (École de Physique et Chimie Sorbonne) Paris, France | ![]() [1] Pierre and Marie Curie discovered radioactivity in the elements polonium and radium. Working in a stable, Marie purified 0.1 gram of radium from several tons of ore. Image: National Library of Medicine PD source: http://whyfiles.org/020radiation /images/curies_experiment.jpg ![]() [2] Description Mariecurie.jpg Portrait of Marie Skłodowska-Curie (November 7, 1867 – July 4, 1934), sometime prior to 1907. Curie and her husband Pierre shared a Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903. Working together, she and her husband isolated Polonium. Pierre died in 1907, but Marie continued her work, namely with Radium, and received a Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1911. Her death is mainly attributed to excess exposure to radiation. Date ca. 1898 Source http://www.mlahanas.de/Physics/Bios /MarieCurie.html PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/d/d9/Mariecurie.jpg |
102 YBN [09/08/1898 CE] | 4144) The inert gas Xenon identified and isolated. | (University College) London, England | ![]() [1] Xenon on the Periodic table GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xen on ![]() [2] Figure 1 from Rayleigh 1893 PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/d/d2/William_Ramsay_workin g.jpg |
102 YBN [1898 CE] | 4698) Sound recorded and played back magnetically. | (Copenhagen Telephone Company) Copenhagen, Denmark | ![]() [1] Description Telegrafon 8154.jpg Magyar: Valdemar Poulsen mágneses hangrögzÃtÅ‘ készüléke 1898-ból. A Brede Værk ipari múzeumban látható a dániai Lingbyben. Saját felvétel. Dansk: Valdemar Poulsen opfandt i i 1898 af en magnetisk optageenhed der kaldes en Telegrafon English: Magnetic wire recorder, invented by Valdemar Poulsen, 1898. It is exhibited at Brede works Industrial Museum, Lingby, Danmark. Date 25 October 2009(2009-10-25) (original upload date) Source Transferred from hu.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by User:Nico-dk using CommonsHelper. Author Original uploader was Bitman at hu.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this file) CC-BY-SA-2.5; Released under the GNU Free Documentation License. GNU source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/f/f9/Telegrafon_8154.jpg ![]() [2] 1 Valdemar Poulsen (1869-1942), der Erfinder der magnetischen Schallaufzeichnung UNKNOWN source: http://www.theimann.com/Analog/H istory/100_Jahre/Bild1.jpg |
101 YBN [1899 CE] | 3825) Hydrogen solidified. | (Royal Institution) London, England (presumably) | ![]() [1] Figures from Chemical News article by James Dewar ''Solid Hydrogen'' PD source: http://books.google.com/books?id =958EAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PT49&dq=chemical+ne ws+dewar+solidification+date:1899-1899&e i=ZcdnSaXOJYrUkwSazf0m#PRA1-PT129,M1 ![]() [2] Picture taken from page 230 of T. O’Connor Sloane's Liquid Air and the Liquefaction of Gases, second edition, published by Norman W. Henley and Co., New York, 1900. PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/en/8/89/Dewar_James.jpg |
101 YBN [1899 CE] | 4836) Actinium identified. | (Sorbonne) Paris, France | ![]() [1] Presumably actinium, a soft, silvery-white metal which glows in the dark. UNKNOWN source: http://www.rsc.org/chemsoc/visua lelements/pages/data/graphic/ac_data.jpg ![]() [2] Actinium on periodic table GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Act inium |
99 YBN [1901 CE] | 4124) Europium identified and isolated. | (personal lab) Paris, France | ![]() [1] europium CC source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/a/ab/EU5P17G-crop.jpg ![]() [2] Eugène Anatole DEMARCAY (1852 - 1904) PD source: http://histoirechimie.free.fr/Li en/Demarcay.jpg |
98 YBN [1902 CE] | 3609) Electronic sending and printing (copying) of a photograph to another photograph. | München, Germany | ![]() [1] Essai d'une transmission de téléphotographie (1904) PD/Corel [t Korn's photocopying telegraph transmitter and receiver] PD/Corel source: http://histv.free.fr/images/korn 8.jpg ![]() [2] Dr. Arthur Korn 1870 - 1945 PD/Corel source: http://www.hffax.de/assets/image s/a_Korn.gif |
97 YBN [03/23/1903 CE] | 4493) First powered, sustained, and controlled airplane flight. US inventors and brothers, Wilbur Wright (CE 1867-1912) and Orville Wright (CE 1871-1948) build and fly the first successful powered, sustained, and controlled airplane. | Kill Devil Hills, North Carolina, USA | ![]() [1] Description First flight2.jpg English: First successful flight of the Wright Flyer, by the Wright brothers. The machine traveled 120 ft (36.6 m) in 12 seconds at 10:35 a.m. at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. Orville Wright was at the controls of the machine, lying prone on the lower wing with his hips in the cradle which operated the wing-warping mechanism. Wilbur Wright ran alongside to balance the machine, and just released his hold on the forward upright of the right wing in the photo. The starting rail, the wing-rest, a coil box, and other items needed for flight preparation are visible behind the machine. This was considered ''the first sustained and controlled heavier-than-air, powered flight'' by the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale. Français : L’un des premier vols habités de l’histoire dans un aéronef plus lourd que l’air (36.6 mètres en 12 secondes), par les frères Wright le 17 décembre 1903 à 10h35 sur la plage de Kitty Hawk en Caroline du Nord. Orville est aux commandes, allongé sur le ventre sur l’aile basse et les hanches dans la nacelle qui servait à contrôler le mouvement des ailes ; Wilbur court le long de l’appareil et vient de lacher l’aile droite. Le rail de lancement, des étais et d’autres équipements nécessaires pour la préparation du vol sont visibles. 日本語: 1903å¹´12月17æ—¥ã€ãƒ©ã‚¤ãƒˆå…„弟ãŒäº ºé¡žåˆã®å‹•åŠ›é£›è¡Œæ©Ÿã§ã®æœ‰äººé£› è¡Œã«æˆåŠŸã—ãŸæ™‚ã®å†™çœŸã€‚ Date 17 December 1903 PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/8/86/First_flight2.jpg ![]() [2] * Description: Wilbur Wright Background notes: Wright brothers English: Early Wright brother’s airplanes explored basic principles of flight. The Wright brothers are widely credited with engineering the first aircraft capable of sustained powered flight. Commons-emblem-notice.svg Wright brothers Wikipedia: Asturianu Bosanski Català ČeÅ¡tina Dansk Deutsch English Esperanto Español Euskara Suomi Français עברית Magyar Bahasa Indonesia Italiano 日本語 í•œêµì–´ Latina Lietuvių Nederlands Norsk (BokmÃ¥l) Polski Português РуÑÑкий SlovenÄina SlovenÅ¡Äina СрпÑки / Srpski Svenska ไทย Türkçe Tiếng Việt ä¸æ–‡ Other links: US inventors *** Smithsonian Stories of the Wright flights *** National Park Service, Wright Brothers' Memorial *** PBS Nova: The Wright Brothers' Flying Machines * Source: http://lcweb2.loc.gov/pp/wrihtml/wribac. html * Photographer: unknwon PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/7/77/Wilbur_Wright.jpg |
96 YBN [1904 CE] | 5099) Radar: Radio light used to determine location of distant objects. | Düsselsorf, Germany (presumably) | ![]() [1] Figure 1: Hülsmeyer’s German 165,546 (1904) telemobileoscope PD source: http://www.q-track.com/Files/fil es/Schantz-RF%20since%20WWII.pdf ![]() [2] Christian Huelsmeyer UNKNOWN source: http://www.radarworld.org/images /scans/Hulsmeyer.jpg |
94 YBN [12/21/1906 CE] | 4788) Electric switch and vacuum tube amplifier. | (De Forest Radio Telephone Company) New York City, New York, USA | ![]() [1] From De Forest 1907 Patent: Lee De Forest, ''Space Telegraphy'', Patent number: 879532, Filing date: Jan 29, 1907, Issue date: Feb 18, 1908 http://www.google.com/patents?id=6 i1vAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f alse PD source: http://www.google.com/patents?id =6i1vAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f =false ![]() [2] Description Lee De Forest.jpg en:Lee De Forest, published in the February 1904 issue of The Electrical Age. PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/6/65/Lee_De_Forest.jpg |
93 YBN [1907 CE] | 4764) Element Lutetium. | (Sorbonne) Paris, France | ![]() [1] Lutetium Metal COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.americanelements.com/ ingot.jpg ![]() [2] Georges Urbain UNKNOWN source: http://er.uqam.ca/nobel/c3410/im age041.png |
92 YBN [06/06/1908 CE] | 3616) Electronic half-tone (photographic) image transmitted and received using photons (wireless radio). | London, England | ![]() [1] From top to bottom, left to right Top: Plan View of Receiver Showing Negative Received. Middle: Plan View of Transmitter Showing Traveling Carriage Carrying Picture. Bottom Left: The Transmitting Apparatus Bottom Middle: Photograph of Edward VII. Transmitted by Wireless Telegraphy. Bottom Right: The Receiver Showing Relay to Which Recording Needle is Connected. PD/Corel source: KNUDSEN'S PROCESS OF TRANSMITTING PICTURES BY WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY. BY THE ENGLISH CORREESPONDENT OF THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN.. Scientific American (1845-1908). New York: Jun 6, 1908. Vol. Vol. XCVIII., Iss. No. 23.; p. 412 (1 page) |
92 YBN [06/27/1908 CE] | 4190) Helium liquefied. | (Leiden University) Leiden, Netherlands | ![]() [1] Plate 2 from Kamerlingh Onnes 1908 paper PD source: http://books.google.com/books?id =bYfNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi tions:0TAagV5ZkvksJU62wD#v=onepage&q=hel ium&f=false ![]() [2] * Author: anonymous or pseudonymous, per EU Copyright Directive (1993), Article 1, §§1-4 * This image was published not later than 1913 in conjunction with the Nobel Prize in Physics. * Sources: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi cs/laureates/1913/onnes-bio.html PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/9/94/Kamerlingh_portret.jp g |
91 YBN [1909 CE] | 4899) Wireless telephone. (Although clearly this invention must date back to the 1800s and perhaps even the 1700s, but like neuron reading and writing was kept from the public for a shockingly long time.) | (Marconi Company) London, England (verify) | ![]() [1] St. John's Newfoundland kite which received the famous signal 1901 PD source: B. L. Jacot de Boinod and D. M. B. Collier, "Marconi: Master of Space" (1935) ![]() [2] Marconi Station at Poldhu, Cornwall, from which first transatlantic signals were transmitted. Contrasted with top picture, the Bridgewater Beam transmitting station. PD source: B. L. Jacot de Boinod and D. M. B. Collier, "Marconi: Master of Space" (1935) |
89 YBN [06/??/1911 CE] | 3944) Earliest known explicit public description of a machine that records the sounds of thought from a brain, and of a machine that writes sounds back to the brain which are heard in thought. | New York City, NY | ![]() [1] image of ''Menograph'' tape of thought audio from Hugo Gernsback June 1911 story ''Ralph 124c 41 +''. PD source: Hugo Gernsback, "Ralph 124C 41 +", "Modern Electrics", Modern Electrics Publication, New York, Vol. 4, No. 3, June 1911. Taken from "Modern Electrics", Volume 3-4, Jan-Dec 1911, p164-165. ![]() [2] image of Hugo Gernsback June 1911 story ''Ralph 124c 41 +''. PD source: Hugo Gernsback, "Ralph 124C 41 +", "Modern Electrics", Modern Electrics Publication, New York, Vol. 4, No. 3, June 1911. Taken from "Modern Electrics", Volume 3-4, Jan-Dec 1911, p167. |
89 YBN [1911 CE] | 4908) Isotopes identified. | (University of Glasgow) Glasgow, Scotland | ![]() [1] Figure from: Frederick Soddy, ''The chemistry of mesothorium'', J. Chem. Soc., Trans., 1911, 99, 72-83. http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/A rticleLanding/1911/CT/ct9119900072 and http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/Arti clePDF/1911/CT/CT9119900072?page=Search {Soddy_Frederick_mesothorium_1911.pdf} PD source: Soddy_Frederick_mesothorium_1911 ![]() [2] Frederick Soddy UNKNOWN source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1921/soddy _postcard.jpg |
88 YBN [05/04/1912 CE] | 4939) X-ray refection ("diffraction") reveals crystal atomic structure. | (University of Munich) Munich, Germany | ![]() [1] From W. Friedrich, P. Knipping, M. Laue, ''Interferenzerscheinungen bei Röntgenstrahlen'', Annalen der Physik, Volume 346, Issue 10, pages 971–988, 1913. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do i/10.1002/andp.19133461004/abstract {La ue_Max_19130315.pdf} PD source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d oi/10.1002/andp.19133461004/pdf ![]() [2] X-ray photograph of Zinc blende PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/0/0e/Max_von_Laue.jpg |
88 YBN [11/11/1912 CE] | 4404) Diffraction explained as particle reflection. | (Cavindish Laboratory, Cambridge University) Cambridge, England | ![]() [1] Figure 2 from: Bragg, W.L. The Diffraction of Short Electromagnetic Waves by a Crystal. Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, 1913: 17, pp. 43-57. {Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111 .pdf} PD source: Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111. ![]() [2] Figures 3 and 4 from: Bragg, W.L. The Diffraction of Short Electromagnetic Waves by a Crystal. Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, 1913: 17, pp. 43-57. {Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111 .pdf} PD source: Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111. |
88 YBN [12/20/1912 CE] | 4863) Spiral nebulae (galaxies) thought to have very high velocity relative to us. | (Percival Lowell's observatory) Flagstaff, Arizona, USA | ![]() [1] Vesto Melvin Slipher (11/11/1875 - 08/11/1969) UNKNOWN source: http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu /BruceMedalists/Slipher/slipher.jpg |
86 YBN [07/28/1914 CE] | 4792) Sound recorded and played back with images on plastic film. | Berlin, Germany (verify) | ![]() [1] Eric Tigerstedts ljudfilmspatent nummer 309.536 från 28/7 1914 PD source: http://www.filmsoundsweden.se/vo xbilder/filmhist/tigerstedt.jpg ![]() [2] Sound in Movies (Eric Tigerstedt) PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/fi/thumb/f/f3/Eric_Tigerstedt_1915 .jpg/250px-Eric_Tigerstedt_1915.jpg |
83 YBN [1917 CE] | 4761) Ultrasound produced by piezoelectricity and used to determine location of objects (sonar). | (Collège de France) Paris, France (presumably) | ![]() [1] Description Paul Langevin.jpg Paul Langevin Date 2007-02-13 (original upload date) Unknown - before 1946 (original picture) Source Originally from en.wikipedia; description page is/was here. Original source: http://www.nndb.com/people/085/000099785 /paul-langevin-1-sized.jpg PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/6/65/Paul_Langevin.jpg |
82 YBN [04/??/1918 CE] | 5008) Sun determined to be in outer part of galaxy. | (Mount Wilson Solar Observatory) Mount Wilson, California, USA | ![]() [1] Figure 1 from: Shapley, ''Remarks on the Arrangement of the Sidereal Universe'', Astrophysical Journal, 49 (1919), 311–336. http://books.google.com/books?id=wX4OA AAAIAAJ&pg=PA311&lpg=PA311&dq=Remarks+on +the+Arrangement+of+the+Sidereal+Univers e&source=bl&ots=Akurl3Ntg9&sig=CIY6NgmTy xBZqKK3RXWo3MWIr2U&hl=en&ei=hmMcTaKJK5So sAPG2ZDSAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result &resnum=2&ved=0CBoQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Re marks%20on%20the%20Arrangement%20of%20th e%20Sidereal%20Universe&f=false PD source: http://books.google.com/books?id =wX4OAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA311&lpg=PA311&dq=Rema rks+on+the+Arrangement+of+the+Sidereal+U niverse&source=bl&ots=Akurl3Ntg9&sig=CIY 6NgmTyxBZqKK3RXWo3MWIr2U&hl=en&ei=hmMcTa KJK5SosAPG2ZDSAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct= result&resnum=2&ved=0CBoQ6AEwAQ#v=onepag e&q=Remarks%20on%20the%20Arrangement%20o f%20the%20Sidereal%20Universe&f=false ![]() [2] * Harlow Shapley's observations placed the Sun about 25,000 light years from the center of our home Galaxy. * Photo credit: National Academies UNKNOWN source: http://www.cosmotography.com/ima ges/dark_matter_gallery/HarlowShapley.jp g |
81 YBN [04/??/1919 CE] | 4750) Humans change atoms of nitrogen into atoms of oxygen. Humans change atoms of nitrogen into atoms of oxygen (transmutation) by colliding accelerated alpha particles with nitrogen gas. | (University of Manchester) Manchester, England | ![]() [1] Figure 1 from Ernest Rutherford, ''Collision of α Particles with Light Atoms'', Phil. Mag. June 1919, s6, 37, pp581-87. PD source: http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/r uth.gif ![]() [2] Description Ernest Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date 2007-01-26 (original upload date) Source Transferred from en.wikipedia Author Original uploader was Sadi Carnot at en.wikipedia GNU source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp g |
80 YBN [1920 CE] | 4553) Secret: Microphone transmitter is nanometer in size. "Nanophone" transmitter developed but kept secret. This device uses light particles to transmit sounds to distant receivers. | unknown | |
80 YBN [1920 CE] | 4554) Secret: Camera transmitter is nanometer in size. "Nanocamera" developed but kept secret. This device uses light particle to transmit images to distant receivers. | unknown | |
80 YBN [1920 CE] | 4555) Secret: Neuron reader is nanometer in size. "Nano-thought-cam" ("nano-thought-reader", "Nano-neuron-reader") transmitter developed but kept secret. This device uses light particles to transmit thought-images and thought-sounds to distant receivers. It may be that sound, image and neuron reading and writing may all be consolodated into a single device. These device may have tiny light particle powered engines, and so may float around into a room, and be precisely positioned using tiny nanometer size engines. | unknown | |
80 YBN [1920 CE] | 4556) Secret: Nanometer sized neuron writing devices developed but kept secret. This device uses x particles (xray) to remotely write to neurons (make neurons fire) using very precise directional movement. | unknown | |
80 YBN [1920 CE] | 4557) Secret: Laser is nanometer in size. | unknown | |
77 YBN [01/02/1923 CE] | 5003) Element Hafnium. | (University of Copenhagen) Copenhagen, Denmark | ![]() [1] Properties and image of Hafnium GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haf nium ![]() [2] This is a file from the Wikimedia Commons Description George de Hevesy.jpg English: Source: http://www.oeaw.ac.at/smi/bilder/photo/H evesy.JPG Public domain: photographer died >70yrs ago. PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/b/b4/George_de_Hevesy.jpg |
77 YBN [06/14/1923 CE] | 3613) Electronic (photographic) moving (silhouette) images transmitted and received using photons (wireless radio). | Washington, D.C., USA. | ![]() [1] Motion Pictures by Ether Waves - August 1925 ''Popular Radio'' Article (Courtesy John Hauser) PD/Corel source: http://www.tvhistory.tv/1925-Aug -Popular-Radio-P107a.JPG ![]() [2] From ''Animated Pictures'' By Charles Francis Jenkins Charles Francis Jenkins PD/Corel source: http://books.google.com/books?id =uJYFAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA138&dq=C+Francis+Jenk ins&as_brr=1&ei=tjLdSLjvOJfStQPK2rGRCg#P PP6,M1 |
77 YBN [12/29/1923 CE] | 5058) Electronic scanning camera. (and radio frequency light particle (wireless) sending and receiving of images (television)?) | (for Westinghouse Electric Corporation, Pittsberg, PA, USA) Haddenfield, New Jersey, USA | ![]() [1] Drawing from Zworykin's 1923 patent application Television System. Vladimir K. Zworykin's patent 1923 Source http://www.google.com/patents/about ?id=bdYBAAAAEBAJ Date 1923 Author Vladimir K. Zworykin Permission (Reusing this file) See below. PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/en/8/84/Zworykin_patent_%281923%29 .jpg ![]() [2] Screenshot of Vladimir K. Zworykin from the documentary film the Story of Television Date 1956 and later Source Screenshot from the Story of Television from the Prelinger Archives in the Internet Archive Author Produced by Ganz (William J.) Co. and Radio Corporation of America (RCA) Film is in the Public Domain PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/3/30/Zworykin_docgrab.jpg |
75 YBN [01/01/1925 CE] | 5060) Spiral nebulae (galaxies) recognized to contain stars and be very far away (930,000 light-years). | (Mount Wilson) Mount Wilson, California, USA | ![]() [1] Edwin Hubble (with pipe) Photograph of famous deceased scientist Edwin Hubble for use in the appropriate encyclopedia article. Original Source: Edwin Hubble Biography at Western Washington University Planetarium: http://www.wwu.edu/depts/skywise/hubble. html UNKNOWN source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/en/6/64/Hubble.jpg ![]() [2] Edwin Hubble UNKNOWN source: http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac .uk/BigPictures/Hubble.jpeg |
75 YBN [07/13/1925 CE] | 5059) Color image electronic scanning camera. | (Westinghouse Electric Corporation) | ![]() [1] Figure from Zworykin 1925 patent PD source: http://www.google.com/patents?id =mZ9KAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f =false ![]() [2] Screenshot of Vladimir K. Zworykin from the documentary film the Story of Television Date 1956 and later Source Screenshot from the Story of Television from the Prelinger Archives in the Internet Archive Author Produced by Ganz (William J.) Co. and Radio Corporation of America (RCA) Film is in the Public Domain PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/3/30/Zworykin_docgrab.jpg |
75 YBN [10/22/1925 CE] | 5292) Non-vacuum tube electric switch and amplifier (transistor). First public millimeter size electric switch. | Brooklyn, New York City, New York, USA | ![]() [1] Figure 1 from: Julius Lilienfeld, Patent number: 1745175, ''METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR CONTROLLING ELECTRIC CURRENTS'', US Filing date: Oct 8, 1926, Canada filing date: October 22, 1925, Issue date: Jan 28, 1930. http://www.google.com/patents?id= uBFMAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f= false PD source: http://www.google.com/patents?id =uBFMAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f =false ![]() [2] Source: scanned passport photo Rationale: Photographer died >70yrs ago. GNU source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/en/5/59/Julius_Edgar_Lilienfeld_%2 81881-1963%29.jpg |
74 YBN [06/26/1926 CE] | 5131) Element Rhenium isolated. | (University of Berlin) Berlin, Germany | ![]() [1] Description Rhenium single crystal bar and 1cm3 cube.jpg Deutsch: Ein hochreiner (99,999 % = 5N) Rhenium-Einkristall, hergestellt nach dem Zonenschmelzverfahren, ein elektronenstrahlgeschmolzener (99,995 % = 4N5) Rheniumbarren, sowie für den Größenvergleich ein reiner (99,99 % = 4N) 1 cm3 Rhenium-Würfel. English: A high purity (99.999 %) rhenium single crystal made by the floating zone process, an ebeam remelted (99.995 %) rhenium bar and as well as a high purity (99.99 % = 4N) 1 cm3 rhenium cube for comparison. Date 25 September 2010(2010-09-25) Source Own work Author Alchemist-hp (talk) (www.pse-mendelejew.de) Permission CC source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/7/71/Rhenium_single_crysta l_bar_and_1cm3_cube.jpg ![]() [2] Walter Noddack 1893 - 1960 UNKNOWN source: http://www.ptb.de/cms/uploads/RT EmagicC_82fb10ee7d.png.png |
70 YBN [02/??/1930 CE] | 5009) Milky Way Galaxy recognized as one of many galaxies. | (Harvard College Observatory) Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA | ![]() [1] * Harlow Shapley's observations placed the Sun about 25,000 light years from the center of our home Galaxy. * Photo credit: National Academies UNKNOWN source: http://www.cosmotography.com/ima ges/dark_matter_gallery/HarlowShapley.jp g |
69 YBN [09/10/1931 CE] | 5446) Electron microscope. | (Technischen Hochschule/Technical University) Berlin, Germany | ![]() [1] Figure 2 from: M. Knoll und E. Ruska, ''Beitrag zur geometrischen Elektronenoptik.'', Ann. Physik 12 (1932) 607-661, eingegangen am 10.9.1931. http://ernstruska.digilibrar y.de/bibliographie/q004/q004.html {Rusk a_Ernst_q004_19310910.pdf} UNKNOWN source: http://ernstruska.digilibrary.de /bibliographie/q004/q004.html ![]() [2] Ernst Ruska, 1939 UNKNOWN source: http://www.siemens.com/history/p ool/perseunlichkeiten/wissenschaftler/ru ska_1939.jpg |
68 YBN [02/17/1932 CE] | 5086) Neutron identified. | (Cavendish Lab University of Cambridge) Cambridge, England | ![]() [1] Figure 1 from: J. Chadwick, ''The Existence of a Neutron'', Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical and Physical Character, Vol. 136, No. 830 (Jun. 1, 1932), pp. 692-708. http://www.jstor.org/stable/95 816 {Chadwick_James_19320510.pdf} {full report: 05/10/1932} COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfp lus/95816.pdf?acceptTC=true ![]() [2] Description Chadwick.jpg en:James Chadwick Date ~1935 (original photograph), 2007-08-11 (original upload date) Source Transfered from en.wikipedia. Original source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi cs/laureates/1935/chadwick-bio.html COP YRIGHTED source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/c/c2/Chadwick.jpg |
66 YBN [03/17/1934 CE] | 4755) Atomic fusion. Helium atom made from two hydrogen atoms. | (Cambridge University) Cambridge, England | ![]() [1] Figures 4, 5 and 6 from Oliphant, Harteck, Rutherford, ''Transmutation Effects observed with Heavy Hydrogen'', Proceedings of the Royal Society, A, 144, 1934, pp692-703. COPYRIGHTED source: Oliphant, Harteck, Rutherford, "Transmutation Effects observed with Heavy Hydrogen", Proceedings of the Royal Society, A, 144, 1934, pp692-703. ![]() [2] Description Ernest Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date 2007-01-26 (original upload date) Source Transferred from en.wikipedia Author Original uploader was Sadi Carnot at en.wikipedia GNU source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp g |
66 YBN [06/28/1934 CE] | 5205) Sustained neutron driven atomic chain reaction understood. | (Claremont Haynes & Co) London, England | ![]() [1] Figure 2 from: L. Szilárd, ''Improvements in or relating to the transmutation of chemical elements,'' British patent number: GB630726 (filed: 28 June 1934; published: 30 March 1936).http://v3.espacenet.com/publicatio nDetails/originalDocument;jsessionid=8B2 86F84EEDA7D654C9A04127F25CBA9.espacenet_ levelx_prod_5?CC=GB&NR=630726A&KC=A&FT=D &date=19360330&DB=&locale= {Szilard_Leo _19340628.pdf} PD source: http://v3.espacenet.com/publicat ionDetails/originalDocument;jsessionid=8 B286F84EEDA7D654C9A04127F25CBA9.espacene t_levelx_prod_5?CC=GB&NR=630726A&KC=A&FT =D&date=19360330&DB=&locale= ![]() [2] Leo Szilard (1898 - 1964) UNKNOWN source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima ges/bio/B56.jpg |
63 YBN [05/14/1937 CE] | 5548) Elements 93, 94, 95, and 96 identified from neutron uranium collision. | (Kaiser-Wilhelm-Instute fur Chemie in Berlin-Dahlem) Berlin, Germany | ![]() [1] Lise Meitner UNKNOWN source: http://www3.findagrave.com/photo s/2007/278/15166236_119171400954.jpg ![]() [2] Otto Hahn UNKNOWN source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz es/chemistry/laureates/1944/hahn.jpg |
63 YBN [05/22/1937 CE] | 5515) Image of individual atoms captured. | (Siemens and Halske) Berlin, Germany | ![]() [1] Figures 2-4 from: ''Fig 2. Tungsten cathode (filament) [011] - Direction in the middle. Fig 3. Tungsten cathode [211] - Direction, almost in the middle. Fig 4. Sphere model with the lattice directions of a cube-based emission tungsten cathode, field of view as Fig 3.'' [2] Erwin W. Müller, ''Elektronenmikroskopische Beobachtungen von Feldkathoden'', Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and Nuclei, Volume 106, Numbers 9-10, 541-550, DOI: 10.1007/BF01339895 http://www.springerl ink.com/content/h425u71vqh66w886/ {Mull er_Erwin_W_19370522.pdf} English: ''Electron microscopic observations of field cathode'' source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont ent/h425u71vqh66w886/ ![]() [2] COPYRIGHTED source: http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/opti cs/timeline/people/antiqueimages/mueller .jpg |
63 YBN [06/30/1937 CE] | 5364) Element technetium. | (Royal University) Polermo, Italy | ![]() [1] Description Tc,43.jpg Technetium Date Uploaded 2005-06-01 on af: Source Lapp, Ralph E. and the Editors of Life (1965). Matter: Life Science Library. New York: TIME Incorporated. Author Attributed as a U.S. government image in scanning source PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/4/40/Tc%2C43.jpg ![]() [2] This is a file from the Wikimedia Commons Los Alamos wartime badge photo: Emilio Segrè Source: Los Alamos National Laboratory, http://www.lanl.gov/history/wartime/staf f.shtml PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/7/71/Emilio_Segre_ID_badge .png |
62 YBN [06/22/1938 CE] | 5448) First image of virus. | (Berliner Medizinischen Gesellschaft/Berlin Medical Society) Berlin, Germany | ![]() [1] (ubermikroskop) Ultramicroscope image of the virus of ectromelia in the point mouse. Infectious material from the lymph of an infected paw. magnified 20,000x. Figure 1 from: B. v. Borries, E. Ruska und H. Ruska, ''Bakterien und Virus in übermikroskopischer Aufnahme.'', Klin. Wochenschrift 17 (1938) 921-925. http://ernstruska.digilibrary. de/bibliographie/q021/q021.html {Ruska_ Ernst_19380622.pdf} UNKNOWN source: http://ernstruska.digilibrary.de /bibliographie/q021/q021.html ![]() [2] Ernst Ruska, 1939 UNKNOWN source: http://www.siemens.com/history/p ool/perseunlichkeiten/wissenschaftler/ru ska_1939.jpg |
61 YBN [01/16/1939 CE] | 4925) Atomic fission recognized. | (Academy of Sciences) Stockholm, Sweden (Meitner), (University of Copenhagen), Copenhagen, Denmark (Frisch) | ![]() [1] Otto Frisch Los Alamos wartime badge photo: Otto R. Frisch Source: Los Alamos National Laboratory, http://www.lanl.gov/history/wartime/staf f.shtml PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/2/20/Otto_Frisch_ID_badge. png ![]() [2] Lise Meitner UNKNOWN source: http://www3.findagrave.com/photo s/2007/278/15166236_119171400954.jpg |
60 YBN [07/16/1940 CE] | 5365) Element astatine. | (University of California) Berkeley, California, USA | ![]() [1] Figure 1 from: Corson, D. R.; MacKenzie, K. R.; Segrè, E. ''Artificially Radioactive Element 85''. Phys. Rev. 1940, 58: 672–678. http://dx.doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.58 .672 {Segre_Emilio_19400716.pdf} COPYR IGHTED source: http://dx.doi.org/10.1103%2FPhys Rev.58.672 ![]() [2] This is a file from the Wikimedia Commons Los Alamos wartime badge photo: Emilio Segrè Source: Los Alamos National Laboratory, http://www.lanl.gov/history/wartime/staf f.shtml PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/7/71/Emilio_Segre_ID_badge .png |
58 YBN [11/04/1942 CE] | 5289) First planet of a different star detected. | (Sproul Observatory, Swartmore University), Swarthmore, Pennsylvania, USA | ![]() [1] Figure 1 from: Strand, K. A., ''61 Cygni as a Triple System'', Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, Vol. 55, No. 322, p.29-32. http://articles.adsabs.harvard .edu/full/seri/PASP./0055//0000030.000.h tml {Strand_K_A_19421104.pdf} UNKNOWN source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e du/full/seri/PASP./0055//0000030.000.htm l ![]() [2] Description KajStrand.jpg English: Kaj Aage Gunnar Strand (27 February 1907 - 31 October 2000) was director of the U.S. Naval Observatory from 1963 to 1977. He specialized in astrometry, especially work on double stars and stellar distances. Date 2000(2000) Source http://ad.usno.navy.mil/wds/history /strand.html Author U.S.Navy Permission (Reusing this file) PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/5/59/KajStrand.jpg |
58 YBN [12/02/1942 CE] | 5277) Sustained uranium fission reaction. | (University of Chicago) Chicago, Illinois, USA | ![]() [1] Figure 5 from: ''Experimental production of a Divergent Chain Reaction'', American Journal of Physics, 20, 1952, 536-558. http://ajp.aapt.org/resource/1 /ajpias/v20/i9/p536_s1 {Fermi_Enrico_19 520627.pdf} COPYRIGHTED source: http://ajp.aapt.org/resource/1/a jpias/v20/i9/p536_s1 ![]() [2] Enrico Fermi from Argonne National Laboratory PD source: http://www.osti.gov/accomplishme nts/images/08.gif |
57 YBN [11/01/1943 CE] | 4916) DNA molecule recognized as molecule responsible for physical structural changes and the inheritance of those structural changes for some bacteria. | (Rockefeller Institute, now called Rockefeller University) New York City, New York, USA | ![]() [1] EXPLANATION OF PLATE The photograph was made by Mr. Joseph B. Haulenbeek. FIG. 1. Colonies of the R variant (R36A) derived from Pneumococcus Type n. Plated on blood agar from a culture grown in serum broth in the absence of the transforming substance. X 3.5. FIO. 2. Colonies on blood agar of the same cells after induction of transformation during growth in the same medium with the addition of active transforming principle isolated from Type nI pneumococci. The smooth, glistening, mucoid colonies shown are characteristic of Pneumococcus Type In and readily distinguishable from the small, rough colonies of the parent R strain illustrated in Fig. 1. X3.5. Downloaded from jem.rupress.org on December 24, 2010 Published February 1, 1944 COPYRIGHTED source: http://jem.rupress.org/content/7 9/2/137.full.pdf ![]() [2] Description Oswald T. Avery portrait 1937.jpg Portrait of Oswald T. Avery, cropped from a Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research staff photograph. Date 1937(1937) Source http://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/CC/A/A/ L/P/_/ccaalp_.jpg Author Unknown Permission (Reusing this file) Reproduced with permission of the Rockefeller Archive Center. PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/e/eb/Oswald_T._Avery_portr ait_1937.jpg |
54 YBN [09/17/1946 CE] | 5742) Sexual reproduction (conjugation) found in a bacteria (E. Coli). | (Yale University) New Haven, Connecticut, USA | ![]() [1] Joshua Lederberg UNKNOWN source: http://t3.gstatic.com/images?q=t bn:ANd9GcTip9U51ETe5PA23tMz7X9VOE3pFURQn PV-AHXSb4--tMcozbbL&t=1 ![]() [2] Edward Lawrie Tatum Nobel Prize photo COPYRIGHTED source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz es/medicine/laureates/1958/tatum.jpg |
53 YBN [06/26/1947 CE] | 5550) Elements 73 (tantalum) through 83 (bismuth) fissioned with deuterons, helium ions or neutrons. | (University of California) Berkeley, California, USA | |
50 YBN [01/23/1950 CE] | 5551) Element 97 (berkelium) identified. | (University of California) Berkeley, California, USA | ![]() [1] Description Berkeley 60-inch cyclotron.gif English: Photograph shows the 60-inch cyclotron at the University of California Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, in August, 1939. The machine was the most powerful atom-smasher in the world at the time. It had started operating early in the year. During the period of the photograph Dr. Edwin M. McMillan was doing the work which led to the discovery of neptunium (element 93) a year later. The instrument was used later by Dr. Glenn T. Seaborg and his colleagues for the discovery of element 94 (plutonium) early in 1941. Subsequently, other transuranium elements were discovered with the machine, as well as many radioisotopes, including carbon-14. For their work, Drs. Seaborg and McMillan shared the Nobel Prize in 1951. The machine was used for the ''long bombardments'' which produced the first weighable and visible quantities of plutonium, which was used at Chicago by Seaborg and his colleagues to work out the method for separating plutonium on an industrial scale at the Hanford, Washington, plutonium pro... РуÑÑкий: Ð¤Ð¾Ñ‚Ð¾Ð³Ñ€Ð°Ñ„Ð¸Ñ Ð¿Ð¾ÐºÐ°Ð·Ñ‹Ð²Ð°ÐµÑ‚ 60-дюймовый циклотрон в универÑитете Лаборатории California Lawrence Radiation, Беркли, в авгуÑте 1939. Машина была Ñамым Ñильным уÑкорителем чаÑтиц в мире в то времÑ. Date 1939(1939) Source National Archives logo.svg This image is available from the Archival Research Catalog of the National Archives and Records Administration under the ARC Identifier 558594. This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information. US-NARA-ARC-Logo.svg Author Department of Energy. Office of Public Affairs PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/7/72/Berkeley_60-inch_cycl otron.gif ![]() [2] Glenn Seaborg (1912 - 1999) UNKNOWN source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima ges/bio/B51.jpg |
50 YBN [03/15/1950 CE] | 5552) Element 98 (californium) identified. | (University of California) Berkeley, California, USA | ![]() [1] Description Berkeley 60-inch cyclotron.gif English: Photograph shows the 60-inch cyclotron at the University of California Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, in August, 1939. The machine was the most powerful atom-smasher in the world at the time. It had started operating early in the year. During the period of the photograph Dr. Edwin M. McMillan was doing the work which led to the discovery of neptunium (element 93) a year later. The instrument was used later by Dr. Glenn T. Seaborg and his colleagues for the discovery of element 94 (plutonium) early in 1941. Subsequently, other transuranium elements were discovered with the machine, as well as many radioisotopes, including carbon-14. For their work, Drs. Seaborg and McMillan shared the Nobel Prize in 1951. The machine was used for the ''long bombardments'' which produced the first weighable and visible quantities of plutonium, which was used at Chicago by Seaborg and his colleagues to work out the method for separating plutonium on an industrial scale at the Hanford, Washington, plutonium pro... РуÑÑкий: Ð¤Ð¾Ñ‚Ð¾Ð³Ñ€Ð°Ñ„Ð¸Ñ Ð¿Ð¾ÐºÐ°Ð·Ñ‹Ð²Ð°ÐµÑ‚ 60-дюймовый циклотрон в универÑитете Лаборатории California Lawrence Radiation, Беркли, в авгуÑте 1939. Машина была Ñамым Ñильным уÑкорителем чаÑтиц в мире в то времÑ. Date 1939(1939) Source National Archives logo.svg This image is available from the Archival Research Catalog of the National Archives and Records Administration under the ARC Identifier 558594. This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information. US-NARA-ARC-Logo.svg Author Department of Energy. Office of Public Affairs PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/7/72/Berkeley_60-inch_cycl otron.gif ![]() [2] Glenn Seaborg (1912 - 1999) UNKNOWN source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima ges/bio/B51.jpg |
50 YBN [03/15/1950 CE] | 5553) Fission of medium weight elements (copper, bromine, silver, and tin). | (University of California) Berkeley, California, USA | ![]() [1] Description Berkeley 60-inch cyclotron.gif English: Photograph shows the 60-inch cyclotron at the University of California Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, in August, 1939. The machine was the most powerful atom-smasher in the world at the time. It had started operating early in the year. During the period of the photograph Dr. Edwin M. McMillan was doing the work which led to the discovery of neptunium (element 93) a year later. The instrument was used later by Dr. Glenn T. Seaborg and his colleagues for the discovery of element 94 (plutonium) early in 1941. Subsequently, other transuranium elements were discovered with the machine, as well as many radioisotopes, including carbon-14. For their work, Drs. Seaborg and McMillan shared the Nobel Prize in 1951. The machine was used for the ''long bombardments'' which produced the first weighable and visible quantities of plutonium, which was used at Chicago by Seaborg and his colleagues to work out the method for separating plutonium on an industrial scale at the Hanford, Washington, plutonium pro... РуÑÑкий: Ð¤Ð¾Ñ‚Ð¾Ð³Ñ€Ð°Ñ„Ð¸Ñ Ð¿Ð¾ÐºÐ°Ð·Ñ‹Ð²Ð°ÐµÑ‚ 60-дюймовый циклотрон в универÑитете Лаборатории California Lawrence Radiation, Беркли, в авгуÑте 1939. Машина была Ñамым Ñильным уÑкорителем чаÑтиц в мире в то времÑ. Date 1939(1939) Source National Archives logo.svg This image is available from the Archival Research Catalog of the National Archives and Records Administration under the ARC Identifier 558594. This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information. US-NARA-ARC-Logo.svg Author Department of Energy. Office of Public Affairs PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/7/72/Berkeley_60-inch_cycl otron.gif ![]() [2] Glenn Seaborg (1912 - 1999) UNKNOWN source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima ges/bio/B51.jpg |
50 YBN [09/11/1950 CE] | 5555) Atomic fusion of large atoms. | (University of California) Berkeley, California, USA | ![]() [1] Description LWA Picture Final.jpg English: Head Photo of Luis W Alvarez Date 1968(1968) Source http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/ physics/laureates/1968/alvarez.html Aut hor Nobel Foundation PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/6/6e/LWA_Picture_Final.jpg |
48 YBN [04/02/1952 CE] | 5743) Gender found in a bacteria (E. Coli). | (University of Wisconsin) Madison, Wisconsin, USA and (Istituto Sicroterapico Milanese) Milan, Italy | ![]() [1] Joshua Lederberg UNKNOWN source: http://t3.gstatic.com/images?q=t bn:ANd9GcTip9U51ETe5PA23tMz7X9VOE3pFURQn PV-AHXSb4--tMcozbbL&t=1 ![]() [2] Two bacterial cells caught in the act of plasmid-mediated conjugation. Many plasmids are able to transfer horizontally from an infected donor (top) to an uninfected recipient (bottom) via conjugation. Conjugation is initiated by contact between donor and recipient cells via a plasmid-encoded protein appendage called a sex pilus. Conjugation results in the one-way transfer of a copy of the plasmid genome from donor to recipient. UNKNOWN source: http://www.yale.edu/turner/graph ics/Fig4.jpg |
47 YBN [04/02/1953 CE] | 5660) Structure of DNA (double helix) understood. | (Cavendish Laboratory, University of Cambridge) Cambridge, England | ![]() [1] Figure 1 from: J. D. WATSON & F. H. C. CRICK, ''Molecular structure of nucleic acids; a structure for deoxyribose nucleic acid'', Nature, (1953) volume: 171 issue: 4356 page: 737. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ al/v171/n4356/abs/171737a0.html {Crick_ Francis_Harry_Compton_19530402.pdf} COP YRIGHTED source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou rnal/v171/n4356/abs/171737a0.html ![]() [2] Francis Harry Compton Crick UNKNOWN source: http://scientistshowtell.wikispa ces.com/file/view/FrancisHarryComptonCri ck2.jpg/39149552/FrancisHarryComptonCric k2.jpg |
46 YBN [04/28/1954 CE] | 5265) Protein synthesized. | (Cornell University Medical College) New York City, New York, USA | ![]() [1] Chemical structure diagram from: Vincent du Vigneaud, Charlotte Ressler, John M. Swan, Carleton W. Roberts, Panayotis G. Katsoyannis, ''The Synthesis of Oxytocin'', J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1954, 76 (12), pp 3115–3121 http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs /10.1021/ja01641a004 {Du_Vigneaud_Vince nt_19540428.pdf} COPYRIGHTED source: http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1 021/ja01641a004 ![]() [2] Vincent du Vigneaud COPYRIGHTED source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz es/chemistry/laureates/1955/vigneaud.jpg |
46 YBN [05/05/1954 CE] | 5649) The maser. | (Columbia University) New York City, New York, USA | ![]() [1] Figures 1 and 2 from: J. P. Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and C. H. Townes, ''Molecular Microwave Oscillator and New Hyperfine Structure in the Microwave Spectrum of NH3'', Phys. Rev. 95, 282–284 (1954). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P R/v95/i1/p282_1 {Townes_Charles_Hard_19 540505.pdf} COPYRIGHTED source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR /v95/i1/p282_1 ![]() [2] Charles Hard Townes Nobel Prize photo COPYRIGHTED source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz es/physics/laureates/1964/townes.jpg |
45 YBN [04/18/1955 CE] | 5558) Element 101 Mendelevium identified. | (University of California) Berkeley, California, USA | ![]() [1] Description Berkeley 60-inch cyclotron.gif English: Photograph shows the 60-inch cyclotron at the University of California Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, in August, 1939. The machine was the most powerful atom-smasher in the world at the time. It had started operating early in the year. During the period of the photograph Dr. Edwin M. McMillan was doing the work which led to the discovery of neptunium (element 93) a year later. The instrument was used later by Dr. Glenn T. Seaborg and his colleagues for the discovery of element 94 (plutonium) early in 1941. Subsequently, other transuranium elements were discovered with the machine, as well as many radioisotopes, including carbon-14. For their work, Drs. Seaborg and McMillan shared the Nobel Prize in 1951. The machine was used for the ''long bombardments'' which produced the first weighable and visible quantities of plutonium, which was used at Chicago by Seaborg and his colleagues to work out the method for separating plutonium on an industrial scale at the Hanford, Washington, plutonium pro... РуÑÑкий: Ð¤Ð¾Ñ‚Ð¾Ð³Ñ€Ð°Ñ„Ð¸Ñ Ð¿Ð¾ÐºÐ°Ð·Ñ‹Ð²Ð°ÐµÑ‚ 60-дюймовый циклотрон в универÑитете Лаборатории California Lawrence Radiation, Беркли, в авгуÑте 1939. Машина была Ñамым Ñильным уÑкорителем чаÑтиц в мире в то времÑ. Date 1939(1939) Source National Archives logo.svg This image is available from the Archival Research Catalog of the National Archives and Records Administration under the ARC Identifier 558594. This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information. US-NARA-ARC-Logo.svg Author Department of Energy. Office of Public Affairs PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/7/72/Berkeley_60-inch_cycl otron.gif ![]() [2] Glenn Seaborg (1912 - 1999) UNKNOWN source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima ges/bio/B51.jpg |
45 YBN [06/20/1955 CE] | 5557) Elements 99 "einsteinium" and 100 "fermium" identified. | (University of California) Berkeley, California, USA | ![]() [1] Description Berkeley 60-inch cyclotron.gif English: Photograph shows the 60-inch cyclotron at the University of California Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, in August, 1939. The machine was the most powerful atom-smasher in the world at the time. It had started operating early in the year. During the period of the photograph Dr. Edwin M. McMillan was doing the work which led to the discovery of neptunium (element 93) a year later. The instrument was used later by Dr. Glenn T. Seaborg and his colleagues for the discovery of element 94 (plutonium) early in 1941. Subsequently, other transuranium elements were discovered with the machine, as well as many radioisotopes, including carbon-14. For their work, Drs. Seaborg and McMillan shared the Nobel Prize in 1951. The machine was used for the ''long bombardments'' which produced the first weighable and visible quantities of plutonium, which was used at Chicago by Seaborg and his colleagues to work out the method for separating plutonium on an industrial scale at the Hanford, Washington, plutonium pro... РуÑÑкий: Ð¤Ð¾Ñ‚Ð¾Ð³Ñ€Ð°Ñ„Ð¸Ñ Ð¿Ð¾ÐºÐ°Ð·Ñ‹Ð²Ð°ÐµÑ‚ 60-дюймовый циклотрон в универÑитете Лаборатории California Lawrence Radiation, Беркли, в авгуÑте 1939. Машина была Ñамым Ñильным уÑкорителем чаÑтиц в мире в то времÑ. Date 1939(1939) Source National Archives logo.svg This image is available from the Archival Research Catalog of the National Archives and Records Administration under the ARC Identifier 558594. This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information. US-NARA-ARC-Logo.svg Author Department of Energy. Office of Public Affairs PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/7/72/Berkeley_60-inch_cycl otron.gif ![]() [2] Glenn Seaborg (1912 - 1999) UNKNOWN source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima ges/bio/B51.jpg |
45 YBN [10/24/1955 CE] | 5366) Antiproton identified. | (University of California) Berkeley, California, USA | ![]() [1] Figure 1 from: Owen Chamberlain, Emilio Segrè, Clyde Wiegand, and Thomas Ypsilantis, ''Observation of Antiprotons'', Phys. Rev. 100, 947–950 (1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P R/v100/i3/p947_1 {Segre_Emilio_19551024 .pdf} COPYRIGHTED source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR /v100/i3/p947_1 ![]() [2] Description Segre.jpg English: Emilio Segrè Date 1959(1959) Source http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/ physics/laureates/1959/segre-bio.html A uthor Nobel foundation PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/4/41/Segre.jpg |
43 YBN [10/04/1957 CE] | 5486) First human-made satellite. | (Baikonur Cosmodrome at Tyuratam, 370 km southwest of the small town of Baikonur) Kazakhstan (, Soviet Union) | ![]() [1] Description Sputnik asm.jpg English: A replica of Sputnik 1, the first artificial satellite in the world to be put into outer space: the replica is stored in the National Air and Space Museum. Ùارسی: مدل ماهواره اسپوتنیک-۱، نخستین ماهواره Ùضایی جهان Suomi: Sputnik 1:n, maailman ensimmäinen ihmisen laukaiseman Maata kiertävän keinotekoisen satelliittin, jäljennös. Date 2004(2004) Source http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/database /MasterCatalog?sc=1957-001B Author NSSDC, NASA PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/b/be/Sputnik_asm.jpg |
42 YBN [06/06/1958 CE] | 5559) Element 102 (Nobelium) identified. | (University of California) Berkeley, California, USA | ![]() [1] Figure 1 from: A. Ghiorso, B. G. Harvey, G. R. Choppin, S. G. Thompson, and G. T. Seaborg, ''New Element Mendelevium, Atomic Number 101'', Phys. Rev. 98, 1518–1519 (1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P R/v98/i5/p1518_1 {Seaborg_Glenn_T_19550 418.pdf} COPYRIGHTED source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR /v98/i5/p1518_1 ![]() [2] Glenn Seaborg (1912 - 1999) UNKNOWN source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima ges/bio/B51.jpg |
42 YBN [06/06/1958 CE] | 5561) Element 106 (Seaborgium) identified. | (University of California) Berkeley, California, USA | ![]() [1] Description Berkeley 60-inch cyclotron.gif English: Photograph shows the 60-inch cyclotron at the University of California Lawrence Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, in August, 1939. The machine was the most powerful atom-smasher in the world at the time. It had started operating early in the year. During the period of the photograph Dr. Edwin M. McMillan was doing the work which led to the discovery of neptunium (element 93) a year later. The instrument was used later by Dr. Glenn T. Seaborg and his colleagues for the discovery of element 94 (plutonium) early in 1941. Subsequently, other transuranium elements were discovered with the machine, as well as many radioisotopes, including carbon-14. For their work, Drs. Seaborg and McMillan shared the Nobel Prize in 1951. The machine was used for the ''long bombardments'' which produced the first weighable and visible quantities of plutonium, which was used at Chicago by Seaborg and his colleagues to work out the method for separating plutonium on an industrial scale at the Hanford, Washington, plutonium pro... РуÑÑкий: Ð¤Ð¾Ñ‚Ð¾Ð³Ñ€Ð°Ñ„Ð¸Ñ Ð¿Ð¾ÐºÐ°Ð·Ñ‹Ð²Ð°ÐµÑ‚ 60-дюймовый циклотрон в универÑитете Лаборатории California Lawrence Radiation, Беркли, в авгуÑте 1939. Машина была Ñамым Ñильным уÑкорителем чаÑтиц в мире в то времÑ. Date 1939(1939) Source National Archives logo.svg This image is available from the Archival Research Catalog of the National Archives and Records Administration under the ARC Identifier 558594. This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information. US-NARA-ARC-Logo.svg Author Department of Energy. Office of Public Affairs PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/7/72/Berkeley_60-inch_cycl otron.gif ![]() [2] Glenn Seaborg (1912 - 1999) UNKNOWN source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima ges/bio/B51.jpg |
41 YBN [09/14/1959 CE] | 5597) Ship from earth lands on moon. The Soviet Ship Luna 2 lands on the moon of earth. The moon is shown to have no significant magnetic field or radiation belts. | (Baikonur Cosmodrome) Tyuratam, Kazakhstan (was Soviet Union) | ![]() [1] Luna 2 PD source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane tary/image/luna_2.jpg ![]() [2] Luna 1 PD source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image /spacecraft/luna1_vsm.jpg |
40 YBN [04/22/1960 CE] | 5768) The laser. | (Hughes Research Laboratories) Malibu, California | ![]() [1] Figure 1 from: Theodore H. Mainman, ''Ruby Laser Systems'', Patent number: 3353115, Filing date: Apr 13, 1961, Issue date: Nov 14, 1967 http://www.google.com/patents?id=b -lUAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f alse {Maimon_Theodore_Harold_19610413.pdf} PD source: http://www.google.com/patents?id =b-lUAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f =false ![]() [2] Description Ted Maiman Holding First Laser.jpg English: Theodore Maiman holding his invention of the world's first laser (invented May 16, 1960) Date 16 May 1983(1983-05-16) Source Template:TRW Author Kathleenfmaiman Permission (Reusi ng this file) PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/d/df/Ted_Maiman_Holding_Fi rst_Laser.jpg |
39 YBN [04/12/1961 CE] | 5601) First human to orbit the earth. | Saratovskaya oblast, Russia (was U.S.S.R.) | ![]() [1] The Vostok 1 capsule as recovered after landing. Currently on display at the RKK Energiya museum in Korolyov CC source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/en/7/70/Vostok_1_after_landing.jpg ![]() [2] Description Yuri Gagarin in Vostok 1 Source Mission photography Portion used Sufficient to show the face of Gagarin in his spacesuit within the capsule Low resolution? yes COPYRIGHTED source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/en/b/b1/Vostok1.jpg |
39 YBN [04/13/1961 CE] | 5560) Element 103, Lawrencium identified. | (University of California) Berkeley, California, USA | ![]() [1] Lawrencium on the periodic table GNU source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law rencium |
39 YBN [12/30/1961 CE] | 5663) That DNA nucleotides code for amino acids in proteins is understood. | (Cavendish Lab University of Cambridge) Cambridge, England | ![]() [1] Figure 1 from: F. H. C. CRICK, LESLIE BARNETT, S. BRENNER & R. J. WATTS-TOBIN, ''General Nature of the Genetic Code for Proteins'', Nature 192, 1227 - 1232 (30 December 1961); doi:10.1038/1921227a0 http://www.nature .com/nature/journal/v192/n4809/abs/19212 27a0.html {Crick_Francis_Harry_Compton_19611230. pdf} COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou rnal/v192/n4809/abs/1921227a0.html ![]() [2] Francis Harry Compton Crick UNKNOWN source: http://scientistshowtell.wikispa ces.com/file/view/FrancisHarryComptonCri ck2.jpg/39149552/FrancisHarryComptonCric k2.jpg |
36 YBN [10/08/1964 CE] | 5569) Element 104 identified ("Rutherfordium"). | (Joint Institute for Nuclear Research, Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions) Moscow, (U.S.S.R. now) Russia | ![]() [1] Figure 1 from: G.N. Flerov, Yu.Ts. Oganesyan, Yu.V. Lobanov, V.I. Kuznetsov, V.A. Druin, V.P. Perelygin, K.A. Gavrilov, S.P. Tretiakova, V.M. Plotko, ''Synthesis and physical identification of the isotope of element 104 with mass number 260'', Physics Letters, Volume 13, Issue 1, 1 November 1964, Pages 73-75, ISSN 0031-9163, DOI: 10.1016/0031-9163(64)90313-0. http://ww w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6X4 4-46M7GWT-DM/2/d343ea63b0ce878c4dcd550b2 f8d8d22 {Flerov_Georgii_Nikolaevich_196 41008.pdf} COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci ence/article/B6X44-46M7GWT-DM/2/d343ea63 b0ce878c4dcd550b2f8d8d22 ![]() [2] Georgy Nikolaevich FLEROV UNKNOWN source: http://159.93.28.88/flnr/history /flerov.jpg |
35 YBN [07/14/1965 CE] | 5615) First ship from earth to reach planet Mars, and to return images of the surface, Mariner 4. | Planet Mars | ![]() [1] Mariner 4 image 8E source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane tary/image/mariner4_8e.gif |
34 YBN [03/01/1966 CE] | 5613) First ship from earth to impact a different planet, Venera 3 impacts the surface of Venus. | Planet Venus | ![]() [1] Venera 3 PD source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane tary/image/venera_3.jpg |
34 YBN [04/04/1966 CE] | 5599) First ship of earth to orbit a body beyond the earth. | (Baikonur Cosmodrome) Tyuratam, Kazakhstan (was Soviet Union) | ![]() [1] Luna 10 PD source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image /spacecraft/luna10.jpg ![]() [2] First image of the far side of the Moon Earth's Moon The Luna 3 spacecraft returned the first views ever of the far side of the Moon. The first image was taken at 03:30 UT on 7 October at a distance of 63,500 km after Luna 3 had passed the Moon and looked back at the sunlit far side. The last image was taken 40 minutes later from 66,700 km. A total of 29 photographs were taken, covering 70% of the far side. The photographs were very noisy and of low resolution, but many features could be recognized. This is the first image returned by Luna 3, taken by the wide-angle lens, it showed the far side of the Moon was very different from the near side, most noticeably in its lack of lunar maria (the dark areas). The right three-quarters of the disk are the far side. The dark spot at upper right is Mare Moscoviense, the dark area at lower left is Mare Smythii. The small dark circle at lower right with the white dot in the center is the crater Tsiolkovskiy and its central peak. The Moon is 3475 km in diameter and north is up in this image. (Luna 3-1) PD source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/imgca t/hires/lu3_1.gif |
32 YBN [02/09/1968 CE] | 5739) Pulsars identified. | (Cavendish Laboratory, University of Cambridge) Cambridge, England | ![]() [1] Figure 1 from: A. HEWISH, S. J. BELL, J. D. H. PILKINGTON, P. F. SCOTT, R. A. COLLINS, ''Observation of a Rapidly Pulsating Radio Source'', Nature 217, 709-713 (24 February 1968) doi:10.1038/217709a0 http://www.nature. com/nature/journal/v217/n5130/abs/217709 a0.html {Hewish_Antony_19680209.pdf} COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou rnal/v217/n5130/abs/217709a0.html ![]() [2] Antony Hewish Nobel Prize photo COPYRIGHTED source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz es/physics/laureates/1974/hewish.jpg |
31 YBN [07/21/1969 CE] | 655) First human walks on the moon. | ||
31 YBN [07/21/1969 CE] | 5605) Humans land on the moon of earth. Humans land and move around on the surface of the moon of earth. | Moon of Earth | ![]() [1] English: Buzz Aldrin removing the passive seismometer from a compartment in the SEQ bay of the Lunar Lander. PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/8/8b/5927_NASA.jpg ![]() [2] Neil Armstrong PD source: http://www.aerospaceguide.net/sp acehistory/neil_armstrong.jpg |
30 YBN [06/16/1970 CE] | 5716) Two DNA molecules combined and the first artificial gene synthsized. | (University of Wisconsin) Madison, Wisconsin, USA | ![]() [1] Figure 1 from: K. L. AGARWAL, H. BÃœCHI, M. H. CARUTHERS, N. GUPTA, H. G. KHORANA, K. KLEPPE, A. KUMAR, E. OHTSUKA, U. L. RAJBHANDARY, J. H. VAN DE SANDE, V. SGARAMELLA, H. WEBER & T. YAMADA , ''Total synthesis of the gene for an alanine transfer ribonucleic acid from yeast'', Nature 227, 27 - 34 (04 July 1970); doi:10.1038/227027a0 http://www.nature. com/nature/journal/v227/n5253/abs/227027 a0.html {Khorana_Har_Gobind_19700616.pd f} COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou rnal/v227/n5253/abs/227027a0.html ![]() [2] Har Gobind Khorana Nobel Prize photo COPYRIGHTED source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz es/medicine/laureates/1968/khorana.jpg |
29 YBN [11/14/1971 CE] | 5618) Ship from earth orbits another planet. | Planet Mars | ![]() [1] Mariner 9 PD source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image /spacecraft/mariner09.jpg ![]() [2] Mariner 9 imagery of Olympus Mons volcano on Mars compared to the eight principal Hawaiian islands at the same scale. (Mariner 9 image mosaic, NASA/JPL) PD source: http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/volc/fi g38.gif |
29 YBN [11/27/1971 CE] | 5619) First ship from earth to impact planet mars. | Planet Mars | ![]() [1] Mars 3 Lander PD source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image /spacecraft/mars3_lander_vsm.jpg ![]() [2] Description Mars3 iki.jpg English: The Mars 3 spacecraft Date Source http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image/sp acecraft/mars3_iki.jpg Author NASA PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/1/13/Mars3_iki.jpg |
27 YBN [07/18/1973 CE] | 5752) Humans can transfer recombined segments of DNA into bacteria DNA. | (Stanford University School of Medicine) Stanford, California, USA and (University of California) San Francisco, California, USA | ![]() [1] Figure 7 from: Stanley N. Cohen, Annie C. Y. Chang, Herbert W. Boyer, and Robert B. Helling, ''Construction of Biologically Functional Bacterial Plasmids In Vitro'', PNAS November 1, 1973 vol. 70 no. 11 3240-3244. http://www.pnas.org/content/ 70/11/3240.short {Helling_Robert_B_1973 0718.pdf} source: http://www.pnas.org/content/70/1 1/3240.short ![]() [2] [t Verify this is the correct Stanley N Cohen at Stanford] Stanley N. Cohen, M.D. UNKNOWN source: http://sncohenlab.stanford.edu/i mages/stan_cohen.jpg |
27 YBN [12/03/1973 CE] | 5622) Ship from earth passes and sends close images of planet Jupiter. | Planet Jupiter | ![]() [1] Description http://history.nasa.gov/SP-349/p142.jpg English: Pioneer 10 Jupiter encounter. Date Source http://history.nasa.gov/SP-349/ch8. htm Author NASA Permission (Reusing this file) PD source: http://history.nasa.gov/SP-349/p 142.jpg ![]() [2] Pioneer 10 PD source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image /spacecraft/pioneer10-11.jpg |
25 YBN [10/20/1975 CE] | 5623) Ship orbits Venus and transmits the first image from the surface of another planet. | Planet Venus | ![]() [1] Image of the surface of Venus from Venera 9 PD source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/imgca t/hires/v09_lander.gif ![]() [2] Venera 9 Descent Craft PD source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane tary/image/venera_9_lander.jpg |
24 YBN [11/30/1976 CE] | 5695) Complete DNA sequence of virus determined. | (Cambridge University) Cambridge, England | ![]() [1] Figure 1 from: Sanger, F., Air, G.M., Barrell, B.G., Brown, N.L., Coulson, A.R., Fiddes, J.C., Hutchison III, C.A., Slocombe, P.M. and Smith, M., 1977. Nature (London) 265, pp. 687–695. http://www.nature.com/nature /journal/v265/n5596/abs/265687a0.html { Sanger_Frederick_19761130.pdf} COPYRIGHTED source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou rnal/v265/n5596/abs/265687a0.html ![]() [2] Frederick Sanger Nobel Prize photo COPYRIGHTED source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz es/chemistry/laureates/1958/sanger.jpg |
14 YBN [01/24/1986 CE] | 5628) Voyager 2 transmits the first close images of planet Uranus, its moons and rings. | Planet Uranus | ![]() [1] Description Uranus.jpg English: NASA photo of Uranus taken by Voyager 2. Caption: This pictures of Uranus was compiled from images recorded by Voyager 2 on January 10, 1986, when the NASA spacecraft was 18 million kilometers (11 million miles) from the planet. The images were obtained by Voyager's narrow-angle camera; the view is toward the planet's pole of rotation, which lies just left of center. The picture has been processed to show Uranus as human eyes would see it from the vantage point of the spacecraft. The dark shading of the upper right edge of the disk is the terminator, or day-night boundary. The blue-green appearance of Uranus results from methane in the atmosphere; this gas absorbs red wavelengths from the incoming sunlight, leaving the predominant bluish color seen here. Images shuttered through different color filters were added and manipulated by computer, greatly enhancing the low-contrast details in the original images. The planet reveals a dark polar hood surrounded by a series of progressively lighter convective bands. The banded structure is real, though exaggerated here. The Voyager project is managed for NASA by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Date January 1986(1986-01) Source http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/ca talog/PIA01360 Author NASA PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/b/bb/Uranus.jpg ![]() [2] Description Voyager.jpg Voyager 1 / Voyager 2 English: NASA photograph of one of the two identical Voyager space probes Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 launched in 1977. The 3.7 metre diameter high-gain antenna (HGA) is attached to the hollow ten-sided polygonal body housing the electronics, here seen in profile. The Voyager Golden Record is attached to one of the bus sides. The angled square panel below is the optical calibration target and excess heat radiator. The three radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs) are mounted end-to-end on the left-extending boom. One of the two planetary radio and plasma wave antenna extends diagonally left and down, the other extends to the rear, mostly hidden here. The compact structure between the RTGs and the HGA are the high-field and low-field magnetometers (MAG) in their stowed state; after launch an Astromast boom extended to 13 metres to distance the low-field magnetometers. The instrument boom extending to the right holds, from left to right: the cosmic ray subsystem (CRS) above and Low-Energy Charged Particle (LECP) detector below; the Plasma Spectrometer (PLS) above; and the scan platform that rotates about a vertical axis. The scan platform comprises: the Infrared Interferometer Spectrometer (IRIS) (largest camera at right); the Ultraviolet Spectrometer (UVS) to the right of the UVS; the two Imaging Science Subsystem (ISS) vidicon cameras to the left of the UVS; and the Photopolarimeter System (PPS) barely visible under the ISS. Suggested for English Wikipedia:alternative text for images: A space probe with squat cylindrical body topped by a large parabolic radio antenna dish pointing upwards, a three-element radioisotope thermoelectric generator on a boom extending left, and scientific instruments on a boom extending right. A golden disk is fixed to the body. Date Source NASA website http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/ima ge/images/spacecraft/Voyager.jpg Author NASA Permission (Reusing this file) PD-NASA PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/d/d2/Voyager.jpg |
11 YBN [08/25/1989 CE] | 5629) Voyager 2 transmits the first close images of planet Neptune, its moons and rings. | Planet Neptune | ![]() [1] A picture of Neptune taken by Voyager 2, showing off the Great Dark Spot which has since disappeared from the planet's surface. Original Caption Released with Image: During August 16 and 17, 1989, the Voyager 2 narrow-angle camera was used to photograph Neptune almost continuously, recording approximately two and one-half rotations of the planet. These images represent the most complete set of full disk Neptune images that the spacecraft will acquire. This picture from the sequence shows two of the four cloud features which have been tracked by the Voyager cameras during the past two months. The large dark oval near the western limb (the left edge) is at a latitude of 22 degrees south and circuits Neptune every 18.3 hours. The bright clouds immediately to the south and east of this oval are seen to substantially change their appearances in periods as short as four hours. The second dark spot, at 54 degrees south latitude near the terminator (lower right edge), circuits Neptune every 16.1 hours. This image has been processed to enhance the visibility of small features, at some sacrifice of color fidelity. The Voyager Mission is conducted by JPL for NASA's Office of Space Science and Applications. Source: http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog /PIA00046 PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/0/06/Neptune.jpg ![]() [2] Description Voyager.jpg Voyager 1 / Voyager 2 English: NASA photograph of one of the two identical Voyager space probes Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 launched in 1977. The 3.7 metre diameter high-gain antenna (HGA) is attached to the hollow ten-sided polygonal body housing the electronics, here seen in profile. The Voyager Golden Record is attached to one of the bus sides. The angled square panel below is the optical calibration target and excess heat radiator. The three radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs) are mounted end-to-end on the left-extending boom. One of the two planetary radio and plasma wave antenna extends diagonally left and down, the other extends to the rear, mostly hidden here. The compact structure between the RTGs and the HGA are the high-field and low-field magnetometers (MAG) in their stowed state; after launch an Astromast boom extended to 13 metres to distance the low-field magnetometers. The instrument boom extending to the right holds, from left to right: the cosmic ray subsystem (CRS) above and Low-Energy Charged Particle (LECP) detector below; the Plasma Spectrometer (PLS) above; and the scan platform that rotates about a vertical axis. The scan platform comprises: the Infrared Interferometer Spectrometer (IRIS) (largest camera at right); the Ultraviolet Spectrometer (UVS) to the right of the UVS; the two Imaging Science Subsystem (ISS) vidicon cameras to the left of the UVS; and the Photopolarimeter System (PPS) barely visible under the ISS. Suggested for English Wikipedia:alternative text for images: A space probe with squat cylindrical body topped by a large parabolic radio antenna dish pointing upwards, a three-element radioisotope thermoelectric generator on a boom extending left, and scientific instruments on a boom extending right. A golden disk is fixed to the body. Date Source NASA website http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/ima ge/images/spacecraft/Voyager.jpg Author NASA Permission (Reusing this file) PD-NASA PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/d/d2/Voyager.jpg |
4 YAN [07/01/2004 CE] | 5641) Ship orbits planet Jupiter. | Planet Saturn | ![]() [1] * original caption: Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) workers use a borescope to verify pressure relief device bellows integrity on a radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG) which has been installed on the Cassini spacecraft in the Payload Hazardous Servicing Facility. The activity is part of the mechanical and electrical verification testing of RTGs during prelaunch processing. RTGs use heat from the natural decay of plutonium to generate electric power. The three RTGs on Cassini will enable the spacecraft to operate far from the Sun where solar power systems are not feasible. They will provide electrical power to Cassini on its 6.7-year trip to the Saturnian system and during its four-year mission at Saturn. The Cassini mission is scheduled for an Oct. 6 launch aboard a Titan IVB/Centaur expendable launch vehicle. Cassini is built and managed for NASA by JPL. * date: 18. Dec 1997 * image ID: KSC-97PC-1070 * source: http://nix.ksc.nasa.gov/info;jsessionid= 1tplxxjif20rp?id=KSC-97PC-1070&orgid=5 PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/6/61/Cassini_assembly.jpg ![]() [2] Original Caption Released with Image: This is an artists concept of Cassini during the Saturn Orbit Insertion (SOI) maneuver, just after the main engine has begun firing. The spacecraft is moving out of the plane of the page and to the right (firing to reduce its spacecraft velocity with respect to Saturn) and has just crossed the ring plane. The SOI maneuver, which is approximately 90 minutes long, will allow Cassini to be captured by Saturn's gravity into a five-month orbit. Cassini's close proximity to the planet after the maneuver offers a unique opportunity to observe Saturn and its rings at extremely high resolution. Source: http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog /PIA03883 PD source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki pedia/commons/b/b2/Cassini_Saturn_Orbit_ Insertion.jpg |
FUTURE | |||
15 YAN [2015 CE] | 790) Humans walk around with walking robot assistants. | ||
20 YAN [2020 CE] | 775) All people in advanced nations have at least a 500kb/s Internet connection. | ||
20 YAN [2020 CE] | 4559) Walking robots produced in mass quantity, and available for public to buy. | unknown | |
30 YAN [2030 CE] | 791) Walking robots start replacing humans in most low-skill jobs (fast-food, fruit and vegtable picking, etc) Many humans will be unemployed, replaced by more efficient, more predictable, less expensive walking robots. However, the majority of humans will vote for a basic standard of living (eradicating starvation, etc) for all humans in developed nations. | ||
40 YAN [2040 CE] | 793) Helicopter-cars form a second line of traffic above the street level paved roads. Heli-cars are popular alternative to ground cars because of improvements to safety, for speed because street-level roads are overcrowded, and for only a little more cost. These cars are basically low flying, low-noise helicopters with ground driving abilities built in. These cars are required to travel over the already exiting roads because of sound level. These vehicles may have 3 propellers (or perhaps 1 propeller and 2 air thrusters) to allow driving more like a car without tilting. People will at first be hesitant to get into the helicars, but eventually, overcrowded traffic and a similar price will make switching from ground car to flying-car a simple choice. | ||
40 YAN [2040 CE] | 4560) Two leg walking robots that use artificial muscles are mass produced and available for public to buy. | unknown | |
40 YAN [2040 CE] | 4562) Kissing, hugging, sleeping together, and other non-sexual forms of pleasure for money decriminalized for humans over the age of 18. | unknown | |
40 YAN [2040 CE] | 4563) Marijuana decriminalized for humans over the age of 18. No humans are arrested for owning or selling marijuana. | unknown | |
50 YAN [2050 CE] | 792) Walking robots have completely replaced humans in most low-skill jobs (fast-food, fruit and vegtable picking, etc) | ||
50 YAN [2050 CE] | 4564) Two leg robot with artificial muscles robot can fly like a bird by flapping wings. | unknown | |
50 YAN [2050 CE] | 4566) First air highway, for flying cars established. | unknown | |
60 YAN [2060 CE] | 4567) Masturbation, genital, breast, buttock fondling for money decriminalized for humans over the age of 18. Humans over 18 are no longer arrested for trading manual masturbation, genital, breast or buttock fondling for money. | unknown | |
80 YAN [2080 CE] | 4568) Oral sex decriminalized for humans over the age of 18. No humans are arrested for receiving or providing oral sex for money with no regard to gender or either participant. | unknown | |
100 YAN [2100 CE] | 680) The majority of the humans on earth are aware that thought can be seen and heard, almost 200 years after its invention. This includes the vast majority seeing clear proof of this technology, and understand the history starting in 1910. | ||
100 YAN [2100 CE] | 794) 100 ships with humans orbit earth. | ||
100 YAN [2100 CE] | 4569) Walking robots can safely drive cars. Most consumer land vehicles are now driven by walking robots. | unknown | |
100 YAN [2100 CE] | 4570) Cocaine decriminalized for humans over the age of 18. No humans are arrested for buying or selling cocaine. | unknown | |
120 YAN [2120 CE] | 4571) Walking robots can safely fly flying cars (helicopters). Most flying cars are now controlled by walking robots. | unknown | |
130 YAN [2130 CE] | 4572) Humans land ship on asteroid. | unknown | |
140 YAN [2140 CE] | 687) Humans can convert most common atoms (Silicon, Aluminum, Iron, and Calcium) into the much more useful H2, N2 and O2. This allows humans to live independently of earth, on planets and moons without water. This opens up large cities on the waterless planets and moons, and increases the supplies of H2 and O2 for those in between planets and in planetary or steller orbit. This is a simply process of separating atoms, the most complex process of assembling atoms from protons and neutrons, or even from photons will take more time to figure out. Large scale conversion of larger common atoms into smaller more valuable atoms. Particle accelerators turn abundant atoms like silicon, and iron, into more useful smaller atoms like hydrogen, oxygen, and other atoms required by life, in particular as fuel and food to go to other planets and to provide air, water and food for life growing on other planets and moons. | ||
140 YAN [2140 CE] | 4573) Humans synthesize artificial milk and cheese. | unknown | |
150 YAN [2150 CE] | 659) First major nation to be fully democratic, where the people vote directly on the laws. | ||
150 YAN [2150 CE] | 4574) Excess carbon removed from the air on Earth. | unknown | |
150 YAN [2150 CE] | 4575) Walking robots land on moon of Earth and build buildings. | unknown | |
150 YAN [2150 CE] | 4576) Alcohol more popular than gasoline for gas engines. | unknown | |
170 YAN [2170 CE] | 4577) Humans live permanently on the moon of Earth. | unknown | |
190 YAN [2190 CE] | 4579) Seeing, hearing, and sending images and sounds to and from brains and remote muscle moving | unknown | |
200 YAN [2200 CE] | 795) 1000 ships with humans orbit earth. | ||
200 YAN [2200 CE] | 4580) Seeing, hearing, and sending images and sounds to and from brains and remote muscle moving is made public. Seeing, hearing and sending images and sounds to and from brains (telepathy, neuron reading and writing) is made public in most major nations. Although the public will still not be aware of the hundreds of years that neuron reading and writing was kept secret. The majority of the public will now get to see videos and windows in front of their eyes, and talk openly about what they see, to record and print out copies of what they see and their thought images and sounds. | unknown | |
200 YAN [2200 CE] | 4581) Nudity in public decriminalized. | unknown | |
210 YAN [2210 CE] | 4582) Representative democracy in China. All major nations representative or fully democratic. | unknown | |
220 YAN [2220 CE] | 4583) Walking robots land and walk around on surface of asteroid. | unknown | |
230 YAN [2230 CE] | 4584) Walking robots build buildings on planet Mars. | unknown | |
240 YAN [2240 CE] | 4585) Humans land and walk on the surface of an asteroid. | unknown | |
250 YAN [2250 CE] | 4586) Humans live permanently on an asteroid. | unknown | |
250 YAN [2250 CE] | 4587) Total freedom of all information for the most developed nations on earth. This ends arrests of humans for owning, buying or selling images that violate national secrecy, copyright, patent, trademark, privacy, or are graphically violent, are pornographic. This greatly helps to lower the quantity of violence and spread of disease on earth. | unknown | |
250 YAN [2250 CE] | 4588) Prostitution completely decriminalized in most major nations. This includes all forms of trading money for physical pleasure. | unknown | |
250 YAN [2250 CE] | 4589) Recreational drug possession decriminalized in most major nations. | unknown | |
250 YAN [2250 CE] | 4590) Walking robots land and walk around on the surface of planet Mercury. | unknown | |
250 YAN [2250 CE] | 4591) Walking robots land and walk around on the surface of a moon of Jupiter. | unknown | |
260 YAN [2260 CE] | 4592) Humans land on the surface of Mars. | unknown | |
260 YAN [2260 CE] | 4593) Walking robots land and walk around on the surface of a moon of Saturn. | unknown | |
270 YAN [2270 CE] | 4594) Humans live on the surface of Mars. | unknown | |
275 YAN [2275 CE] | 661) The majority of humans in developed nations are not religious. These people do not practice any religion, but may still believe in a god or gods. | ||
280 YAN [2280 CE] | 4595) All money used in the star system is electronic. | unknown | |
280 YAN [2280 CE] | 4596) Walking robots land and walk around on the surface of a moon of Uranus. | unknown | |
280 YAN [2280 CE] | 4597) Most humans simply think to each other and do not talk out loud. The majority of humans communicate through thought images and sound. The images and sounds are beamed directly to their brains. People view other people in windows which appear before their eyes, squares which show the image a person is thinking of, and other videos from the person's life appear around the image of the person. (Show image) | unknown | |
280 YAN [2280 CE] | 4598) First human populated ship that orbits the Sun. | unknown | |
290 YAN [2290 CE] | 4599) First ships that regularly transport huamns from Earth to the moon of Earth. | unknown | |
300 YAN [2300 CE] | 4600) First multistory building built on planet Mars. | unknown | |
300 YAN [2300 CE] | 4601) Walking robots land and walk around on the surface of Triton, the moon of Neptune. | unknown | |
300 YAN [2300 CE] | 4602) Post pubescent children get the right to vote, to work, to pose nude, and to have consensual sex. | unknown | |
300 YAN [2300 CE] | 4603) Sex in public decriminalized. | unknown | |
310 YAN [2310 CE] | 4604) Humans live in orbit of Venus. | unknown | |
320 YAN [2320 CE] | 4605) Walking robots land on the surface of Venus. | unknown | |
325 YAN [2325 CE] | 781) The majority of humans in developed nations do not believe in any heaven or hell. | ||
340 YAN [2340 CE] | 4606) Humans land on the surface of Mercury. | unknown | |
350 YAN [2350 CE] | 4607) Humans live permanently under and on the surface of Mercury. | unknown | |
350 YAN [2350 CE] | 4608) Humans live in orbit of Jupiter. | unknown | |
350 YAN [2350 CE] | 4609) Humans switch to a single time system for all places in the universe. | unknown | |
350 YAN [2350 CE] | 4610) The majority of humans, use a one letter equals one sound alphabet for all human language. | unknown | |
400 YAN [2400 CE] | 4611) Humans land on the surface of a moon of Jupiter. | unknown | |
400 YAN [2400 CE] | 4612) Humans send ships with walking robots to the stars of Alpha Centauri. | unknown | |
420 YAN [2420 CE] | 779) The majority of humans in developed nations do not believe in any gods. | ||
500 YAN [2500 CE] | 660) First humans permanently living in earth orbit. These may be employees of businesses that own ships that people visit, or possibly individual wealthy people that prefer to live in orbit living in "house" ships. Eventually, earth orbit will be filled with single family ships. | ||
500 YAN [2500 CE] | 683) Converting Venus atmosphere project is started. This project removes the Carbon from the atmosphere and converts it to H2, O2. This process may be done by thousands of surface (and/or low orbit) machines working in parallel. There is so much atmosphere on Venus, that I think this process will take as many as 1000 years. Based on a conversion rate of 1km3/day conversion by 1000 machines. | ||
500 YAN [2500 CE] | 774) All humans in developed nations are not religious. | ||
500 YAN [2500 CE] | 776) All people in developed nations no longer attend religious services at least once a month. | ||
500 YAN [2500 CE] | 4613) All viruses conquered, no known virus, when caught early enough, can kill human or any other species. | unknown | |
500 YAN [2500 CE] | 4614) End of death by aging. Humans use DNA to end the effects of aging. End of death by aging, through genetic editing, humans grow and develop to age 20, and then hold that body shape indefinitely, dying only from physical destruction. Most humans will now live for thousands of years, some even for millions of years. This causes the human population to grow at an extremely rapid pace. | unknown | |
550 YAN [2550 CE] | 4615) Humans live under and on the surface of Venus (in supercooled buildings?). | unknown | |
570 YAN [2570 CE] | 4616) First asteroid purposely moved by life. Multiple ships are used to create a mass large enough to change the motion of an asteroid using gravity. | unknown | |
600 YAN [2600 CE] | 678) Population of humans on earth is uncomfortably large at 1 trillion (1e12) humans. Presumes no humans leave earth. | ||
600 YAN [2600 CE] | 4617) First asteroid moved using propulsion engine (either built into the asteroid, or on a ship or ships connected to the asteroid by cables to pull the asteroid). | unknown | |
650 YAN [2650 CE] | 4618) First asteroid, that has its velocity and direction completely under human control. | unknown | |
650 YAN [2650 CE] | 4619) Humans create atoms from light particles. Humans create atoms from light particles. Humans assemble atoms from light particles. This may have already happened and was kept secret. This process involved focusing light particles to form protons, which are Hydrogen ions. The hydrogen can then be collided together to form larger atoms. Building atoms may require extreme precision and timing of how to make pieces of matter group together without dividing the accumulated cluster of matter into smaller pieces. At first this will probably be more of a theoretical and scientific achievement and not practical, the more practical process being separating larger atoms into smaller more useful atoms - like converting Iron and Silicon into Hydrogen, Oxygen and Nitrogen. | unknown | |
700 YAN [2700 CE] | 4620) Humans land on a moon of Saturn and live permanently in orbit of Saturn. | unknown | |
750 YAN [2750 CE] | 4621) Ship from Earth reachs a different star. Ship from Earth reachs a different star, Proxima Centauri. Ships with walking robots arrive at and orbit Proxima Centauri, 4 light years away (36 trillion km/22 trillion miles). Walking robots land ships and walk around on the surface of a planet of Proxima Centauri. This is perhaps 300 years after setting out from the star of Earth. The ship must travel with a velocity greater than 2% the speed of light to reach Centauri within 300 years. The robots send back close up images of the planets and moons orbiting Proxima Centauri. The robots then land ships on the planets, build builds, perform chemical analysis, sending all information back to the humans of Earth. Some of the ships will then move onto to Alpha Centauri A and B .1 light year away. This will take approximately 10 years. perhaps the robots find that there is life on at least one planet, but that it is the equivalent of bacteria of earth. This may provide proof that nucleic acids molecules like DNA and RNA, and even more evolved cells like bacteria and viruses are common throughout the universe, found on most planets of every star. Or perhaps the robots will find that the only life on the planets of other stars is bacteria that has arrived from earth. Seeing close-up images of planets of a different star will create a large amount of excitement in the humans on Earth and perhaps boost their confidence and interest in exploration. | unknown | |
760 YAN [2760 CE] | 4622) Walking robots reach the stars of Alpha Centauri A and B. The robots send back close up images of the planets around those stars. The robots land smaller probe ships on all the planets and moons, capture and transmit images, collect and analyze chemical samples. | unknown | |
800 YAN [2800 CE] | 780) All humans in developed nations do not believe in any gods. By the year 2800 CE many estimates indicate that, at current rates, all humans in developed nations will not believe in any gods, or any major religions. | ||
800 YAN [2800 CE] | 782) All humans in developed nations do not believe in any heaven or hell. | ||
800 YAN [2800 CE] | 4623) Humans have total control over the molecular content of the air on Earth. The quantity of O2, N2, CO2, etc is under complete control by humans. (to do: determine when if ever the weather of Earth will be under complete control.) | unknown | |
800 YAN [2800 CE] | 4624) A ship containing humans leaves for the stars of Alpha Centauri and will arrive successfully, perhaps 300 years later. | unknown | |
800 YAN [2800 CE] | 4625) Ships containing walking robots leave for Barnard's star, 6 light years away and will arrive successfully, perhaps 350 years later. | unknown | |
800 YAN [2800 CE] | 4626) Asteroid held in position relative to the star and other planets. The asteroid orbit is stopped, and the asteroid is held stationary in a fixed position relative to the star. | unknown | |
800 YAN [2800 CE] | 4627) Humans land on a moon of Uranus and live permanently in orbit around planet Uranus. | unknown | |
800 YAN [2800 CE] | 4628) First planet whose motion is purposely changed by humans. The motion of Earth and the moon of earth are purposely changed by orbiting ships. The large quantity of ships in orbit causes the motion of earth to be carefully monitored and periodically changed using mass organized ship movements. By this time the planet Earth and Moon are visibly surrounded by millions of orbiting ships. (show image) | unknown | |
900 YAN [2900 CE] | 4629) Human anatomical changes start to become apparent as a result of living many generations in low gravity. For humans who live their lives in low gravity, they may start to look more like ocean organisms - most of which do not walk on a surface but instead move themselves around in by water propulsion - for humans this being air propulsion. Humans may also develop more genitals and sex-related organs, and more accentuated sex organs, larger breasts, penises and scrotums, rounder buttocks, etc. Humans may start to have both sets of genitals, and converge to a single gender, which both gametes, like many plants. (perhaps should push to later time.) | unknown | |
900 YAN [2900 CE] | 4630) Humans land on Triton, moon of Neptune, and live permanently in orbit of Neptune.[t] | unknown | |
900 YAN [2900 CE] | 4631) Humans penetrate the surface of Jupiter. Humans find that the size of Jupiter is about 6 times the diameter of planet earth (verify), and is officially the second largest terrestrial body of this star system after the Sun. The surface of Jupiter is found to be molten liquid metal, mostly iron, silicon and the other most abundant atoms. | unknown | |
900 YAN [2900 CE] | 4632) Ships containing walking robots leave for the stars of Sirius, 8 light years away and will arrive successfully, perhaps 450 years later. | unknown | |
950 YAN [2950 CE] | 4633) Humans penetrate the surface of Saturn. As expected, the diameter of Saturn is 4 times that of Earth (verify) and is molten metal like Jupiter. | unknown | |
1,000 YAN [3000 CE] | 686) Humans find a way to end aging in humans. Humans learn to change the human genome in order to grow to a certain age and maintain that age without aging any farther. This has an immediate impact on the population growth of humans in the star system, increasing the population very quickly, limited only by water and food. Humans will then grow to age 20 and stay at that age for many thousands or even millions of years, unless they are destroyed by some non-aging event, such as an accident, or violent destruction. Initially this is done in single celled eukaryotes, and then multicellular eukaryotes, fish, reptiles, and mammals. | ||
1,000 YAN [3000 CE] | 4634) Planet Mercury is purposely moved by life. | unknown | |
1,000 YAN [3000 CE] | 4635) Humans penetrate surface of Uranus. The diameter is found to be around 3 times that of earth (verify) and is molten metal. | unknown | |
1,000 YAN [3000 CE] | 4636) Humans penetrate surface of Neptune. Like Uranus, the diameter is found to be around 3 times that of earth (verify) and is molten metal. | unknown | |
1,100 YAN [3100 CE] | 4637) Humans reach a different star. Humans reach a different star. Humans orbit a different star, Proxima Centauri. Humans can now claim to be a two star system civilization. This doubles the chances of the human species surviving and not going extinct. This brings the humans of earth one step closer to forming a globular cluster which would greatly increase their chance of survival long into the future. Humans will reproduce at a regular rate around Centauri, and in addition more humans will arrive from the star of Earth. (Track population of humans around Proxima Cetauri.) | unknown | |
1,150 YAN [3150 CE] | 4638) The ships containing walking robots arrive at Barnard's star, 6 light years away, 350 years after leaving the star system of Earth. The robots send back close up images of the planets and moons orbiting Barnard's star. The robots then land ships on the planets, build builds, perform chemical analysis, sending all information back to the humans of Earth. Humans now have ships orbiting 3 different stars. | unknown | |
1,200 YAN [3200 CE] | 4639) The motion of Mercury is under complete control by orbiting ships that move and thrust to change the motion of Mercury. | unknown | |
1,300 YAN [3300 CE] | 777) The majority of humans in traditionally undeveloped nations are not religious. | ||
1,350 YAN [3350 CE] | 4640) Ships from earth reach the stars of Sirius. Humans now have ships orbiting 5 different stars. | unknown | |
1,400 YAN [3400 CE] | 4641) Motion of Venus purposely controlled by orbiting ships. | unknown | |
1,500 YAN [3500 CE] | 684) Venus atmosphere project is completed. Venus becomes second earth (although without oceans and much more efficiently organized). Once temperatures came down, more and more humans would be living on the surface of Venus, in the intermediate stage. Again, based on a conversion rate of 1km3/day conversion by 1000 machines. | ||
1,600 YAN [3600 CE] | 4643) Motion of planet Mars and moons of Mars purposely controlled by orbiting ships. | unknown | |
1,700 YAN [3700 CE] | 4644) Converting the atmosphere of Jupiter to Nitrogen and Oxygen is started. | unknown | |
1,800 YAN [3800 CE] | 681) Population of humans on earth moon reaches physical maximum of 250 trillion (250e12) humans. | ||
1,800 YAN [3800 CE] | 4645) Motion of Jupiter controlled by orbiting ships. | unknown | |
1,800 YAN [3800 CE] | 4646) Humans now have ships orbiting 10 different stars. | unknown | |
1,900 YAN [3900 CE] | 682) Population of humans on planet Mars reaches physical maximum of 500 trillion (500e12) humans. | ||
1,900 YAN [3900 CE] | 4647) Motion of Saturn controlled by orbiting ships. | unknown | |
2,000 YAN [4000 CE] | 4648) Motion of Uranus controlled by orbiting ships. | unknown | |
2,100 YAN [4100 CE] | 4649) Motion of Neptune controlled by orbiting ships. | unknown | |
2,100 YAN [4100 CE] | 4650) Consuming and converting atmosphere of Saturn project initiated. This project will be completed 500 years later. The atmosphere of Saturn will be replaced with a nitrogen and oxygen atmosphere. | unknown | |
2,200 YAN [4200 CE] | 4651) Rings of Saturn completely consumed by humans living there. | unknown | |
2,200 YAN [4200 CE] | 4652) First planet held in stationary position relative to the star. The motion of planet Mercury is stopped, and the planet is held in a fixed position relative to the Sun. | unknown | |
2,200 YAN [4200 CE] | 4653) Project to consume atmosphere of Uranus started. Atmosphere of Uranus will be completely converted to a nitrogen and oxygen atmosphere. This will take 400 years to complete. | unknown | |
2,200 YAN [4200 CE] | 4654) Humans now have ships orbiting 20 different stars. | unknown | |
2,300 YAN [4300 CE] | 778) All humans in traditionally undeveloped nations are not religious. | ||
2,300 YAN [4300 CE] | 4655) Humans live on the surface of Jupiter. (requires supercooled station?) | unknown | |
2,300 YAN [4300 CE] | 4656) The clouds of Jupiter are completely converted into a nitrogen and oxygen atmosphere. This project is completed 600 years after its start in 3700. The colder temperatures of Jupiter and the 3 other largest planets would cause oxygen and nitrogen to be liquid, however, the surface of Jupiter produces some heat, and human-made heat-producing machines can be distributed throughout the planet surface where humans settle to keep the gases warm enough to stay in gas form. | unknown | |
2,300 YAN [4300 CE] | 4657) Project to consume atmosphere of Neptune started. | unknown | |
2,400 YAN [4400 CE] | 4658) All asteroids in between Mars and Jupiter have been converted into matter for fuel and food. | unknown | |
2,500 YAN [4500 CE] | 4659) Humans live on surface of Saturn. | unknown | |
2,500 YAN [4500 CE] | 4660) Humans live on surface of Uranus. | unknown | |
2,500 YAN [4500 CE] | 4661) Planet Mars held in stationary position. | unknown | |
2,500 YAN [4500 CE] | 4662) The motions of all planets of the Earth star are under complete control of humans. | unknown | |
2,600 YAN [4600 CE] | 4663) The air of Saturn is completely converted into an atmosphere of nitrogen and oxygen. | unknown | |
2,600 YAN [4600 CE] | 4664) The air of Uranus is completely converted into an atmosphere of nitrogen and oxygen. | unknown | |
2,600 YAN [4600 CE] | 4665) Humans live on surface of Neptune. | unknown | |
2,700 YAN [4700 CE] | 4666) More humans live on ships than live in and on the surface of planets, moons or asteroids. | unknown | |
2,700 YAN [4700 CE] | 4667) The air of Neptune is completely converted into an atmosphere of nitrogen and oxygen. | unknown | |
2,700 YAN [4700 CE] | 4668) Humans now have ships orbiting 50 different stars. | unknown | |
2,800 YAN [4800 CE] | 685) Population of planet Venus reaches physical maximum of 1 quadrillion humans (1e15). | ||
2,800 YAN [4800 CE] | 4669) Jupiter is the most populated planet of the Earth star system, overtaking earth in number of humans living on and around it. | unknown | |
3,000 YAN [5000 CE] | 679) Population of humans on and in earth reaches a theoretical physical maximum of 333 quadrillion (333e15) humans. | ||
3,000 YAN [5000 CE] | 4670) Humans completely control the translational (but not rotational) movement of the earth star. (Might humans stop the rotation of the Sun? It seems clear that it would be possible, by using gravitation to present a countering force.) | unknown | |
3,100 YAN [5100 CE] | 4671) Humans decode an image sent by life that evolved around a different star. Humans decode an image sent by life that evolved around a different star. Humans capture and decode an image created by a living object that evolved around a different star. This is the first time humans see images of living objects that evolved around a different star (presuming the images contain images of light reflected off the species that transmitted the image in light particles). It seems unlikely to me that a stream of particles that either form an image, or encode and image, could be sent very far without intending to send the particles to be received at very far distances, for example around other stars. For example, the light we see of the nearest stars, represents only a tiny fraction of the light emitted from the star. This shows that a transmitter of particles, would have to be very large to be received from living objects orbiting a distant star. Because of the value of the potential information gained, clearly trying to intercept every particle entering this star system will be and already is an important activity. This searching for intelligently coded particle beams from living objects of other stars, is all part of an information gathering process that all advanced life must participate in. This also involves sending probe ships to all nearby stars, not only to prospect for potential future homes, but also to see if any life has evolved around the star, life which may be a potential friend or enemy. Life of other stars may be looked at with some amount of curiosity and interest in learning what natural chemical and other scientific secrets have been unlocked, but also life of other stars will be looked at as an obvious expense to the finite resources available, even at a galactic scale. | unknown | |
3,200 YAN [5200 CE] | 4672) The matter of planet Mercury is completely used as fuel and food by life of the earth star. | unknown | |
3,200 YAN [5200 CE] | 4673) Humans occupy 10 stars in total. The human population is now: x. Humans now have ships orbiting around 100 different stars. | unknown | |
3,500 YAN [5500 CE] | 4674) Stars of Centauri and Earth moved closer together.Humans around the stars of Centauri control enough mass to start moving the three stars and orbiting matter closer to the star of Earth. At the same time the humans orbiting the Earth star, move the position of that star and orbiting matter closer to the stars of Centauri. This will make travel, communication and trading of matter between the two stars faster. The initial goal may be to have all 4 stars under 1 light year apart from each other. | unknown | |
4,000 YAN [6000 CE] | 4675) Humans touch living objects that evolved around a different star. Humans touch living objects that evolved around a different star. Humans touch living objects that evolved around a different star. Certainly, this will cause a large amount of excitement for the many billions of organisms of both star systems. | unknown | |
4,500 YAN [6500 CE] | 4676) Humans now control a globular cluster of 4 stars, the star of Earth, and the 3 stars of Centauri, all within 1 light year apart from each other. Humans occupy around 50 stars. In addition humans have ships orbiting 500 different stars. | unknown | |
6,000 YAN [8000 CE] | 4677) Life of earth occupies and controls a globular cluster of 10 stars, and inhabits around 100 other stars. Humans have ships orbiting 1000 different stars. Human population is now: x. | unknown | |
8,000 YAN [10000 CE] | 4678) All planets of the Earth star have been used as fuel and food, all that remains are ships that orbit the Sun and capture the particles the Sun emits to use for fuel, food, building material, etc. The inside matter of planets is utilized because otherwise, it is precious matter that is going unused. Most of this extracting of matter occurs on the earth surface. Massive holes are dug into the Earth that extend deep into the inner Earth. Two-leg robots (and perhaps some humans) populate and work deep inside the earth and the other planets moving inner material to the surface. | unknown | |
8,000 YAN [10000 CE] | 4679) Life of earth occupies and controls a globular cluster of 100 stars, inhabits around 1000 other stars, and has ships orbiting about 5000 other stars. Human population is now: x. | unknown | |
9,000 YAN [11000 CE] | 4680) Genetic engineering may produce humans that do not need to eat but get starch from photosynthesis like plants. | unknown | |
10,000 YAN [12000 CE] | 4681) Genetic engineering may remove the requirement of humans to urinate and deficate. | unknown | |
11,000 YAN [13000 CE] | 4682) Genetic engineering may produce humans that may not need oxygen. Perhaps particles from stars produce the necessary chemicals and reactions, like oxygen, hydrogen, etc. | unknown | |
12,000 YAN [14000 CE] | 4683) By this time our descendants may look extremely different from humans on earth now. For example, our descendants may be intelligent spherical blobs with various extensions (like arms and hands sex/pleasure organs), or perhaps they will retain a rigid, muscular form, but vastly different in shape and size. (Note: it seems likely that this change might not happen this quickly - clearly primates have evolved over millions of years - and those features are very similar - but it could be this fast because the change in surroundings is so different.) | unknown | |
13,000 YAN [15000 CE] | 4684) Life of earth occupies and controls a globular cluster of 1,000 stars, inhabits 10,000 other stars, and has ships orbiting around 100,000 stars. The human population is now: x. | unknown | |
100,000,000 YAN | 4685) All stars in the Milky Way Galaxy will belong to a globular cluster. It seems safe to presume that by 100 million years from now, all stars in the Milky Way Galaxy will belong to a globular cluster. | unknown | |
1,000,000,000 YAN | 4686) The Milky Way Galaxy is now a globular galaxy. The Milky Way Galaxy is now a globular galaxy. The Milky Way Galaxy is now a globular galaxy. No blue dust clouds remain, and all stars are inhabited yellow stars. It may be that the life of the Milky Way, then will position itself around each star to harvest every last light particle. If true, the external appearance of the Milky way would then appear to be a large radio source, blocking all light behind it. It seems very unlikely to me that all light particles could be held in some volume of space. Globular clusters start to pull in to center of galaxy. (show evidence for this in images of galaxies). Humans may chose to feed the Earth star and other stars under they ownership, or simply use the mass of the stars completely for food, fuel, building materials, etc. The globular clusters must feed their stars, using the matter of large blue stars to reduce their size to yellow stars, and then consistently feeding the star to keep it's mass constant. It seems more likely that it would take much less effort to simply consume stars completely. New stars would then need to be acquired. But yet, the fact remains that there are very few red stars in globular clusters (verify), so this implies that stars are fed and kept at a constant mass. But to feed a star, mass needs to be acquired, and probably more mass than is emitted from surrounding stars, although light particles from all the stars in a globular cluster must slow the loss of mass of the stars of the cluster. Perhaps the red stars are simply too dim to see. By examining stars of globular clusters over long periods of time, humans will be able to see clearly if their mass does decrease. | unknown | |
1,500,000,000 YAN | 4687) Milky Way and Magellanic Cloud Galaxies unite. Milky Way and Magellanic Cloud Galaxies integrate. The Milky Way Globular Galaxy integrates the matter of the Magellanic Cloud Galaxies becoming about twice as large as the original size of the Milky Way globular galaxy. | unknown | |
4,500,000,000 YAN | 4688) Milky Way and Andromeda Galaxies unite. Milky Way and Andromeda Galaxies integrate. The Andromeda Galaxy and Milky Way collide and start the process of joining together to form a single galaxy which is twice the size of the original Milky Way globular galaxy. The Milky Way will then continue its exploration, picking other galaxies to move to, moving to those other galaxies, integrating the matter of those galaxies into the Milky Way and continuing on to the next galaxy. Interestingly, this process may be a kind of massively large scale, "chase and be chased" or "hunt and be hunted" kind of occurance, as the Milky Way will seek galaxies that are weaker, while trying to out run galaxies that are stronger than itself. It may be that a galaxy may initially think that they can control the living objects of another galaxy, only to find that they are evenly or even out matched, and lose resources to the other galaxy. Either way, there is probably always a certain amount of equality because of the similar nature of evolution of life in any galaxy. All organisms would probably all be somewhat evenly matched - the major differences perhaps being one only of size and quantity of organisms. | unknown |