UNIVERSE
made of an infinite amount of space,
matter and time.
the start of the universe, the universe
has no beginning and no end; perhaps
the same photons that have always been
in the universe continue to move in the
space that has always been.
particles of light humans have named
"photons". Photons are the base unit
of all matter from the tiniest
particles to the largest galaxies.
The basic order of matter from smaller
to largest is photons, electrons,
positrons, muons, protons, neutrons,
atoms, molecules, living objects,
planets, stars, globular clusters,
galaxies, galaxtic clusters.
meters every second in a line, but as
pieces of matter, can be slightly
slowed from the force of gravity, and
stop for an instant when they collide.
Photons
move 300 million meters every second in
a line but as pieces of matter their
velocity changes slightly because of
gravity, and theoretically photons
bounce off each other, at which time
they come to a complete stop relative
to the rest of the universe for an
instant before bouncing and
accelerating away from each other in
the opposite direction.
and so photons form structures such as
protons, atoms, molecules, molecule
groups (like all of life of earth),
planets, stars, galaxies, and clusters
of galaxies.
Gravity is responsible for photons
forming Hydrogen, Hydrogen forming
nebulas, nebulas forming stars, and
stars forming galaxies.
galaxies we can see are only a tiny
part of the universe. Most of the
galaxies in the universe we will never
see because they are too far away for
even 1 particle of light from them to
be going in the exact direction of our
tiny location, or are captured by atoms
between here and there.
One estimate
has 70e21 (sextillion) stars in only
the universe we can see. That is 10
times more stars than grains of sand on
all the earth.
clear. Photons form gas clouds of
Hydrogen and Helium, these gas clouds,
called nebuli condense to form galaxies
of stars. The stars emit photons back
out into the rest of the universe,
where they collect and form clouds
again. Around each star are many
planets and pieces of matter. On many
of those planets intelligent life
evolves. This life moves their stars
out of spiral galaxies to form globular
clusters, and ultimately to transform
spiral galaxies into elliptical
galaxies that travel the universe
looking for more matter to fuel their
movement.
It may very well be that stars at this
scale are photons, spiral galaxies
charged particles, globular galaxies
neutral particles, and galactic
clusters atoms at a much larger scale
in an infinite macro and micro scale.
the most distant galaxies we can see
have a lower frequency may be due to
the effects of gravitation and/or
particle collision in the large
distance between source and observer.
from a gas cloud that formed by
capturing matter in the form of light
from other stars, from the remains of a
previously destroyed galaxy, or some
combination of the two.
eventually orbit forms, perhaps in a
nebula, when matter in the nebula
starts accumulating and rotating as a
result of gravity, or from the remains
of an exploded star that condensed
again under the influence of gravity.
My
opinion is that stars contain molten
iron in their center, similar to the
earth. {check with supernova remnants}
The density of the star the earth
rotates is similar to that of a liquid.
The most popular theory to explain how
stars give off so many photons is that
these photons exit as a result of
Hydrogen atomically fusing into Helium,
and I want to add my opinion that
potentially the pressure of gravity
simply separates atoms of Hydrogen and
helium into their source photons.
Perhaps the reaction is similar to the
center of the earth where red hot
liquid iron emits photons. We
obviously do not explain that red hot
molten metal as being the result of
nuclear fusion, but yet it is clearly
not oxygen combustion. Clearly there
are many photons exiting stars every
second, and each star is losing large
amounts of matter in the form of
photons. In addition, the most popular
theory explains that most atoms heavier
than Hydrogen and no heavier than Iron
are made in stars, and atoms larger
than iron can only be made in
supernovae.
The current view theorizes
that the iron is made just before the
supernova, in the gravitational
collapse, but I find a liquid iron core
being there for the lifetime of every
star as a more logical explanation.
move closer to the center and lighter
atoms are sent farther out.
Terrestrial planets are red hot, have
surface of melted rock, all lighter
atoms float to the surface of the
molten planets. All the H2O from the
first earth oceans and lakes is in the
atmosphere in gas form.
ways:
1) spherical planet collides with
earth, moon forms from remaining matter
in ring around earth.
2) spherical planet is
caught in earth orbit
3) moon of earth forms
naturally from original matter of star
system in orbit around earth.
The Moon
orbiting 5 degrees from the axis of the
Earth's orbit implies that the Moon was
captured, although 5% is not a
particularly large difference from the
plane of the Earth's rotation. That the
Moon orbits in the same direction as
the Earth is evidence in favor of the
Moon forming around the Earth.
4,571 million years old.
[1] The ''Zag'' meteorite fell to Earth
in 1988 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/t
ech/783048.stm
Apollo missions (4.53 billions old).
[1]
http://www.nasm.si.edu/exhibitions/attm/
atmimages/S73-15446.f.jpg
http://www.nasm.si.edu/exhibitions/attm/
nojs/wl.br.1.html
source:
earth) rocks date from this time 4.5
billion years before now.
LIFE
cools into thin crust, H2O condenses
from the atmosphere by raining, filling
the lowest parts of land to make the
first earth oceans, lakes, and rivers.
meteorite) zircon yet found on earth,
4.404 billion years old, from Gneiss in
West Australia, is evidence that the
crust and liquid water were on the
surface of earth 4.4 billion years
before now.
[1]
http://www.geology.wisc.edu/zircon/Earli
est%20Piece/Images/8.jpg
source:
sugars, the components of living
objects are created on earth. These
molecules are made in the oceans, fresh
water, and or atmosphere of earth (or
other planets) by lightning, photons
with ultraviolet frequency from the
star, or ocean floor volcanos.
nucleotides), proteins (polymers made
of amino acids), carbohydrates
(polymers made of sugars) and lipids
(glycerol attached to fatty acids)
evolved is not clearly known.
Some proteins and nucleic acids have
been formed in labs by using clay which
can dehydrate and which provides long
linear crystal structures to build
proteins and nucleic acids on. Amino
acids join together to form
polypeptides when an H2O molecule is
formed from a Hydrogen (H) on 1 amino
acid and a hydroxyl (OH) on the second.
Are all proteins, carbohydrates, lipids
and DNA the products of living objects?
Is RNA the only molecule of these that
was made without the help of living
objects?
The most popular theory now has RNA
(and potentially lipids) evolving first
before any living objects.
There is still a large amount of
experiment, exploration and education
that needs to be done to understand the
origins of living objects on planet
earth. My opinion is that as soon as
there was liquid water on the earth,
4.4 billion years before now, as zircon
crystals show, the construction of
living objects started on earth.
Perhaps RNA molecules, called
"ribozymes" evolved which can make
copies of RNA, by connecting free
floating nucleotides that match a
nucleotide on the same or a different
RNA, without any proteins. But until
such ribozyme RNA molecules are found,
the only molecule known to copy nucleic
acids are proteins called polymerases.
If such ribozymes exist, then one of
the first coded instructions on the RNA
molecule that was the ancestor of every
living species, must have been the code
to make this ribozyme.
These early RNA molecules
may have been protected by liposomes
(spheres of lipids).
This process of RNA (and then later
DNA) duplication is the most basic
aspect of life on earth, and for all
the diversity, the one common element
of all life is this constant process of
DNA duplication, which will later
evolve to include cell division. This
starts the unbroken thread of copying
and division that connects the earliest
ancestor, some RNA molecule, to all
life on earth that has ever lived.
creation of various Transfer RNA (tRNA)
molecules.
Random mutations in the copying (and
perhaps even in the natural formation)
of RNA molecules probably created a
number of the necessary tRNAs (transfer
RNA, an RNA molecule responsible for
matching free floating amino acid
molecules to 3 nucleotide sequences on
other RNA molecules).
This would be a precellular protein
assembly system, where tRNA (transfer
RNA) molecules can build polypeptide
chains of amino acids by linking
directly to other RNA strands.
Part of each tRNA molecule bonds with a
specific amino acid, and a 3 nucleotide
sequence from a different part of the
tRNA molecule bonds with the opposite
matching 3 nucleotide sequence on an
(m)RNA molecule.
Since there are tRNA molecules for each
amino acid (although some tRNAs can
attach to more than one amino acid?),
there must have been a slow
accumulation of various tRNA molecules
for each of the 20 amino acids used in
constructing polypeptides in cells
living now. Perhaps after the
evolution of the first tRNA, the first
polypeptides were chains of all the
same one amino acid. With the
evolution of a second tRNA polypeptides
would have more variety because now two
amino acids would be available to build
polypeptides.
This polypeptide assembly system may
exist freely in water, or within a
liposome. This sytem builds many more
proteins than would be built without
such a system. The mRNA with the code
to make copier RNA, now also contains
the code to produce various tRNA
molecules. These molecules function as
a unit, and proto-cell, with the rest
of the mRNA initially containing random
codes for random proteins.
For the first time, RNA code represents
a template for other RNA molecules, but
also a template for building proteins
with the help of tRNA molecules.
There is some question of where the
origin of the first cell took place,
near volcanos on the ocean floor, or in
fresh water lakes and tidal pools near
volcanos on land, because unprotected
nucleic acids cannot exist for much
time in the ocean because of Sodium and
Chlorine.
What were the first amino acids
connected as proteins? Were the first
proteins all made with the same amino
acid?
Ribosomal RNA moves down mRNA molecules
functioning as a platform for bringing
the mRNA and tRNA molecules together to
assemble polypeptides (proteins).
This rRNA serves as an early ribosome;
objects that serve as sites for
building polypeptides and are found in
every cell. As time continues the
ribosome will grow to include two more
RNA molecules, some protein molecules,
and a second half that will make
polypeptide construction more
efficient.
The rRNA serves the purpose of bringing
amino acids close enough to bond with
each other to form polypeptides.
As an rRNA moves down an mRNA, tRNA
molecules bond with the mRNA and on the
opposite side of the tRNA, a matching
amino acid (separates? from the tRNA
and) attaches to a growing polypeptide
chain.
Now the mRNA that is the
ancestral/progenitor of all of life,
contains the code for the copier RNA,
tRNAs, and the rRNA molecule. These
nucleic acids function as a unit, and
proto-cell.
importance is built, an RNA polymerase.
A molecule that can more efficiently
copy RNA.
The first protein of real
importance is evolved by RNA and
assembled by the early ribosome, an RNA
polymerase. A molecule that can more
efficiently copy RNA.
is built by the early ribosome protein
making protocell. This protein changes
ribonucleotides into
deoxyribonucleotides. This allows the
first DNA molecule on earth to be
assembled.
Ribonucleotide reductase may be the
molecule that allowed DNA to be the
template for the line of cells that
survived to now.
to copy DNA by assembling DNA
nucleotides from other DNA molecules.
causes the early ribosome to create
reverse transcriptase, a protein that
can assemble DNA molecules from an RNA
molecule template.
With this advance, a DNA molecule can
be constructed that has all of the code
that was stored on the long evolved RNA
molecule. DNA now serves as a more
stable template for making mRNA, each
tRNA, rRNA, and the RNA and DNA
polymerases.
RNA polymerase proteins build RNA
molecules using the new DNA template,
that still perform their original
polypeptide building function together
with the tRNA and rRNA molecules, but
are labeled "mRNA" (Messenger RNA)
because they move from DNA to ribosome.
Why DNA
serves as the template for all cells
and not mRNA is not fully understood,
but DNA is a more stable molecule than
the single stranded RNA. Perhaps the 2
legs of DNA serve some other important
reasons, for example, two legs may
allow two processes to happen at one
time.
around DNA, made of proteins. This
membrane holds water inside a cell.
This is the first cell. rRNA
comparison shows that this is most
likely a eubacterium.
DNA produces instructions for
cytoplasm, the cytoplasm is assembled
from proteins made by the ribosome.
For the first time, DNA and ribosomes
are building cell structure. The
templates for each tRNA, rRNA, mRNA and
DNA polymerase proteins are already
coded in a central strand of DNA. DNA
protected by cytoplasm is more likely
to survive and copy. This cell is
heterotrophic and has no metabolism to
produce ATP. Amino acids, nucleotides,
H2O, and other molecules enter and exit
the cytoplasm only because of a
difference in concentration from inside
and outside the cell (passive
transport) and represent the beginnings
of the first digestive system. This
either happens in fresh water lakes or
in salty oceans, perhaps near lava
vents on or under the ocean floor. As
this line of DNA continues to make
copies of itself, all copies now have
cytoplasm. The DNA is composed mainly
of instructions to assemble the nucleic
acids and proteins needed to build
ribosomes, polymerases and cytoplasm.
This cell structure forms the basis of
all future cells of every living object
on earth. These first cells are
anaerobic (do not require free oxygen)
and heterotrophic, meaning that they do
not make their own food: amino acids,
nucleotides, phosphates, and sugars.
These bacteria depend on these
molecules and photons in the form of
heat to reproduce and grow.
A system of division must evolve which
attaches the original and newly
synthesized copy of DNA to the
cytoplasm, so that as the cell grows,
the two copies of DNA can be separated
and the first membraned cells can
divide into two cells. This is the
beginning of the "binary fission"
method of cell division. Division of
the cell begins with the division of
the DNA membrane-attachment site and
separates by the growth of new
cytoplasm.
DNA has 2 functions, 1) to be copied
by the polymerase protein, 2) to serve
as a code for assembling proteins.
Two
important evolutionary steps evolve:
DNA duplication in cytoplasm, and cell
(DNA with cytoplasm) division.
The process of DNA duplication is
probably similar if not the same
process using the same proteins that
were used to duplicate DNA without
cytoplasm.
circle allows the DNA polymerase to
make continuous copies of the cell.
In
theory prokaryote cells do not
deteroiate from the effect of aging,
but they do endure mutations (from
photons with ultraviolet frequency, for
example), however, there are many other
ways prokaryotes can be destroyed (loss
of water, physically damaged by
nonliving objects, eaten by other
organisms, and other mechanisms).
molecules into and out of the cytoplasm
(facilitative diffusion) evolve.
[1] Uniporters are transport proteins
that transport a substance across a
membrane down a concentration gradient
from an area of greater concentration
to lesser concentration. The transport
is powered by the potential energy of a
concentration gradient and does not
require metabolic energy.
source: http://www.cat.cc.md.us/~gkaiser
/biotutorials/eustruct/cmeu.html
[2] Channel proteins transport water
or certain ions down a concentration
gradient from an area of higher
concentration to an area of lower
concentration. In the case of water,
the channel proteins are called
aquaporins. Water molecules are small
enough that they can also pass between
the phospholipids in the cytoplasmic
membrane by passive diffusion.
source:
from bacteria, or are initially
bacteria. These cells depend on the
DNA duplicating and protein producing
systems of other cells to reproduce
themselves. Over time, more effective,
and efficient virus designs will
survive.
cytoplasm. Cells can now make ATP from
glucose and eventually other
monosaccharides, the end product is
pyruvate.
The glycolysis equation is:
C6H12O6
(glucose) + 2 NAD+ + 2 ADP + 2 P
-----> 2 pyruvic acid, (CH3(C=O)COOH +
2 ATP + 2 NADH + 2 H+
cytoplasm. Cells (all anaerobic) can
now make more ATP and convert pyruvate
(the final product of glycolysis) to
lactate (an ionized form of lactic
acid).
evolves in the cytoplasm. Cells (all
anaerobic) can now convert pyruvate
(the final product of glycolysis) to
ethanol.
that can assemble lipids.
metabolism (ATP) to transport molecules
into and out of the cytoplasm (active
transport) evolve.
[1] TP: not clear what the red circles
are, some kind of molecule I
guess. Antiporters are transport
proteins that simultaneously transport
two substances across the membrane in
opposite directions; one against the
concentration gradient and one with the
concentration gradient. Antiporters
typically use proton motive force to
transport a substrate across the
membrane. The movement of protons
across the membrane (proton motive
force) provides the energy for
transporting the substrate across the
membrane against its concentration
gradient..
source: http://www.cat.cc.md.us/~gkaiser
/biotutorials/eustruct/cmeu.html
[2] Symporters are transport proteins
that simultaneously transport two
substances across the membrane in the
same direction; one against the
concentration gradient and one with the
concentration gradient. Symporters
often use proton motive force to
transport a substrate across the
membrane. The movement of protons
across the membrane (proton motive
force) provides the energy for
transporting the substrate.
source:
be created with an early precellular
protein production system must have
been a protein (like RNA polymerase)
that can make copies of RNA from mRNA
molecules. This protein may have
outperformed a ribozyme that was
performing the copying function.
Eventually mRNA that coded for tRNA
molecules and mRNA that coded for rRNA
molecules merged to form a template.
Now the entire protein production
system (the mRNA itself, tRNAs, rRNAs,
and the RNA polymerase) could be copied
many times by the RNA polymerase
protein.
This is before cytoplasm or any cell
wall has evolved. RNA and DNA copying
happens in water, the first cell has
not evolved yet.
evolves in prokaryotes. Now some
prokaryotes can exchange circular
pieces of DNA (plasmids), through tubes
(pili). Conjugation may be the process
that led to sex (cellular fusion) and
also the transition from a circle of
DNA to chromosomes in eukaryotes, since
some protists (cilliates and some
algae) reproduce sexually by
conjugation.
Archaeal flagellins are related to
members of the type IV pilin/transport
superfamily widespread in bacteria.
In addition
to pili and conjugation, proteins
evolve that can assist in splitting DNA
and also proteins that assist in
merging two strands of DNA together,
since some times the DNA in split and
the new plasmid is connected and the
DNA circle is sown back together.
[1] the fertility factor or F factor is
a very large (94,500 bp) circular dsDNA
plasmid; it is generally independent of
the host chromosome. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.mun.ca/biochem/course
s/3107/images/Fplasmidmap.gif
[2] conjugation (via pilus)
COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.bio.miami.edu/dana/16
0/conjugation.jpg
Perhaps pili
evolved into flagella, flagella into
pili, or the two systems are
unrelated.
Proteins in Archaebacteria flagella are
related to pili in bacteria.
This may be the beginning of motility.
Now for the first time, cells are not
completely controlled by surrounding
matter, but can make limited choices
about their location.
allow certain proteins coded by DNA to
not be built, evolve. Proteins bind
with these DNA sequences to stop RNA
polymerase from building mRNA molecules
which would be translated into
proteins. Operons allow a bacterium to
produce certain proteins only when
necessary. Bacteria before now can
only build a constant stream of all
proteins encoded in their DNA.
eubacteria.
Without bacteria that convert N2 into
nitrogen compounds, the supply of
nitrogen necessary for much of life
would be seriously limited and would
drastically slow evolution on earth.
Nitrogen
fixation is the process by which
nitrogen is taken from its relatively
inert molecular form (N2) in the
atmosphere and converted into nitrogen
compounds useful for other chemical
processes (such as, notably, ammonia,
nitrate and nitrogen dioxide).
Nitrogen fixation is performed
naturally by a number of different
prokaryotes, including bacteria, and
actinobacteria certain types of
anaerobic bacteria. Many higher plants,
and some animals (termites), have
formed associations with these
microorganisms.
The best-known are legumes (such as
clover, beans, alfalfa and peanuts,)
which contain symbiotic bacteria called
rhizobia within nodules in their root
systems, producing nitrogen compounds
that help the plant to grow and compete
with other plants. When the plant dies,
the nitrogen helps to fertilize the
soil. The great majority of legumes
have this association, but a few genera
(e.g., Styphnolobium) do not.
[1] This is an image of nitrogen cycle
taken from this [1] EPA website. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nitrogen_Cycle.jpg
filment growth evolves in prokaryotes.
Cyanobacteria
grow in filaments.
Unlike eukaryotes, there is no
communication between cells in
prokaryote filments.
prokaryotes evolve. Heterocysts evolve
in cyanobacteria.
Heterocysts are specialized
nitrogen-fixing cells formed by some
filamentous cyanobacteria during
nitrogen starvation.
What cell differentiation is
first is unknown, perhaps cells that
form spores, or cysts, or perhaps cell
differentiation that is observes in
cyanobacterial filamentous cells.
Heterocysts are specialized
nitrogen-fixing cells formed by some
filamentous cyanobacteria, such as
Nostoc punctiforme and Anabaena
sperica, during nitrogen starvation.
They fix nitrogen from dinitrogen (N2)
in the air using the enzyme
nitrogenase, in order to provide the
cells in the filament with nitrogen for
biosynthesis. Nitrogenase is
inactivated by oxygen, so the
heterocyst must create a microanaerobic
environment. The heterocysts' unique
structure and physiology requires a
global change in gene expression. For
example, heterocysts:
* produce three additional cell
walls, including one of glycolipid that
forms a hydrophobic barrier to oxygen
*
produce nitrogenase and other proteins
involved in nitrogen fixation
* degrade
photosystem II, which produces oxygen
* up
regulate glycolytic enzymes, which use
up oxygen and provide energy for
nitrogenase
* produce proteins that scavenge
any remaining oxygen
Cyanobacteria usually obtain a fixed
carbon (carbohydrate) by
photosynthesis. The lack of photosystem
II prevents heterocysts from
photosynthesising, so the vegetative
cells provide them with carbohydrates,
which is thought to be sucrose. The
fixed carbon and nitrogen sources are
exchanged though channels between the
cells in the filament. Heterocysts
maintain photosystem I, allowing them
to generate ATP by cyclic
photophosphorylation.
Single heterocysts develop about every
9-15 cells, producing a one-dimensional
pattern along the filament. The
interval between heterocysts remains
approximately constant even though the
cells in the filament are dividing. The
bacterial filament can be seen as a
multicellular organism with two
distinct yet interdependent cell types.
Such behaviour is highly unusual in
prokaryotes and may have been the first
example of multicellular patterning in
evolution. Once a heterocyst has
formed, it cannot revert to a
vegetative cell, so this
differentiation can be seen as a form
of apoptosis. Certain
heterocyst-forming bacteria can
differentiate into spore-like cells
called akinetes or motile cells called
hormogonia, making them the most
phenotyptically versatile of all
prokaryotes.
The mechanism of controlling
heterocysts is thought to involve the
diffusion of an inhibitor of
differentiation called PatS. Heterocyst
formation is inhibited in the presence
of a fixed nitrogen source, such as
ammonium or nitrate. The bacteria may
also enter a symbiotic relationship
with certain plants. In such a
relationship, the bacteria do not
respond to the availability of
nitrogen, but to signals produced by
the plant. Up to 60% of the cells can
become heterocysts, providing fixed
nitrogen to the plant in return for
fixed carbon.
The cyanobacteria that form heterocysts
are divided into the orders Nostocales
and Stigonematales, which form simple
and branching filaments respectively.
Together they form a monophyletic
group, with very low genetic
variability.
[1] Anabaena COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://home.manhattan.edu/~franc
es.cardillo/plants/monera/anabaena.gif
[2] Anabaena smitthi COPYRIGHTED
FRANCE
source: http://www.ac-rennes.fr/pedagogi
e/svt/photo/microalg/anabaena.jpg
can produce some if not all of their
own food (amino acids, nucleotides,
sugars, phophates, lipids, and
carbohydrates), but require phosphorus,
nitrogen, CO2, water and light in the
form of heat.
There are only 2 kinds of autotrophy:
Lithotrophy and Photosynthesis. These
are lithotrophic cells that change
inorganic (abiotic) molecules into
organic molecules. These cells are
archaebacteria, called methanogens that
perform the reaction: 4H2 + CO2 -> CH4
+ 2H2O. They convert CO2 into Methane.
Methane is better than CO2 for
trapping heat, and could have
contributed to heating the earth.
cells only have Photosystem I.
Photosynthesis Photosystem I evolves in
early anaerobic prokaryote cells. One
of two photosythesis systems,
photosystem I uses a pigment
chlorophyll A, absorbs photons in 700
nm wave lengths best, breaking the bond
betwenn H2 and S. They are anaerobic
and perform the reaction: H2S
(Hydrogen Sulfide) + CO2 + light ->
CH2O (Formaldehyde) + 2S.
Only 5 phyla of
eubacteria can photosynthesize.
evolves in early prokaryote cells.
Photosystem 2 absorbs photons best at
680nm wavelengths, a higher frequency
of light than Photosystem I. These
cells can break the strong Hydrogen
bonds between Hydrogen and Oxygen in
water molecules (more abundant than
Sulphur). This system emits free
Oxygen.
The simple equation of photosynthesis
is: 6 H2O + 6 CO2 + photons = C6H12O6
(glucose) + 6O2. The detailed steps of
photosynthesis are called the "Calvin
Cycle". Prokaryote cells can now
produce their own glucose to store and
be converted to ATP by glycolysis and
fermentation later.
This sytem is the main system
responsible for producing the Oxygen
now in the air of earth.
Of the 5 phyla of
eubacteria that can photosynthesize,
only 1, cyanobacteria, produces oxygen.
the "Citric Acid Cycle", and the "Krebs
Cycle") evolves, probably in
cyanobacteria, as a substitute for
fermentaton, by using oxygen to break
down the products of glycolysis,
pyruvic acid, to CO2 and H2O, producing
18 more ATP molecules.
This is the
first aerobic cell, a cell that has an
oxygen based metabolism. This cell
uses oxygen to convert glucose (and
eventually other sugars and fats) into
CO2, H2O and ATP. For example, cells
that oxidize glucose perform the
reaction:
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 + 38 ADP + 38 phosphate
-> 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + 38 ATP
This reaction
(with glycolysis) can produce up to 36
ATP molecules. Cellular respiration is
the opposite (although the specific
reactions differ) of photosynthesis
which starts with H2O and CO2 and
produces glucose.
Steps are:
Glycolysis preparatory
phase
Glycolysis pay-off phase
Oxidative
carboxylation
Krebs cycle
[1] kreb cycle from
http://people.unt.edu/~hds0006/tca/
source:
for a cell wall. The cell wall only
protects bacteria and does not filter
any molecules as the cytoplasm does.
is
first gram-negative cell wall?
1. Only contain a few layers of
peptidoglycan -- the building block for
strong, rigid cell walls
2. Contain an
outer membrane, external to the
peptidoglycan, called the
lipopolysaccharide
3. The space between the layers of
peptidoglycan and the secondary cell
membrane is called periplasmatic space
4.
The S-layer is directly attached to the
outer membrane, rather than the
peptidoglycan
5. Any flagella, if present, have 4
supporting rings instead of two
6. No
teichoic acids are present"
[1] one is indirectly
from http://www.cvm.uiuc.edu/courses/vp
331/index.html
source: file:/root/web/Structures_in_pat
hogenesi1.html
source: http://www.mansfield.ohio-state.
edu/~sabedon/biol1080.htm
secondary processes in cells that are
not fully understood yet.
to be found, more DNA needs to be
sequenced, and more bacteria found and
grown to fully understand when bacteria
parts evolved. For example:
flagella
plasmids
pili and "conjugation" the trade of
pieces of plasmid DNA (this may be the
earliest form of sex {or syngamy})
changing into
spores
When gram-stain positive cell walls
evolved.
When the various shapes evolved:
spherical
(coccus,cocci)
rod (bacillus,bacilli)
spiral (spirilla)
other:
short rods (coccobacilli).
commas (vibrii).
squares (rare)
stars (rare)
irregula
r (rare)
Which specific bacteria of the Archaea
(if any) were first, which of the
Eubacteria and Cyanobacteria came
next.
When the "Nitrogen Cycle" or "Nitrogen
Fixing" evolved. Few cells can
separate N2 into N, (needed for nucleic
acids?). The waste product urea is
converted by one bacteria to ammonia, a
second bacteria converts the ammonia to
N2.
estimates of when the first Eubacteria
and Archaea evolved. Eubacteria and
Archaea (also called Archaebacteria)
are the two major lines of Prokaryotes.
Prokaryotes are the most primitive
living objects ever found. In contrast
to the later evolved Eukaryotes,
Prokaryotes have a circle of DNA
located in their cytoplasm (not
chromosomes) and have no nucleus. At
least one genetic comparison shows
Eubacteria and Archaea evolving now.
After the full genomes of all living
species are known, and understood we
will have more certainty about the
history of evolution. Many genetic
trees are based on DNA genes (sequences
of DNA that define nucleic acids or
proteins). In particular the genes for
ribosomal RNA are thought to be very
conserved over time, although perhaps
genes for reproduction, or cytoplasm,
for example may later prove to be more
conserved over time.
Only when the full
genomes of all living species are
known, and understood will we have
strong certainty about the history of
evolution. Many genetic trees are
based on DNA genes (sequences of DNA
that define nucleic acids or proteins),
in particular ribosomal RNA which is
thought to be highly conserved over the
eons of time. Ribosomal RNA may be the
best record of evolutionary history,
but perhaps other genes, for example,
those involved with reproduction, or
cytoplasm will prove to be more
conserved or better estimates of
evolutionary history. For example, I
think the method of reproduction would
be the most conserved, since that
process is the most necessary for
survival, changes to those genes may
stop continued existence, where changes
to rrna may not be as serious. In
addition, the vast diversity and change
in reproductive method over time,
should tell us that similar large scale
changes could have happened for rrna,
cytoplasm, and indeed any part of a
cell.
These early Archaea and Eubacteria are
"thermophile" bacteria, bacteria that
are found and grow best in hot water
(80+ degrees Celsius). That genetic
evidence puts these prokaryotes as the
oldest living prokaryotes is evidence
that the first prokaryotes on earth may
have lived in hot water, perhaps near
thermal springs or near ocean floor
volcanos. Perhaps the water on the
early earth was hot when these first
prokaryotes evolved.
Archaea are similar to
other prokaryotes in most aspects of
cell structure and metabolism. However,
their genetic transcription and
translation are very similar to those
of eukaryotes.
[1] Figure 1) Changing views of the
tree and timescale of life. a) An
early-1990s view, with the tree
determined mostly from ribosomal RNA
(rRNA) sequence analysis. This tree
emphasizes vertical (as opposed to
horizontal) evolution and the close
relationship between eukaryotes and the
Archaebacteria. The deep branching
(>3.5 Giga (109) years ago, Gya) of
CYANOBACTERIA (Cy) and other Eubacteria
(purple), the shallow branching
(approx1 Gya) of plants (Pl), animals
(An) and fungi (Fu), and the early
origin of mitochondria (Mi), were based
on interpretations of the geochemical
and fossil record7, 8. Some deeply
branching amitochondriate (Am) species
were believed to have arisen before the
origin of mitochondria44. Major
symbiotic events (black dots) were
introduced to explain the origin of
eukaryotic organelles42, but were not
assumed to be associated with large
transfers of genes to the host nucleus.
They were: Eu, joining of an
archaebacterium host with a eubacterium
(presumably a SPIROCHAETE) to produce
an amitochondriate eukaryote; Mi,
joining of a eukaryote host with an
alpha-proteobacterium (Ap) symbiont,
leading to the origin of mitochondria,
and plastids (Ps), joining of a
eukaryote host with a cyanobacterium
symbiont, forming the origin of
plastids on the plant lineage and
possibly on other lineages. b) The
present view, based on extensive
genomic analysis. Eukaryotes are no
longer considered to be close relatives
of Archaebacteria, but are genomic
hybrids of Archaebacteria and
Eubacteria, owing to the transfer of
large numbers of genes from the
symbiont genome to the nucleus of the
host (indicated by coloured arrows).
Other new features, largely derived
from molecular-clock studies16, 39 (Box
1), include a relatively recent origin
of Cyanobacteria (approx2.6 Gya) and
mitochondria (approx1.8 Gya), an early
origin (approx1.5 Gya) of plants,
animals and fungi, and a close
relationship between animals and fungi.
Coloured dashed lines indicate
controversial aspects of the present
view: the existence of a
premitochondrial symbiotic event and of
living amitochondriate eukaryotes,
ancestors of which never had
mitochondria. c) The times of
divergence of selected model organisms
from humans, based on molecular clocks.
For the prokaryotes (red), because of
different possible origins through
symbiotic events, divergence times
depend on the gene of interest.
source: http://www.nature.com/nrg/journa
l/v3/n11/full/nrg929_fs.html
[2] Figure 2 A phylogeny of
prokaryotes. The relationships of
selected prokaryote model organisms
based on recent studies14-19. Times of
divergence (million years ago (Mya)
plusminus one standard error) are
indicated at nodes in the tree16, 39.
Branch lengths are not proportional to
time. Phyla and phylum-level groupings
are indicated on the right.
source: http://www.nature.com/nrg/journa
l/v3/n11/full/nrg929_fs.html
evolve.
Genetic comparison shows the Archaea
Phylum, Euryarchaeotes evolving now.
The Euryarchaeota are a major group of
Archaea. They include the methanogens,
which produce methane and are often
found in intestines, the halobacteria,
which survive extreme concentrations of
salt, and some extremely thermophilic
aerobes and anaerobes. They are
separated from the other archaeans
based mainly on rRNA sequences.
Euryarchaeota may contain the most
ancient DNA of any living object on
earth.
PHYLUM Euryarchaeota
CLASS Archaeoglobi
CLASS Halobacteria
CLASS
Methanobacteria
CLASS Methanococci
CLASS Methanomicrobia
CLASS Methanopyri
CLASS
Methanosarcinae
CLASS Thermococci
CLASS Thermoplasmata
[1] tree of archaebacteria (archaea)
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.uni-giessen.de/~gf126
5/GROUPS/KLUG/Stammbaum.html
[2] A phylogenetic tree of living
things, based on RNA data, showing the
separation of bacteria, archaea, and
eukaryotes. Trees constructed with
other genes are generally similar,
although they may place some
early-branching groups very
differently, thanks to long branch
attraction. The exact relationships of
the three domains are still being
debated, as is the position of the root
of the tree. It has also been suggested
that due to lateral gene transfer, a
tree may not be the best representation
of the genetic relationships of all
organisms. NASA
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:PhylogeneticTree.jpg
evolves.
Genetic comparison shows Archaea
Phylum, Crenarchaeotes evolving now.
The phylum Crenarchaeota, commonly
referred to as the crenarchaea, in the
domain Archaea, contains many extremely
thermophilic and psychrophilic
organisms. They were originally
separated from the other archaeons
based on rRNA sequences, since then
physiological features, such as lack of
histones have supported this division.
Until recently all cultured crenarchaea
have been thermophilic or
hyperthermophilic organisms, some of
which have the ability to grow up to
113 degrees C. These organisms stain
gram negative and are morphologically
diverse having rod, cocci, filamentous
and unusually shaped cells.
PHYLUM
Crenarchaeotes
ORDER Caldisphaerales
ORDER Cenarchaeales
ORDER
Desulfurococcales
ORDER Sulfolobales
ORDER Thermoproteales
[1] tree of archaea ?
source: http://www.uni-giessen.de/~gf126
5/GROUPS/KLUG/Stammbaum.html
[2] Microscopia elettronica a
scansione dell'archeobatterio
termoacidofilo Sulfolobus solfataricus
COPYRIGHT ITALY
source: http://www.area.fi.cnr.it/r&f/n6
/ingrand.htm
Acasta and Great Slave Lake in the
North West territories of Canada dates
from this time, 4030 million years
before now.
source: http://www.regione.emilia-romagn
a.it/geologia/divulgazione/pianeta_terra
/09_paesaggio/img/app/c09_a01_01.jpg
source:
(Aquifex, Thermotoga, etc.) evolve now.
Gene
tic comparison shows that Eubacteria
"Hyperthermophiles" (Aquifex,
Thermotoga, etc.) evolve now.
This may be the living object with the
most primitive DNA found on earth
(depending on the age of the archaea).
This group of eubacteria includes the
Phyla "Aquificae",
"Thermodesulfobacteria", and
"Thermotogae".
The Aquificae phylum is a diverse
collection of bacteria that live in
harsh environmental settings. They have
been found in hot springs, sulfur
pools, and thermal ocean vents. Members
of the genus Aquifex, for example, are
productive in water between 85 to 95
°C. They are the dominant members of
most terrestrial neutral to alkaline
hot springs above 60 degrees celsius.
They are autotrophs, and are the
primary carbon fixers in these
environments. They are true bacteria
(domain eubacteria) as opposed to the
other inhabitants of extreme
environments, the Archaea.
Thermotoga are thermophile or
hyperthermophile bacteria whose cell is
wrapped in an outer "toga" membrane.
They metabolize carbohydrates. Species
have varying amounts of salt and oxygen
tolerance. Thermotoga subterranea
strain SL1 was found in a 70°C deep
continental oil reservoir in the East
Paris Basin, France. It is anaerobic
and reduces cystine and thiosulfate to
hydrogen sulfide.
[1] Aquifex pyrophilus (platinum
shadowed). © K.O. Stetter & Reinhard
Rachel, University of Regensburg.
source: http://biology.kenyon.edu/Microb
ial_Biorealm/bacteria/aquifex/aquifex.ht
m
[2] Aquifex aeolicus. © K.O. Stetter
& Reinhard Rachel, University of
Regensburg.
source: http://biology.kenyon.edu/Microb
ial_Biorealm/bacteria/aquifex/aquifex.ht
m
also the oldest Banded Iron Formation,
on Akilia Island in Western Greenland.
The oldest evidence for life on earth
was found in this rock by measuring the
ratio of carbon 12 to carbon 13 in
grains of apatite (calcium phosphate)
from this rock. Life uses the lighter
Carbon-12 isotope and not Carbon-13 and
so the ratio of carbon-12 to carbon-13
is different from a nonliving source
(calcium carbonate or limestone).
source: nature 11/7/96
Banded Iron Formation Rocks. These
rocks are sedimentary. They are made
of iron rich chert (silicates, like
SiO2). These rocks have alternative
bands of orange or yellow and black.
In the red parts the iron is oxydized
(contains iron oxides, either hematite
{Fe2O3 = rust} or magnetite {Fe3O4]}).
These bands may have formed because
photosynthetic bacteria (in
stromatolites found in shallow ocean
shores, and purple bacteria floating in
water) produce oxygen from CO2 during
photosynthesis. When the level of
oxygen in the water became too high,
many bacteria died, and this cycle
created the BIF. But BIF also may form
naturally when photons in uv
frequencies split H2O into H2 and O2.
So perhaps the BIF bands represent
cycles of more or less uv light
reaching the earth. Perhaps the
alternating phenomenon is similar to
eukaryotic algal blooms. In any event,
this free oxygen bonded with the many
tons of iron dissolved in the water to
form insoluable iron oxide which then
fell to the ocean floor to form the
orange layers of Banded Iron Formation.
How these alternating bands are made
is not clear and has not yet been
duplicated in a lab.
This cycle of alternating orange and
black bands will continue for 2 billion
years until 1,800 million years before
now. This is the beginning of oxygen
production on earth, the atmosphere of
earth still has only small amounts of
oxygen at this time.
It is amazing that
people are still not certain what was
the cause of the oxygen, and the cycles
that deposited the banded Iron
Formation.
source: nature 11/7/96
formation, SW Greenland.
[1] Fig. 5. (a) Carbonaceous
microstructure from Isua Banded iron
formation, SW-Greenland (ca 3.85 Ga).
(b) Laser mass spectrum (negative ions)
from similar specimen. Field of
measurement ca 1 small mu, Greekm
diameter.
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=MiamiCaptionURL&_method=retriev
e&_udi=B6VBP-42G6M5T-7&_image=fig7&_ba=7
&_user=4422&_coverDate=02%2F01%2F2001&_f
mt=full&_orig=browse&_cdi=5932&view=c&_a
cct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&
_userid=4422&md5=fe1052cbc18dba545ec95c2
e7ff3090b
Greenland Banded Iron Formation
sediment are evidence of the existence
of Archaea.
and Hydrocarbon molecules (alkanes)
detected in 3760 billion year old Isua
Banded Iron Formation, indicate the
possibility of photosynthetic sulfate
reducing bacteria (Archaea, for example
Sulpholobus) and Cyanobacteria living
at that time.
in Isua, Greenland Banded Iron
Formation evidence of prokaryote Oxygen
photosynthesis.
sediment in Australia shown to be
consistent with planktonic
photosynthesizing organisms.
[1] Figure 1. (A) Turbidite sedimentary
rocks from the Isua supracrustal belt,
west Greenland. The notebook is 17 cm
wide. (B) A close-up of finely
laminated slate representing pelagic
mud. The hammer is 70 cm long. (C)
Photomicrograph of sample 810213,
showing finely laminated pelagic mud.
The variation in color is mainly due to
variations in C abundance. (D)
Photomicrograph of C grains arranged
along a buckled stringer. (E)
Backscattered electron image of a
polished surface (sample 810213),
showing the distribution of C grains as
black areas. (F) Backscattered electron
image of a polished surface (sample
810213), showing the rounded shape of C
grains (black).
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/283/5402/674
Archaebacteria (Archaea) Phylum,
Korarchaeotes evolving now.
[1] DNA tree
source: http://www.uni-giessen.de/~gf126
5/GROUPS/KLUG/Stammbaum.html
[2] Scanning electron micrograph of
the Obsidian Pool enrichment culture.
Barns et al. discovered the
Korarchaeota lineage in Obsidian Pool
over a decade ago, using what were
highly innovative methods for the time.
Since their discovery, the Korarchaeota
group of microorganisms still remains
mostly uncharacterized. The group is
primarily defined only by 16S ribosomal
RNA sequences obtained from a variety
of marine and terrestrial hydrothermal
environments. The 16S-rRNA-based
phylogeny of the Korarchaeota suggests
that this group forms a very deep,
kingdom-level, major lineage within the
archaeal domain. PD
source: http://www.jgi.doe.gov/sequencin
g/why/CSP2006/korarchaeota.jpg
yet found. Stromatolites made by
photosynthetic bacteria found in both
Warrawoona, Western Australia, and Fig
Tree Group, South Africa.
[1] image on left is from swaziland
source: nature feb 6
source: 1986
thought to be cyanobacteria, found in
3,500 Million Year old chert from South
Africa and 3,465 Million year old Apex
chert of north-western Australia.
Oldest fossils
of an organism, thought to be
cyanobacteria, found in 3,500 Million
Year old chert from South Africa and
3,465 Million year old Apex chert of
the Pilbara Supergroup, Warrawoona
Group, northwestern Western Australia.
Some people argue that these are not
fossils of bacteria but abiotic
material. Most genetic timelines put
the origin of cyanobacteria much later
around 2,700mybn.
Cyanobacteria evolved
multicellularity where cellular
differentiation occurs.
[1] Figure 1 Optical photomicrographs
showing carbonaceous (kerogenous)
filamentous microbial fossils in
petrographic thin sections of
Precambrian cherts. Scale in a
represents images in a and c-i; scale
in b represents image in b. All parts
show photomontages, which is
necessitated by the three-dimensional
preservation of the cylindrical sinuous
permineralized microbes. Squares in
each part indicate the areas for which
chemical data are presented in Figs 2
and 3. a, An unnamed cylindrical
prokaryotic filament, probably the
degraded cellular trichome or tubular
sheath of an oscillatoriacean
cyanobacterium, from the 770-Myr
Skillogalee Dolomite of South
Australia12. b, Gunflintia grandis, a
cellular probably oscillatoriacean
trichome, from the 2,100-Myr Gunflint
Formation of Ontario, Canada13. c, d,
Unnamed highly carbonized filamentous
prokaryotes from the 3,375-Myr Kromberg
Formation of South Africa14: the poorly
preserved cylindrical trichome of a
noncyanobacterial or oscillatoriacean
prokaryote (c); the disrupted,
originally cellular trichomic remnants
possibly of an Oscillatoria- or
Lyngbya-like cyanobacterium (d). e-i,
Cellular microbial filaments from the
3,465-Myr Apex chert of northwestern
Western Australia: Primaevifilum
amoenum4,5, from the collections of The
Natural History Museum (TNHM), London,
specimen V.63164[6] (e); P. amoenum4
(f); the holotype of P.
delicatulum4,5,15, TNHM V.63165[2] (g);
P. conicoterminatum5, TNHM V63164[9]
(h); the holotype of Eoleptonema apex5,
TNHM V.63729[1] (i).
source: Nature416
[2] Fig. 3 Filamentous microfossils:
a, cylindrical microfossil from
Hooggenoeg sample; b, threadlike and
tubular filaments extending between
laminae, Kromberg sample; c,d,e,
tubular filamnets oriented subparallel
to bedding, Kromberg sample; f,
threadlike filament flattened parallel
to bedding, Kromberg sample.
source: 73 - 76 (07 Mar 2002) Letters
to Nature
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v41
6/n6876/fig_tab/416073a_F1.html
eukaryotes happened here at 3.5 bybn.
evidence of moderate thermophile
sulphur reducing prokaryotes from North
Pole, Australia.
[1] get larger image
source: file:///root/web/fossils_biomark
er_science_v67_i22_nov_15_2003.html#bib9
9
bacteria.
[1] The tree is modified from ref. 2,
and abstracted from phylogenetic trees
presented in refs 26 and 27. The time
calibration points are from ref. 30,
with our additional constraint of 3.47
Gyr placed in the Bacterial domain.
Lineages housing sulphate-reducers
metabolizing at temperatures > 70 °C
are shown by broken black lines, while
lineages supporting sulphate-reducers
metabolizing at < 70 °C are shown by heavy black lines.
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v410/n6824/fig_tab/410077a0_F4.html
photosynthetic bacteria found in
Pilbara Craton, Australia.
[1] a-c, 'Encrusting/domical
laminites'; d-f, 'small crested/conical
laminites'; g-i, 'cuspate swales'; j-l,
'large complex cones' (dashed lines in
k trace lamina shape and show outlines
of intraclast conglomerate piled
against the cone at two levels). m-o,
'Egg-carton laminites'; p, q, 'wavy
laminites'; r-t, 'iron-rich laminites'
(t is a cut slab). The scale card in b,
h and i is 18 cm. The scale card
increments in c, e, k, l, n and s are 1
cm. The scale bar in o is about 1 cm.
The scale bars in the remaining
pictures are about 5 cm. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v441/n7094/fig_tab/nature04764_F1.h
tml
photosynthetic, probably anoxygenic,
bacteria that lived in mats in the
ocean date to this time.
[1] a, Dark carbonaceous laminations
draping an underlying coarse detrital
carbonaceous grain (a), showing
internal anastomosing and draping
character (b) and, at the top (c)
draping irregularities in underlying
carbonaceous laminations. b, Dark
carbonaceous laminations that have been
eroded and rolled up by currents. c,
Bundled filaments in the rolled
laminations in b [tp: they should
have clearly indicated that they are
saying that these filaments are
bacteria].
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v431/n7008/fig_tab/nature02888_F4.h
tml
Swaziland System, South Africa.
[1] Fig. 3. (a,b) Organic
microstructures from Kromberg
Formation, Swaziland System, South
Africa (ca 3.4 Ga). TEM-micrographs of
demineralized specimens. (c) Portion of
organic microstructure from Bulawaya
stromatolite (see Fig. 2). (d) Portion
of the mucilagenous sheath of recent
Anabaena sp., cyanobacteria (Fig. d
after Leak, 1967). For magnification of
Fig. c see scale of Fig. a.
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=MiamiCaptionURL&_method=retriev
e&_udi=B6VBP-42G6M5T-7&_image=fig9&_ba=9
&_user=4422&_coverDate=02%2F01%2F2001&_f
mt=full&_orig=browse&_cdi=5932&view=c&_a
cct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&
_userid=4422&md5=27a45a0804747bb4b74eaac
305df2905
Different from binary division, where a
cell is split in half, in budding, a
new complete cell is made in the
original cell, and the new cell bursts
through the cell wall, the original
cell wall must then be repaired.
Budding is the
only other method of reproduction known
in prokaryotes besides binary fission.
The only major difference between
prokaryote budding and binary division
are that one or more new cells are
completely formed inside the original
cell, where in binary division part of
the original cell wall is used to make
the new cell.
In budding, a complete new cell is
synthesized from a DNA template, where
in binary division only the DNA is
duplicated and more cytoplasm and cell
wall is synthesized. So, budding
preserves organelles made by the main
DNA template that cannot duplicate
themselves and would not get duplicated
or synthesized in binary division, for
example, flagella.
Although it is very unlikely,
the possibility does exist that
prokaryote budding evolved from a
eukaryote that lost it's nucleus.
[1] Evolutionary relationships of model
organisms and bacteria that show
unusual reproductive strategies. This
phylogenetic tree (a) illustrates the
diversity of organisms that use the
alternative reproductive strategies
shown in (b). Bold type indicates
complete or ongoing genome projects.
Intracellular offspring are produced by
several low-GC Gram-positive bacteria
such as Metabacterium polyspora,
Epulopiscium spp. and the segmented
filamentous bacteria (SFB). Budding and
multiple fission are found in the
proteobacterial genera Hyphomonas and
Bdellovibrio, respectively. In the case
of the Cyanobacteria, Stanieria
produces baeocytes and Chamaesiphon
produces offspring by budding.
Actinoplanes produce dispersible
offspring by multiple fission of
filaments within the sporangium.
source: http://www.nature.com/nrmicro/jo
urnal/v3/n3/full/nrmicro1096_fs.html
(Nature Reviews Microbiology 3
[2] Electron micrograph of a
Pirellula bacterium from giant tiger
prawn tissue (Penaeus monodon). Notice
the large crateriform structures (C) on
the cell surface and flagella. From
Fuerst et al.
source: 214-224 (2005);
doi:10.1038/nrmicro1096)
South Africa are oldest evidence of
procaryotes that reproduce by budding
and not binary fission.
[1] Fig. 4. (a-d) Organic
microstructures from Swartkoppie chert,
South Africa (ca 3.25 Ga).
TEM-micrographs of demineralized
specimen (a,b) Laser mass spectra
(negative ions) from clusters of
similar specimens. Field of measurement
ca 1 small mu, Greekm diameter. (c,d)
TEM-micrographs from demineralized Thin
section. (e) Recent budding iron
bacterium Pedomicrobium sp. (Fig. e
from Ghiorse and Hirsch, 1979).
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=MiamiCaptionURL&_method=retriev
e&_udi=B6VBP-42G6M5T-7&_image=fig6&_ba=6
&_user=4422&_coverDate=02%2F01%2F2001&_f
mt=full&_orig=browse&_cdi=5932&view=c&_a
cct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&
_userid=4422&md5=801178ddb930bd041063bae
7a3e0e204
found in 3235 million year old deep-sea
volcanogenic massive sulphide deposits
from the Pilbara Craton of Australia
may be oldest Archaea fossils.
[1] Photomicrographs of filaments from
the Sulphur Springs VMS deposit. Scale
bar, 10 µm. a-f, Straight, sinuous and
curved morphologies, some densely
intertwined. g, Filaments parallel to
the concentric layering. h, Filaments
oriented sub-perpendicular to
banding.
source:
G+C {Guanine and Cytosine count} Gram
positive) evolve.
Genetic comparison shows
Eubacteria Phylum Firmicutes (low G+C
{Guanine and Cytosine count} Gram
positive) evolving here.
Firmicutes include the Classes:
Bacillus (anthrax), Listeria,
Mollicutes, and Stephylococcus.
Firmicutes may be the
first rod shaped bacteria, and first
bacteria to have a gram positive cell
wall.
The peptidoglycan layer is thicker in
Gram-positive bacteria (20 to 80 nm)
than in Gram-negative bacteria (7 to 8
nm)
Firmicultes form endospores, and is the
only phlyum of bacteria that evolved
the ability to build endospores.
The Firmicutes
are a division of bacteria, most of
which have Gram-positive stains. A few,
the Mollicutes or mycoplasmas, lack
cell walls altogether and so do not
respond to Gram staining, but still
lack the second membrane found in other
Gram-negative forms. Originally the
Firmicutes were taken to include all
Gram-positive bacteria, but more
recently they tend to be restricted to
a core group of related forms, called
the low G+C group in contrast to the
Actinobacteria. They have round cells,
called cocci (singular coccus), or
rod-shaped forms.
Many Firmicutes produce endospores,
which are resistant to desiccation and
can survive extreme conditions. They
are found in various environments, and
some notable pathogens. Those in one
family, the heliobacteria, produce
energy through photosynthesis.
Firmicutes include:
CLASS Bacilli (rod shaped)
ORDER
Bacillales (anthrax)
ORDER Lactobacillales
CLASS Clostridia
ORDER
Clostridiales
ORDER Halanaerobiales
ORDER
Thermoanaerobacteriales
CLASS Mollicutes
ORDER Mycoplasmatales
ORDER
Entomoplasmatales
ORDER Anaeroplasmatales
ORDER Acholeplasmatales
[1] Listeria monocytogenes is a
Gram-positive bacterium, in the
division Firmicutes, named for Joseph
Lister. It is motile by means of
flagella. Some studies suggest that 1
to 10% of humans may carry L.
monocytogenes in their
intestines. Researchers have found L.
monocytogenes in at least 37 mammalian
species, both domesticated and feral,
as well as in at least 17 species of
birds and possibly in some species of
fish and shellfish. Laboratories can
isolate L. monocytogenes from soil,
silage, and other environmental
sources. L. monocytogenes is quite
hardy and resists the deleterious
effects of freezing, drying, and heat
remarkably well for a bacterium that
does not form spores. Most L.
monocytogenes are pathogenic to some
degree.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Listeria.jpg
[2] These are bacteria (about 0.3 µm
in diameter) that do not have outer
walls, only cytoplasmic membranes.
However, they do have cytoskeletal
elements that give them a distinct
non-spherical shape. They look like
schmoos that are pulled along by their
heads. How they are able to glide is a
mystery.
source: http://webmac.rowland.org/labs/b
acteria/projects_glide.html
abililty to form endpospores.
An endospore is any
spore that is produced within an
organism (usually a bacterium). Most
bacterium produce only one spore, as
this is not a reproduction process.
This is in contrast to exospores, which
are rather produced by growth or
budding. The primary function of most
endospores is to ensure the survival of
a colony through periods of
environmental stress. Endospores are
therefore resistant to desiccation,
temperature, starvation, ultraviolet
and gamma radiation, and chemical
disinfectants.
One of the great questions of this time
is: "what is the process behind cell
differentiation and cell growth?" How
is each stage initiated and stopped?
There are a number of theories. One
theory presumes the entire DNA strand
is accessible at all times. In this
view operons are used sequentially,
while many proteins are supressed, some
operons are active, which results in
one set of proteins developing the
cell, at some point, the first group of
operons are inhibited and a different
operon (or set of operons) is turned
on, signalling a new set of proteins to
be built which effects the growth and
shape of the cell. An abundance of a
first stage protein might initiate the
second stage. A second theory is that
DNA is read like a computer program
with some proteins moving along the DNA
strand, one part at a time. In this
way, one portion of the DNA may reflect
one life stage, while the next portion
represents the next (and perhaps very
different) life stage.
The endospore-forming bacteria belong
to the Firmicutes.
[1] Spore forming inside a bacterium.
Stahly, MicrobeLibrary COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.microbe.org/microbes/
spores.asp
ancestor of all Proteobacteria
(Rickettsia {mitochondria}, gonorrhoea,
Salmonella, E coli) evolving now.
Proteobact
eria include 5 Classes:
CLASS Alpha
Proteobacteria (Rickettsia Prowazekii
{mitochondria/typhus})
CLASS Beta Proteobacteria (Neisseria
gonorrhoeae {gonorrhoea})
CLASS Gamma Proteobacteria
(Salmonella and Escherichia coli.)
CLASS Delta
Proteobacteria
CLASS Epsilon Proteobacteria
The Proteobacteria are a major group of
bacteria. They include a wide variety
of pathogens, such as Escherichia,
Salmonella, Vibrio, Helicobacter, and
many other notable genera. Others are
free-living, and include many of the
bacteria responsible for nitrogen
fixation. The group is defined
primarily in terms of ribosomal RNA
(rRNA) sequences, and is named for the
Greek god Proteus, who could change his
shape, because of the great diversity
of forms found in it.
All Proteobacteria are Gram-negative,
with an outer membrane mainly composed
of lipopolysaccharides. Many move about
using flagella, but some are non-motile
or rely on bacterial gliding. The last
include the myxobacteria, a unique
group of bacteria that can aggregate to
form multicellular fruiting bodies.
There is also a wide variety in the
types of metabolism. Most members are
facultatively or obligately anaerobic
and heterotrophic, but there are
numerous exceptions. A variety of
genera, which are not closely related,
can photosynthesize. These are called
purple bacteria, referring to their
mostly reddish pigmentation.
The delta-proteobacteria Myxobacteria
is capable of colonial multicellularity
and some view as possibly being the
bacteria that formed the cytoplasm in
eukaryotes.
CLASS Alpha Proteobacteria (Rickettsia
Prowazekii {mitochondria/typhus})
CLASS Beta Proteobacteria
(Neisseria gonorrhoeae {gonorrhoea})
CLASS Gamma
Proteobacteria (Salmonella, Escherichia
coli., fireblight {Erwinia amylovora},
one form of dysentery {Shigella
dysenteriae}, Legionaires' disease
{Legionella pneumophilia}, Haemophilus
influenzae {first free living organism
to have entire genome sequenced},
Pseudomonas, the largest known bacteria
{Thiomargarita namibiensis}, Cholera
{Vibrio cholerae})
The number of individual E.
coli bacteria in the feces that one
human passes in one day averages
between 100 billion and 10 trillion.
CLA
SS Delta Proteobacteria (Bdellovibrio
{parasite on other bacteria}, Geobacter
{can oxydize uranium, may be used as
battery that runs on waste},
myxobacteria {form multicellular bodies
that make spores, have large genome}
CLASS
Epsilon Proteobacteria (Helicobacter
{spiral bacteria})
[1] Figure 1. Transmission electron
micrograph of the ELB agent in XTC-2
cells. The rickettsia are free in the
cytoplasm and surrounded by an electron
transparent halo. Original
magnification X 30,000. CDC PD
source: www.cdc.gov/ncidod/
eid/vol7no1/raoultG1.htm
[2] Caulobacter crescentus. From
http://sunflower.bio.indiana.edu/~ybrun/
L305.html COPYRIGHTED EDU was in wiki
but appears to be removed
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/4/42/Caulobacter.jpg
Eubacteria Phylum, Planctomycetes
(Planctobacteria) evolving now.
Planctomycet
es are a possible ancestor of all
eukaryotes because the circle of DNA
can sometimes be enclosed in a double
membrane.
Planctomycetes is a small phylum with
only 4 Genera, require oxygen for
growth (obligately aerobic), are found
in fresh and salt water. They reproduce
by budding. They have holdfast (stalk)
at the nonreproductive end that helps
them to attach to each other during
budding.
The life cycle involves alternation
between sessile cells and flagellated
swarmer cells. The sessile cells bud to
form the flagellated swarmer cells
which swim for a while before settling
down to attach and begin reproduction.
It is also possible, although unlikely,
that planctomycetes are descended from
a very early eukaryote that lost the
nucleus but retained the cytoplasmic
DNA, since budding may have evolved as
a method to duplicate a eukaryote cell
from the nucleus. (ok this is out
there...maybe t3)
The organisms belonging
to this group lack murein in their cell
wall Murein is an important
heteropolymer present in most bacterial
cell walls that serves as a protective
component in the cell wall skeleton.
Instead their walls are made up of
glycoprotein rich in glutamate.
Planctomycetes have internal structures
that are more complex than would be
typically expected in prokaryotes.
While they don't have a nucleus in the
eukaryotic sense, the nuclear material
can sometimes be enclosed in a double
membrane. In addition to this nucleoid,
there are two other membrane-separated
compartments; the pirrellulosome or
riboplasm, which contains the ribosome
and related proteins, and the
ribosome-free paryphoplasm.
[1] Electron micrographs of cells of
new Gemmata-like and Isosphaera-like
isolates. (A) Negatively stained cell
of the Gemmata-like strain JW11-2f5
showing crateriform structures
(arrowhead) and coccoid cell
morphology. Bar marker, 200 nm. (B)
Negatively stained budding cell of
Isosphaera-like strain CJuql1 showing
uniform crateriform structures
(arrowhead) on the mother cell and
coccoid cell morphology. Bar marker,
200 nm. (C) Thin section of
Gemmata-like cryosubstituted cell of
strain JW3-8s0 showing the
double-membrane-bounded nuclear body
(NB) and nucleoid (N) enclosed within
it. Bar marker, 200 nm. (D) Thin
section of Isosphaera-like strain C2-3
possessing a fibrillar nucleoid (N)
within a cytoplasmic compartment
bounded by a single membrane (M) only.
Bar marker, 200 nm. Appl Environ
Microbiol. 2002 January; 68(1):
417-422. doi:
10.1128/AEM.68.1.417-422.2002.
source: http://www.pubmedcentral.gov/art
iclerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=117
72655
[2] Evolutionary distance tree
derived from comparative analysis of
16S rDNAs from freshwater and soil
isolates and reference strains of the
order Planctomycetales. Database
accession numbers are shown in
parentheses after species, strain, or
clone names. Bootstrap values of
greater than 70% from 100 bootstrap
resamplings from the distance analysis
are presented at nodes. Thermotoga
maritima was used as an outgroup.
Isolates from this study and
representative named species of the
planctomycetes are indicated in bold.
The scale bar represents 0.1 nucleotide
substitution per nucleotide
position. Appl Environ Microbiol.
2002 January; 68(1): 417-422. doi:
10.1128/AEM.68.1.417-422.2002.
source: http://florey.biosci.uq.edu.au/m
ypa/images/fuerst2.gif
Eubacteria Phylum, Actinobacteria (high
G+C, Gram positive) evolving now.
Actinobact
eria have 5 Orders:
ORDER Acidimicrobiales
ORDER
Actinobacteriales
ORDER Coriobacteriales
ORDER Rubrobacteriales
ORDER Sphaerobacteriales
Actinobacteria include the causes of
tuberculosis (Mycobacteria
tuberculosis) and leprosy (Mycobacteria
leprae).
The Actinobacteria or Actinomycetes are
a group of Gram-positive bacteria. Most
are found in the soil, and they include
some of the most common soil life,
playing an important role in
decomposition of organic materials,
such as cellulose and chitin. This
replenishes the supply of nutrients in
the soil and is an important part of
humus formation. Other Actinobacteria
inhabit plants and animals, including a
few pathogens, such as Mycobacterium.
Some
Actinobacteria form braching filaments,
which somewhat resemble the mycelia of
the unrelated fungi, among which they
were originally classified under the
older name Actinomycetes. Most members
are aerobic, but a few, such as
Actinomyces israelii, can grow under
anaerobic conditions. Unlike the
Firmicutes, the other main group of
Gram-positive bacteria, they have DNA
with a high GC-content
{guanine-cytosine content} and some
Actinomycetes species produce external
spores.
Mycobacterium bovis (the bacterium
responsible for bovine TB) in
particular has been estimated to be
responsible, for the period of the
first half of the 20th century, for
more losses among farm animals than all
other infectious diseases combined.
Infection occurs if the bacterium is
ingested.
Actinobacteria are unsurpassed in their
ability to produce many compounds that
have pharmaceutically useful
properties. In 1940 Selman Waksman
discovered that the soil bacteria he
was studying made actinomycin, a
discovery which granted him a Nobel
Prize. Since then hundreds of naturally
occurring antibiotics have been
discovered in these terrestrial
microorganisms, especially from the
genus Streptomyces.
When M.leprae was discovered by G.A.
Hansen in 1873, it was the first
bacterium to be identified as causing
disease in man. Although Leprosy is
contagious, it is not widespread
because 95% of the population have
immune systems able to cope with the
bacteria.
[1] Frankia is a genus of
nitrogen-fixing soil bacteria, which
possesses a set of features that are
unique amongst symbiotic
nitrogen-fixing microorganisms,
including rhizobia, making it an
attractive taxon to study. These
heterotrophic Gram-positive bacteria
which are able to induce symbiotic
nitrogen-fixing root nodules
(actinorhizas) in a wide range of
dicotyledonous species (actinorhizal
plants), have also the capacity to fix
atmospheric nitrogen in culture and
under aerobic conditions.
source: http://www.ibmc.up.pt/webpagesgr
upos/cam/Frankia.htm
[2] Aerial mycelium and spore of
Streptomyces coelicolor. The mycelium
and the oval spores are about 1µm
wide, typical for bacteria and much
smaller than fungal hyphae and spores.
(Scanning electron micrograph, Mark
Buttner, Kim Findlay, John Innes
Centre). COPYRIGHT UK
source: http://www.sanger.ac.uk/Projects
/S_coelicolor/micro_image4.shtml
Eubacteria Phylum, Spirochaetes
(Syphilis, Lyme disease) evolving now.
Inclu
des leptospirosis (leptospira), Lyme
disease (Borrelia burgdorferi), and
Syphilis (Treponema pallidum).
Spirochaetes only
have one order:
ORDER Spirochaetales
This is when the first spiral shaped
bacteria evolve.
The spirochaetes (or spirochetes) are a
phylum of distinctive bacteria, which
have long, helically coiled cells. They
are distinguished by the presence of
flagella running lengthwise between the
cell membrane and cell wall, called
axial filaments. These cause a twisting
motion which allows the spirochaete to
move about. Most spirochaetes are
free-living and anaerobic, but there
are numerous exceptions.
Spirochaetes only have
one order:
ORDER Spirochaetales
and 3 families.
[1] Syphilis is a complex, sexually
transmitted disease (STD) with a highly
variable clinical course. The disease
is caused by the bacterium, Treponema
pallidum. In the United States, 32,871
cases of syphilis, including 432 cases
of congenital syphilis, were detected
by public health officials in 2002.
Eight of the ten states with the
highest rates of syphilis are located
in the southern region of the United
States.
source: http://www.cdc.gov/nchstp/od/tus
kegee/syphilis.htm
[2] leptospirose 200x magnified with
dark-field microscope photo taken by
bluuurgh at the dutch royal tropical
institute (www.kit.nl) PD
source: http://uhavax.hartford.edu/bugl/
images/Treponema%20pallidum.jpg
Eubacteria Phyla Bacteroidetes and
Chlorobi (green sulphur bacteria)
evolving now.
PHYLUM Bacteroidetes
CLASS Bacteroides
ORDER
Bacteroidales
CLASS Flavobacteria
ORDER Flavobacteriales
CLASS
Sphingobacteria
ORDER Sphingobacteriales
PHLYUM Chlorobi (Green sulphur)
CLASS Chlorobia
ORDER
Chlorobiales
The phylum Bacteroidetes is composed of
three large groups of bacteria. By far,
more is written about and known about
the Bacteroides class, than the other
two, the Flavobacteria and the
Sphingobacteria classes. They are
related by the similarity in the
composition of the small 16S subunit of
their ribosomes. Members of the
bacteroides class are human commensals
(they benefit but humans receive no
effect) and sometimes pathogens.
Members of the other two classes are
rarely pathogenic to humans.
Chlorobi are the "green sulphur
bacteria", are a family of phototrophic
(photosynthesizing) bacteria. Green
sulfur bacteria are generally nonmotile
(one species has a flagellum), and come
in spheres, rods, and spirals. Their
environment must be oxygen-free, and
they need light to grow. They engage in
photosynthesis, using
bacteriochlorophylls c, d, and e in
vesicles called chlorosomes attached to
the membrane. They use sulfide ions as
electron donor, and in the process the
sulfide gets oxidized, producing
globules of elemental sulfur outside
the cell, which may then be further
oxidized. (By contrast, the
photosynthesis in plants uses water as
electron donor and produces oxygen.)
A species of green sulfur bacteria has
been found living near a black smoker
off the coast of Mexico at a depth of
2,500 meters beneath the surface of the
Pacific Ocean. At this depth, the
bacteria, designated GSB1, lives off
the dim glow of the thermal vent since
no sunlight can penetrate to that
depth.
[1] Bacteroides fragilis . From the
Zdravotni University
source: http://biology.kenyon.edu/Microb
ial_Biorealm/bacteria/bacteroidete_chlor
ob_group/bacteroides/bacteroides.htm
[2] Cross section of a Bacteroides
showing an outer membrane, a
peptidoglycan layer, and a cytoplasmic
membrane. From New-asthma
source: http://phil.cdc.gov/phil/details
.asp
Eubacteria Phyla Chlamydiae and
Verrucomicrobia evolving now.
Chlamydiae
includes (clamydia, trachoma {Chlamydia
trachomatis}, a form of pneumonia
{Chlamydophila pneumoniae}, psittacosis
{Chlamydophila psittaci}.
CLASS Chlamydiae
ORDER Chlamydiales
PHYLA Verrucomicrobia
ORDER Verrucomicrobiales
The Chlamydiae are a group of bacteria,
all of which are intracellular
parasites of eukaryotic cells. Most
described species infect mammals and
birds, but some have been found in
other hosts, such as amoebae.
Chlamydiae have a
life-cycle involving two distinct
forms. Infection takes place by means
of elementary bodies (EB), which are
metabolically inactive. These are taken
up within a cellular vacuole, where
they grow into larger reticulate bodies
(RB), which reproduce. Ultimately new
elementary bodies are produced and
expelled from the cell.
Verrucomicrobia is a recently described
phylum of bacteria. This phylum
contains only a few described species
(Verrucomicrobia spinosum, is an
example, the phylum is named after
this). The species identified have been
isolated from fresh water and soil
environments and human feces. A number
of as-yet uncultivated species have
been identified in association with
eukaryotic hosts including extrusive
explosive ectosymbionts of protists and
endosymbionts of nematodes residing in
their gametes.
Evidence suggests that verrucomicrobia
are abundant within the environment,
and important (especially to soil
cultures). This phylum is considered to
have two sister phyla Chlamydiae and
Lentisphaera.
There are three main species of
chlamydiae that infect humans:
* Chlamydia trachomatis, which
causes the eye-disease trachoma and the
sexually transmitted infection
chlamydia;
* Chlamydophila pneumoniae, which
causes a form of pneumonia;
* Chlamydophila
psittaci, which causes psittacosis.
[1] Chlamydia trachomatis wiki, is
copyrighted
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chl
amydia_trachomatis
[2] wiki, public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Chlamydophila_pneumoniae.jpg
cell membrane folds around some
molecules to form a spherical vesicle
which enters the cytoplasm, and
exocytosis, the opposite process, where
a vesicle combines with a call membrane
to empty molecules outside a cell both
evolve in an early eukaryote cell.
Eukaryote cells can now swallow
bacteria (phagocytosis) and liquid
(pinocytosis). The cells can then
(heterotrophically) use the molecules
injested (for example a bacterium) for
copying and to make ATP. This is the
first time one cell can eat a different
living cell.
How similar endocytosis is to
conjugation is unknown at this time.
[1] Pinocytosis In the process of
pinocytosis the plasma membrane froms
an invagination. What ever substance
is found within the area of
invagination is brought into the
cell. In general this material will
be dissolved in water and thus this
process is also refered to as
''cellular drinking'' to indicate that
liquids and material dissolved in
liquids are ingested by the
cell. This is opposed to the
ingestion of large particulate material
like bacteria or other cells or cell
debris.
source: http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.ed
u/biology/bio4fv/page/endocytb.htm
cytoplasm.
One theory is that the cytoskeleton
formed from the eukaryote flagella
(cilia, undulipodia) tubules.
Cytoskeleton is a
single body with the endoplasmic
reticulum and nuclear membrane?
This cell has a nucleus, with either
single strands or a circle of DNA
inside. This is a single anaerobic
cell. This is the first protist.
This cell evolves either by:
1) two or more
bacteria joined, one with flagella
(perhaps a eubacteria) formed the
nucleus, a second formed the cytoplasm
outside the nucleus, eventually the
code to build the entire cell including
the instructions to build the symbiotic
captured bacteria was included in the
new nucleus,
2) the nucleus formed as
part of the cytoplasm lattice, perhaps
the outer wall folded in on itself
creating a double membrane, or a
membrane grew around the DNA (for
example like planctobacteria) which
provided more protection for the DNA
from the movement and digestive
activities of cytoplasm now without a
rigid cell wall,
3) a bacteria with
flagella that grew cytoplasm and a
secondary cell wall outside the
original cell wall,
4) a virus,
5) a
DNA strand from conjugation with a
different prokaryote stored in a
vesicle.
There are key features that are
different from eukaryotes and
prokaryotes:
1) Eukaryotes have a nucleus,
prokaryotes do not.
2) DNA in eukaryotes is
in the form of chromosomes, in
prokaryotes the DNA is in a circle.
3)
Eukaryotes can do endocytosis, fold
their cell membrane around some
external object and injest the object,
prokaryotes can not.
4) Eukaryotes have a
membrane lattice of proteins, actin and
myacin, prokaryotes do not.
5) Eukaryotes
have an endoplasmic reticulum and golgi
body.
6) Eukaryotes reproduce asexually by
dual binary division (both nucleus and
cell divide by binary division),
budding, or mitosis, prokaryotes
reproduce by budding or binary
division.
If the nucleus is an engulfed
prokaryote, this cell inherits the
processes of nuclear DNA duplication
and nucleus division (karyokinesis)
from prokaryote binary division.
Initially, both the nucleus and cell
divide by binary division.
Support for the
nucleus forming from a prokaryote is
that chromosomes in parabasalia and
dinoflagellates remain permanently
anchored to the nuclear membrane
(envelope?) by the kinetochores, the
same way prokaryote DNA anchors to the
cell membrane (wall?) during cell
division.
A theory of an archaebacteria (perhaps
an eocyte) forming the first eukaryote
nucleus and a gram-negative eubacteria
forming the cytoplasm of the first
eukaryote is supported by genetic
evidence.
This cell reproduces asexually by
either binary fission (both nucleus and
cytoplasm) or budding, or sexually by
conjugation or both cell and nuclei
fully merging.
If this cell has chromosomes, this is
the first (haploid) organism with
chromosomes.
Perhaps a sperm-like flagellated
prokaryote merged with an ovum-like
prokaryote from the same or a different
species, perhaps by the ovum opening a
pilus and the sperm-like cell entering
the pilus, and once inside opening a
pilus through which the DNA from the
two cells could merge. Many
diplomonads look like sperm cells stuck
in an ovum, with the still flagellated
sperm forming the nucleus, and some
diplomonads, for example, the oxymonad,
Saccinobaculus reproduce sexually.
An important evolutionary step had to
evolve here, and that is the evolution
of the prokaryote binary division
system: 1) duplicating DNA in the
cytoplasm, 2) separating the two copies
of DNA, and 3) the division of
cytoplasm into two cells to an adapted
process of eukaryote cell division: 1)
duplicating DNA in the nucleus, 2)
separating the DNA in the nucleus, 3)
dividing the nucleus into two nuclei,
4) separating the two nuclei, and then
5) dividing the cytoplasm into two
cells.
It appears in early eukaryote nuclei
(as seen in closed mitosis, where the
nuclear membrane persistes through
mitosis) that the nuclei divide by a
process similar to binary division (as
opposed to budding), which adds to the
support for the first nucleus being a
prokaryote and continuing to divide by
binary division.
Most people accept that the centrioles
from which grow the microtubule
spindles that pull apart chromosomes in
mitosis, evolved from the base pairs
which originally were, and on some
species still are, connected to a
cilium.
Perhaps there are some eukaryote nuclei
that duplicate by budding, although
this has never been found to my
knowledge. If ever found, that would
imply that budding evolved before the
first eukaryote, but could have
possibly evolved after by simply
dropping the instructions to copy
anything other than the nucleus.
Binary cell division in the most basic
form only synthesizes more cytoplasm
and cell wall, where budding reproduces
the entire body plan of a cell (or
nucleus in this case).
evidence for
prokaryote=eukaryote nucleus
1) flagella
connected to nucleus of metamonads.
a) flagella
hints that nucleus prokaryote may have
been a male gamete (and the cytoplasm
the female gamete).
b) flagella are presumably
outside the double membrane, indicates
that came after capture? Maybe
flagella penetrate double
membrane...perhaps were initialy inside
or partially inside and outside.
2) nucleus
division does not need to be recreated,
can be basically the same inherited
prokaryote cell division (perhaps with
minor adjustments), only within a cell
membrane.
3) conjugation already existed as a
form of exchanging DNA before the first
eukaryote, it is possible that a
complete bacterium could be taken in
through a pilus. Some eukaryotes like
spyrogrya still reproduce sexually
through conjugation.
4) DNA was splitting and
merging with conjugation in prokaryotes
before eukaryotes.
5) division of nucleus and
cytoplasm is different, just like
mitochondria, when the cytoplasm
divides is signalled by molecules (as
far as I know), and a nucleus may
divide without the cytoplasm dividing
(immediately or perhaps ever) in some
protists. (Clearly many metamonads have
multiple nuclei). It's interesting
that some metamonads have muliple
nuclei (mastigonts), because when they
reproduce it is all integrated, each
nuceli is rebuilt (as far as I know).
Maybe that shows how simple throwing
together nuclei and cytoplasm is for
DNA for put together and reproduce.
6) two layer
membrane around nucleus, is evidence of
a prokaryote being captured in a
vacuole.
7) happened for mitochondria,
chloroplasts, (and later red algae and
green algae), that is support for a
prokaryote similar to rikettsia, or
cyanobacteria being engulfed and
forming nucleus.
8) "all eukaryotic HSP70
homologs share in common with the
Gram-negative group of eubacteria a
number of sequence features that are
not present in any archaebacterium or
Gram-positive bacterium, indicating
their evolution from this group of
organisms."
9) Most genes related to the nucleus
are related to archaebacteria, while
those relating to the cytoplasm are
related to eubacteria.
Perhaps there was a long period of time
where the future eukaryote nucleus was
only an organelle, reproducing
initially like mitochondria and
chloroplasts do, by themselves, but
initiated by the nuclear duplication
and cytoplasmic division (check).
Somehow the binary division process of
the cytoplasm DNA and the binary
division process of the
nucleus-organelle had to merge into one
process.
Either the spindle chromosome
method (mitosis) evolved before or
after the nucleus-organelle has taken
over the cytoplasm building function.
As time continued, the process of
spindle separation evolved for the
nucleus-organelle. As time continued,
the building of the nucleus-organelle
was taken over by the cytoplasmic DNA,
still reproducing by binary fission.
I
could see how budding would be a
natural evolution for a cell nucleus
that starts as an organelle, is
reproduced by cytoplasm DNA and then
the DNA is tranfered back into the
nucleus-organelle. The
nucelus-organelle would then recreate
the entire cell inside the nucleus
(including the cytoplasm DNA
presumably), and presumably it would
burst out and continue to copy that
way. Perhaps budding prokaryotes were
budding eukaryotes that still had their
cytoplasm DNA that actually lost their
nucleus-organelle. Then budding
perhaps evolved into mitosis. I think
that mitosis is more similar to binary
division than budding is.
It seems clear that the
nucleus-organelle copied itself.
Potentially the same proteins that
initiate DNA duplication and cell
division for the cytoplasm DNA
simulteously initiate DNA duplication
and cell (nucleus-organelle) division
in the nucleus-organelle. So the
nucleus-organelle may have been exactly
like a mitochondrion for many years.
Although there are uncertainties, this
first eukaryote is thought to be a
member of the broad group of single
celled eukaryotes called "flagellates".
It is theorized that later will evolve
the unicellular "ameobozoid" and
"ciliate" groups. (this is a little
vague and I am not sure it really
covers algae, and the other alveolates,
but it does reduce the complexity of
protists)
[1]
http://www.regx.de/m_organisms.php#planc
to
source: http://www.regx.de/m_organisms.p
hp#plancto
[2]
http://www.mansfield.ohio-state.edu/~sab
edon/biol1080.htm
source: http://www.mansfield.ohio-state.
edu/~sabedon/biol1080.htm
single circular chromosome to linear
chromosomes.
Possibly the prokaryote ancestor of the
first eukaryote had linear chromosomes
since some prokaryotes (although very
few) are known to have linear
chromosomes instead of or in addition
to a single circular chromosome.
Perhaps a DNA
strand entered a cell by conjugation,
the circle of DNA was cut to insert the
new DNA (plasmid), but the new DNA
strand was not sewn back into the
original strand of DNA creating two
strands of DNA which eventually evolved
into the first 2 chromosomes.
Perhaps the first eukaryote nucleus was
a virus, many of which have linear
chromosomes.
This includes the evolution of
histones, proteins which are packed in
between nucleotides in each
chromosome.
Presumably DNA duplication (sythesis)
of chromosomes (in the nucleus) is
initially identical to DNA duplication
of DNA strands or circular DNA.
Some prokaryotes do not have just one
circle of DNA. Brucella melitensis
has 2 circlular chromosomes.
Agrobacterium tumefaciens has a
circular and a linear chromosome.
Streptomyces griseus can have one
linear chromosome. Borrelia
burgdorferi contains a linear
chromosome and a number of variable
circular and linear plasmids. Most
eukaryote orgenelles have a single
circular chromosome except for the
mitochondria of most cnidarians and
some other forms which have linear
chromosomes.
undulipodium) evolves on early single
cell eukaryotes.
The eukaryote cilia (flagella,
undulipodia) may evolve from a
prokaryote flagella connected to the
nucleus, from the cytoskeleten, or a
symbiotic prokaryote.
Cilia and eukaryote flagella are
structurally the same, but have minor
functional differences. Cilia are a
special class of eukaryote flagella.
The
eukarote flagellum is different from
prokayote flagellum. The prokaryote
flagallum is a solid structures, made
of the protein flagellin, which
protrudes through the plasma membrane.
The eukaryote flagellum (and cilium)
contains a "9 plus 2 array", 9
microtubules in a circle with 2
microtubules in the center. Some
people think that the eukaryote
flagella and cilia should be called
"undulipodia".
In some species the spindles used in
mitosis connect to the bases of the
eukaryote cilia (undulipodia), which
leads some people to think that the
spindles of mitosis may have evolved
from the eukaryote cilia.
Some people think that the eukaryote
cilium (flagellum, undulipodia) was a
spirochete (prokaryote) that formed a
symbiotic relationship with a eukaryote
host, whose DNA was transfered to the
host nucleus. Other possibilities are
that the eukaryote flagellum evolved
from prokaryote flagellum, or simply
evolved over time through natural
selection.
The eukaryote flagellum protein
"tubulin" is thought to be related to a
bacterial replication/cytoskeletal
protein "FtsZ" found in some
archaebacteria (archaea).
What method of reproduction this first
nucleated cell used is a great mystery.
Among the choices are binary division,
budding, or mitosis. My own feeling is
that budding or dual binary division
(both nucleus and cytoplasm) was how
this cell initially copied.
The eukaryote
flagellum (cilium, undulipodium) is the
same inherited and found on sperm
cells.
constantly synthesizing DNA and then
having a division period (as is the
case for all known prokaryotes), but
this cell has a period in between cell
division and DNA synthesis where DNA
synthesis is not performed. Later some
cells develop a stage after synthesis
and before cell division.
For the first time, a
cell is not constantly synthesizing DNA
(S) and then having a division period
(D) (as is the case for all known
prokaryotes), but this cell has a
period in between cell division and DNA
synthesis where DNA synthesis is not
performed (G1) . Later some cells
develop a stage after synthesis and
before cell division (G2).
a prokaryote, synchronized duplication
and division of organelle-nucleus and
cytoplasm of early eukaryote cell
evolves. Before this, eukaryote cell
division usually results in one cell
with no organelle-nuclei and a second
cell with 2 organelle-nuclei. Perhaps
the organelle-nuclei attach to the
outer cell membrane in the same way the
cytoplasmic DNA do, which allows new
cytoplasm growth to separate the two
organelle-nucleus in addition to the
cytoplasmic DNA.
Or perhaps the first
system of organized nuclei separation
originated with the organelle-nucleus
flagella microtubules grewing into the
cytoskeleton, and organized system
spindles and mitosis.
If the nuclear membrane was formed
around the DNA within a prokaryote,
then binary division had to adapt to
separate the duplicated DNA within the
proto-nucleus (not within the entire
cell) which may have been very simple
to evolve. If the cytoplasm grew
outside the cell wall of a prokaryote,
binary division would have to adapt to
separate that external cytoplasm.
source:
source:
haploid (single set of chomosomes)
eukaryote nucleus, evolves in
eukaryotes. Before mitosis, there is a
synthesis stage where DNA in the form
of chromosomes are duplicated in the
nucleus before the nucleus and cell
divide.
explain basic process of mitosis:
prophase,
metaphase, anaphase, telophase
Presumably no prokaryotes have ever
reproduced through mitosis. Only
eukaryotes reproduce asexually using
mitosis.
Most people accept that some protists
were sexual and later lost that
ability. But the majority view now is
that the first eukaryotes were asexual,
and that some protists still living now
have never had sexual ability.
Because mitosis is complex and similar
in detail in all species that do
mitosis, people think that mitosis only
evolved once, and was inherited by all
species that do mitosis.
The major differences between this new
method of copying, mitosis and the
older method, binary fission (add
budding?) are:
1) In mitosis, microtubule
spindles attach to the kinetochore (the
protein structure in eukaryotes which
assembles on the centromere and links
the chromosome to microtubule polymers
from the mitotic spindle during
mitosis) and pull apart the two DNA
copies, where in binary fission the DNA
(single chromosome) attaches to a part
of the cytoplasm which pulls apart the
two cells.
2) Chromosomes (linear pieces of
DNA), not a circle of DNA is being
copied.
People speculate that early mitosis had
spindles outside the nucleus, with
chromosomes fastened to the nuclear
membrane, as can still be seen in
parabasalia and dinoflagellates, which
appear to have primitive nuclei.
In more ancient species the nuclear
membrane persists through mitosis
(closed mitosis), but in more recent
species, like metazoa, land plants, and
many kinds of protists, the nuclear
membrane disintegrates before mitosis
and is rebuilt after (open mitosis).
Most people think that extranuclear
spindles (spindles that originate
outside of the nucleus) and closed
mitosis evolved first. Only later did
pleuromitosis (spindles rotate 90
degrees, nucleus can be semi-open, or
closed) and then orthomitosis (spindles
are on both sides of nucleus and
separate chromosomes in a straight
line, nucleus can be open, semi-open or
closed) evolve in later eukaryotes.
It is
interesting to think about how how
binary fission (or potentially budding)
of prokaryote cells with no nucleus
evolved into mitosis and the use of
spindles.
Mitosis, budding, and binary fission
are the only asexual methods of
reproduction known.
Perhaps mitosis evolved first only
copying the nucleus then later evolved
to make not only a new nucleus but also
a new cell around that nucleus.
[1] Mitosis divides genetic information
during cell division Source:
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/About/primer
/genetics_cell.html This image is
from the Science Primer, a work of the
National Center for Biotechnology
Information, part of the National
Institutes of Health. As a work of the
U.S. federal government, the image is
in the public domain.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mit
osis
[2] Prophase: The two round objects
above the nucleus are the centrosomes.
Note the condensed chromatin. from
Gray's Anatomy. Unless stated
otherwise, it is from the online
edition of the 20th U.S. edition of
Gray's Anatomy of the Human Body,
originally published in 1918. Online
editions can be found on Bartleby and
also on Yahoo!
source:
division evolves. Two eukaryote cells
can merge into one cell with 2 nuclei
and then divide back into single 1
nucleus cells.
Possibly two cells that fuse
cytoplasms but not nuclei, may still
retain the system of cytoplasmic DNA
and organelle-nucleus attachment to
cell membrane (wall?), but on each half
of the new cell, therefore making dual
haploid mitosis (potentially of both
cytoplasmic DNA and organelle-nucleus
in synchronized duplication) a simple
evolutionary next step.
syngamy, gametogamy) evolves in
protists. Haploid (1 set of
chromosomes) eukaryote cells merge and
then their nuclei merge (karyogamy) to
form the first diploid (2 sets of
chromosomes) cells (the first zygote).
This fusion of 2 haploid cells results
in the first diploid single-celled
organism, which then immediately
divides (both nucleus and cytoplasm by
single-division meiosis) back to two
haploid cells.
Possibly first, only cytoplasmic
merging happened with nuclear merging
(karyogamy) and nuclear division
(karyokinesis) evolving later.
Now, two cells
with different DNA can mix providing
more chance of variety/mutation. Two
chromosome sets provides a backup copy
of important genes (sequences that code
for proteins, or nucleic acids) that
might be lost with only a set of single
chromosomes.
The life cycle of future organisms will
now have two phases, a gamophase (from
n to 2n (until syngamy)), and zygophase
(from 2n to n (until meiosis)). Gamoid
cells are not haploid in polyploid
organisms.
Potentially sexual cell and genetic
fusion is what made the first eukaryote
cell, and sex in protists may be
directly descended from conjugation in
prokaryotes, in other words not evolved
from a different method independently
of conjugation, because some
metamonads, for example Saccinobaculus
reproduce sexually, and look very much
like a prokaryote sperm cell which
formed the nucleus captured in an ovum
cell.
For sexual species there are 3 basic
life cycles:
1) Haploid (Haplontic) life cycle:
zygotic meiosis. Life as haploid
cells, cell division immediately after
creation of zygote from fusion. (All
fungi, Some green algae, Many
protozoa)
2) Diploid (Diplontic) life cycle:
gametic meiosis. Instead of immediate
cell division, zygote reproduces by
mitosis. Haploid gametes never copy by
mitosis. (animals, some brown algae)
3)
Haplodiploid (Haplodiplontic,
Diplohaplontic, Diplobiontic) life
cycle: sporic meiosis. Diploid cell
(sporocyte) meiosis results in 2
haploid sporophytes (gamonts), not 2
haploid gametes. These haploid cells
then differentiate? or mitosis? to form
haploid gametes. Haplodiplontic
organisms have alternation of
generations, one generation involves
diploid spore-producing single or
multicellular sporophytes (makes
spores) and the other generation
involves haploid single or
multicellular gamete-producing
multicellular gametophytes (makes
gametes). Pants and many algae have
this haplodiplontic life cycle.
These first sexual cells are haplontic,
with zygotic meiosis; they reproduce
asexually through mitosis as haploid
cells, fusing to a diploid cell without
mitosis, then dividing back into
haploid cells.
An important evolutionary step evolves
here in that now two cells can
completely merge into one cell. This
merge not only includes their nuclei,
but also their cytoplasm (althought the
DNA do not merge). Before now, as far
as has ever been observed, no two cells
have ever completely merged, although,
through conjugation some prokaryotes
have been observed to exchange DNA.
This marks the beginning of the
"haplonic lifestyle" with "zygotic
meosis", where the organism is haploid
until cell fusion which is immediately
followed by (one-step) meiosis of the
zygote, after which the haploid cells
continues to reproduce through
mitosis.
Possibly the first sexual organism
merged through a form of "autogamy"
(both haploid gametes originate from
the same individual, the opposite of
"allogamy" where the gametes originate
from different individuals). Some
species reproduce by a form of autogamy
(intracellular autogamy), where nuclei
(also called pronuclei) divide and then
merge within the same cell before the
entire cell divides. Some metamonads
(earliest still living eukaryotes),
like Oxymonas and Saccinobaculus can
reproduce asexually by mitosis, but
also can reproduce sexually using this
form of autogamy. This may be evidence
that some prokaryote could also merge
two entire cells (if the eukaryote
nucleus was a prokaryote). Perhaps
prokaryotes evolved full cellular
fusion before the first eukaryote. If
that is true, then this initial form of
nuclei dividing and merging
(intracellular autogamy) may have
existed for some time before full
eukaryote cell merging and synchronized
eukayote nucleus and cytoplasm division
evolved. It is difficult to see what
selective advantage autogamy could
possibly have since no new DNA is ever
introduced into the next generation of
organism, as opposed to "allogamy",
where DNA from different individuals is
merged, and which has a clear selective
advantage. So perhaps autogamy evolved
after allogamy, although to me it
appears that allogamy is more complex
than autogamy, and autogamy would be a
perfect starting step to develop the
needed proteins and processes for the
more complicated allogamy (autogamy
only involves the duplication and
merging of two nuclei, where allogamy
involves the merging of the cell walls,
and cytoplasm in addition to the two
nuclei.)
This is the beginning of the label
"gamete" for haploid cells that can
merge to form a diploid zygote. In
addition, the label "gametocyte" or
"gamont" is any polyploid cell that
divides (meiosis) into haploid gamete
cells which can merge to form a zygote.
Perhaps
there is a relationship between
prokaryote spore formation and the
phenomenon of diploid zygotes forming a
thick cell wall.
Perhaps the first sex (full cell
nucleus and cytoplasm fusion) was
interchangeably isogamous (both gametes
are identical and interchangable), with
only one gender, in other words, the
first sex on earth was homosexual.
Then later heterogamous gametes
evolved, where there were two distinct
haploid gamete cells, usually a large
female cell and a smaller flagellated
male cell.
Sex also allows organisms to choose
reproductive partners that are more
likely to make new organisms that are
more likely to survive.
An alternative theory is that a failed
mitosis could result in a diploid
nucleus.
What advantage might autogamy of
intercellular nuclei have, the added
chance of mistakes in the merging of
two nuclei? In addition, why would
such a system (intracellular autogamy)
persist if there was no selective
advantage? Why wouldn't oxymonas or
saccinobacculus reduce totally to
asexual mitosis and or allogamous
sexual reproduction and either never
make use of or lose intracellular
autogamous sexual reproduction
completely?
This is the first eukaryote cell to
have a life cycle that involves two
different kinds of cells.
[1] Zygotic Meiosis. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Zygotic_meiosis.png
[2] Gametic Meiosis. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gametic_meiosis.png
duplication and a cell division of a
diploid cell into 2 haploid cells)
evolves.
detail one-step meiosis:
The is no DNA crossover or chiasma
formation in one-division meiosis,
apparently because either duplication
of chromosomes or separation of
chromatids does not occurred.
As far as I know, mitosis and one-step
meiosis are the same with the only
exceptions that 1) in meiosis two
haploid cells join before cell
division, and 2) in mitosis the DNA is
duplicated before cell division, but in
meiosis the DNA is not duplicated
before cell division.
Meiosis can be one step (one DNA
duplication and then one cell division)
or two step (two DNA duplications and
then two divisions). Probably one step
meosis evolved first and two step
meiosis later.
Meiosis can only function on cells with
two or more sets of chromosomes.
The Protists
Pyrsonympha and Dinenympha has up to a
four step meiosis.
Because meiosis is similar and complex
in detail in all species that do
meiosis, people think that meiosis only
evolved once, and was inherited by all
species that do meiosis.
[1] GametoGenesis. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.bio.miami.edu/dana/10
4/gametogenesis.jpg
[2] Sexual cycle oxymonas, identical
to saccinobaculus, one step meiosis.
haploid. COPYRIGHTED CANADA
source: http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~redfi
eld/clevelan/oxymonas.GIF
2 haploid cells fuse) evolves.
This is required
for diploid mitosis.
Duplication of diploid DNA may be very
similar to duplication of haploid DNA.
Initially perhaps the diploid DNA
duplicated, but still divided in
one-division meiosis.
This begins the "diplontic" life cycle
(with gametic meiosis), where diploid
cells (a zygote) can copy asexually
through mitosis after merging. This
organism, when haploid, cannot do
mitosis (presumably haploid gamete
mitosis will evolve much later in brown
algae), and this is still true in all
descendents (including humans) of this
single celled organism.
The proteins and
mechanism of mitosis of diploid cells
is probably very similar to mitosis of
haploid cells. The most primitive
organisms still alive that are
diplontic are the metamonads (e.g.
Oxymonads: Notila, Hypermastigotes:
Urinympha, Macrospironympha,
Rhynchonympha).
(cell and nucleus fusion) between two
isogamous (same size) gametes but which
have 2 different (+ and -) forms
(genders).
Perhaps the invention of two different
genders originated when a flagellated
cell (or nucleus) divided by binary
division and only one half of the two
new cells retained the flagellum. Then
to differentiate the two cells even
more, but still keep the same DNA
template, different proteins could be
weighted on one half of the cell during
division to activate various operons in
one gender but not the other once the
two DNA pairs are separated.
Perhaps sex where the gametes are the
same size but cannot merge themselves
should be called "specific" or
"gendered" isogamy, and where any two
same sized gametes can merge called
"nonspecific" or "nongendered" isogamy.
between two different size gamete cells
(heterogamy or anisogamy) evolves in
protists.
Some species are heterogamous but two
of the same sized (gender) gametes can
fuse to form a zygote.
between one flagellated gamete and an
unflagellated gamete (oogamy, a form of
heterogamy) evolves in protists.
This system is
the system humans inherited.
sterols, molecules made by mitochondria
in eukaryotes) found in northwestern
Australia.
stromatolite, Zimbabwe.
[1] Fig. 2. Organic microstructure from
the Bulawaya stromatolite, Zimbabwe (ca
2.7 Ga). (a) TEM-micrograph from
demineralized rock section. (b) Laser
mass spectrum from individual specimen
of the same population (negative ions).
Field of measurement ca 1 small mu,
Greekm diameter. Attribution of
signals: 12: C−, 13: CH−,
14: CH−2, 16: O−, 17:
OH−, 19: F−, 24: C−2,
25: C2H−, 26: CN−, 28:
Si−, 36: C−3, 37:
C3H−, 40-42, 45: fragmental
carbonaceous groups, 48: C−4, 49:
C4H−, 50: C4H−2, 60:
SiO−2, resp. C−5, 61:
C5H−.
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=MiamiCaptionURL&_method=retriev
e&_udi=B6VBP-42G6M5T-7&_image=fig5&_ba=5
&_user=4422&_coverDate=02%2F01%2F2001&_f
mt=full&_orig=browse&_cdi=5932&view=c&_a
cct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&
_userid=4422&md5=d9195635e48bcf1f817c009
69102189f
cyanobacteria, 2alpha -methylhopanes,
indicate that oxygenic photosynthesis
evolved well before the atmosphere
became oxidizing.
evolves.
Only a few species exhibit this
property (e.g. the Oxymonad Notilla,
Diatoms, Dasicladales {Acetabularia},
in many foraminiferans, and in
gregarines).
Gamontogamy may have evolved into
two-step meiosis.
The vast majority of eukaryotes living
now that reproduce sexually fuse
haploid cells. All "gametes" are
haploid cells that can merge, diploid
cells that can merge are gamonts.
Gamonts (Meiocytes) are cells that
produce gametes.
In theory this should be very similar
if not exactly like haploid cell
fusion, so perhaps this is not a major
evolutionary step.
[1] The Oxymonad, Notila (diploid
Pacific form) life cycle. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~redfi
eld/clevelan/notila.GIF
cell divisions with no stage in between
which result in one diplid cell
dividing into four haploid cells)
evolves.
Meiosis and mitosis are similar in
being process of nucleus and cell
division, but are different.
Differenc
es between meiosis and mitosis:
1) At least one
crossover per homologous pair happens
in 2 step meiosis but crossover usually
does not happen in mitosis.
2) Two step meiosis
involves cell divisions that happen one
after the other, where mitosis only
happens after one DNA duplication
(there are never 2 mitoses together
without a DNA duplication between them
to my knowledge).
The cell division in two step meiosis
that involves a separation of sister
chromatids (not homologous chromosome
pairs) is basically identical to
mitosis. For two step meiosis, this is
the second nucleus and cell division.
Later
multistep meiosis evolves, where there
may be as many as 4 divisions (for
example in the protists Pyrsonympha and
Dinenympha).
[1] GametoGenesis. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.bio.miami.edu/dana/10
4/gametogenesis.jpg
[2] Sexual cycle oxymonas, identical
to saccinobaculus, one step meiosis.
haploid. COPYRIGHTED CANADA
source: http://www.zoology.ubc.ca/~redfi
eld/clevelan/oxymonas.GIF
(Thermus Aquaticus {used in PCR},
Deinococcus radiodurans {can survive
long exposure to radiation}) evolve
now.
PHYLUM Deinococcus-Thermus
CLASS Deinococci
ORDER Deinococcales
ORDER
Thermales
The Deinococcus-Thermus are a small
group of bacteria comprised of cocci
highly resistant to environmental
hazards. There are two main groups. The
Deinococcales include a single genus,
Deinococcus, with several species that
are resistant to radiation; they have
become famous for their ability to eat
nuclear waste and other toxic
materials, survive in the vacuum of
space and survive extremes of heat and
cold. The Thermales include several
genera resistant to heat. Thermus
aquaticus was important in the
development of the polymerase chain
reaction where repeated cycles of
heating DNA to near boiling make it
advantageous to use a thermo-stable DNA
polymerase enzyme. These bacteria have
thick cell walls that give them
gram-positive stains, but they include
a second membrane and so are closer in
structure to those of gram-negative
bacteria.
[1] D. radiodurans growing on a
nutrient agar plate. The red color is
due to carotenoid pigment. Links to
816x711-pixel, 351KB JPG. Credit: M.
Daly, Uniformed Services University of
the Health Sciences NASA
source: http://science.nasa.gov/newhome/
headlines/images/conan/D_rad_dish.jpg
[2] Photomicrograph of Deinococcus
radiodurans, from
www.ornl.gov/ORNLReview/ v34 The Oak
Ridge National Laboratory United
States Federal Government This work
is in the public domain because it is a
work of the United States Federal
Government. This applies worldwide. See
Copyright.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Deinococcus.jpg
Eubacteria phylum, Cyanobacteria
(ancestor of all eukaryote chloroplasts
{plastids}) evolving now. There is a
conflict between the interpretation of
the geological and the genetic evidence
as to if oxygen photosynthesis and
cyanobacteria evolved earlier around
3800mybn or here at 2500mybn.
Cyanobacteria get
their energy from photosythesis.
Cyanobacteria include unicellular,
colonial, and filamentous forms. Some
filamentous cyanophytes form
differentiated cells, called
heterocysts, that are specialized for
nitrogen fixation, and resting or spore
cells called akinetes. Each individual
cell typically has a thick, gelatinous
cell wall, which stains gram-negative.
The cyanophytes lack flagella, but may
move about by gliding along surfaces.
Most are found in fresh water, while
others are marine, occur in damp soil,
or even temporarily moistened rocks in
deserts. A few are endosymbionts in
lichens, plants, various protists, or
sponges and provide energy for the
host.
Chloroplasts found in eukaryotes (algae
and higher plants) most likely
represent reduced endosymbiotic
cyanobacteria. This endosymbiotic
theory is supported by various
structural and genetic similarities.
Primary chloroplasts are found among
the green plants, where they contain
chlorophyll b, and among the red algae
and glaucophytes, where they contain
phycobilins. It now appears that these
chloroplasts probably had a single
origin. Other algae likely took their
chloroplasts from these forms by
secondary endosymbiosis or ingestion.
tenative:
CLASS Chroobacteria
CLASS Hormogoneae
CLASS
Gloeobacteria
Some live in the fur of sloths,
providing a form of camouflage.
[1] Oscillatoria COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.stcsc.edu/ecology/alg
ae/oscillatoria.jpg
[2] Lyngbya COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.stanford.edu/~bohanna
n/Media/LYNGB5.jpg
Non-Sulphur) evolve now.
PHYLUM Chloroflexi
CLASS Chloroflexi
CLASS Thermomicrobia
The Chloroflexi are a group of bacteria
that produce ATP through
photosynthesis. They make up the bulk
of the green non-sulfur bacteria,
though some are classified separately
in the Phylum Thermomicrobia. They are
named for their green pigment, usually
found in photosynthetic bodies called
chlorosomes.
Chloroflexi are typically filamentous,
and can move about through bacterial
gliding. They are facultatively
aerobic, but do not produce oxygen
during photosynthesis, and have a
different method of carbon fixation
than other photosynthetic bacteria.
Phylogenetic trees indicate that they
had a separate origin.
[1] Chloroflexus photomicrograph from
Doe Joint Genome Institute of US Dept
Energy PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Chlorofl.jpg
Era.
appear in many places.
million years starts now.
nucleus that makes ribosomes, evolves.
In some
eukaryotes (thought to be more
ancient), the nucleolus just divides
during mitosis, but in other eukaryotes
the mitosis is dissolved and rebuilt
after nuclear division.
In euglenids, kinetoplastids,
dinoflagellates, some amoebae and some
coccidians, the nucleolus remains
visible throughout mitosis and divides
into two, but in the majority of groups
the nucleolus dissapears and reforms at
telophase. That the nucleolus can
divide by itself suggests that it was
once a free living cell.
[1] Nucleolus, COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.eccentrix.com/members
/chempics/Slike/cell/Nucleolus.jpg
[2] With the combination of x-rays
from the Advanced Light Source and a
new protein-labeling technique,
scientists can see the distribution of
the nucleoli within the nucleus of a
mammary epithelial cell. USG PD
source: http://www.lbl.gov/Science-Artic
les/Archive/xray-inside-cells.html
reticulum evolves in eukaryote cell.
Rough
and smooth endoplasmic reticulum
evolves in eukaryote cell.
The rough ER manufactures and
transports proteins destined for
membranes and secretion. It synthesizes
membrane, organellar, and excreted
proteins. Minutes after proteins are
synthesized most of them leave to the
Golgi apparatus within vesicles. The
rough ER also modifies, folds, and
controls the quality of proteins.
The smooth ER has functions in several
metabolic processes. It takes part in
the synthesis of various lipids (e.g.,
for building membranes such as
phospholipids), fatty acids and
steroids (e.g., hormones), and also
plays an important role in carbohydrate
metabolism, detoxification of the cell
(enzymes in the smooth ER detoxify
chemicals), and calcium storage. It
also is a large transporter of nutrient
found in each cell.
[1] Figure 1 : Image of nucleus,
endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi
apparatus. (1) Nucleus. (2) Nuclear
pore. (3) Rough endoplasmic reticulum
(RER). (4) Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
(SER). (5) Ribosome on the rough ER.
(6) Proteins that are transported. (7)
Transport vesicle. (8) Golgi apparatus.
(9) Cis face of the Golgi apparatus.
(10) Trans face of the Golgi apparatus.
(11) Cisternae of the Golgi
apparatus. I am the copyright holder
of that image (I might even have the
CorelDraw file around somewhere:-), and
I hereby place the image and all
partial images created from it in the
public domain. So, you are free to use
it any way you like. In fact, I am
delighted that one of my drawings makes
it into print! I can mail you the
.cdr file, if you like (and if I can
find it), if you need a better
resolution for printing. Yours, Magnus
Manske Source: [1]. See also
User:Magnus Manske
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nucleus_ER_golgi.jpg
dictyosome) evolves in eukaryote cell.
The
primary function of the Golgi apparatus
is to process proteins targeted to the
plasma membrane, lysosomes or
endosomes, and those that will be
formed from the cell, and sort them
within vesicles. It functions as a
central delivery system for the cell.
Most of the transport vesicles that
leave the endoplasmic reticulum (ER),
specifically rough ER, are transported
to the Golgi apparatus, where they are
modified, sorted, and shipped towards
their final destination. The Golgi
apparatus is present in most eukaryotic
cells, but tends to be more prominent
where there are many substances, such
as proteins, being secreted. For
example, plasma B cells, the
antibody-secreting cells of the immune
system, have prominent Golgi complexes.
[1] Figure 1: Image of nucleus,
endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi
apparatus: (1) Nucleus, (2) Nuclear
pore, (3) Rough endoplasmic reticulum
(RER), (4) Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
(SER), (5) Ribosome on the rough ER,
(6) Proteins that are transported, (7)
Transport vesicle, (8) Golgi apparatus,
(9) Cis face of the Golgi apparatus,
(10) Trans face of the Golgi apparatus,
(11) Cisternae of the Golgi apparatus,
(12) Secretory vesicle, (13) Plasma
membrane, (14) Exocytosis, (15)
Cytoplasm, (16) Extracellular space.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nucleus_ER_golgi_ex.jpg
makes lysosomes which fuse with
endosomes. The various molecules in
lysosomes digest the contents of the
endosome, which then exits the cell as
waste.
[1] Figure 1: Image of nucleus,
endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi
apparatus: (1) Nucleus, (2) Nuclear
pore, (3) Rough endoplasmic reticulum
(RER), (4) Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
(SER), (5) Ribosome on the rough ER,
(6) Proteins that are transported, (7)
Transport vesicle, (8) Golgi apparatus,
(9) Cis face of the Golgi apparatus,
(10) Trans face of the Golgi apparatus,
(11) Cisternae of the Golgi apparatus,
(12) Secretory vesicle, (13) Plasma
membrane, (14) Exocytosis, (15)
Cytoplasm, (16) Extracellular space.
source: http://sun.menloschool.org/~cwea
ver/cells/e/lysosomes/
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nucleus_ER_golgi_ex.jpg
that can only live in other bacteria,
closely related to Rickettsia
prowazekii, an aerobic
alpha-proteobacteria that causes
louse-borne typhus, enters an early
eukaryote cell. As time continues a
symbiotic relationship evolves, where
the Rickettsia forms the mitochondria,
organelles of every euokaryote cell.
The mitochondria perform the Acid
Citric Cycle (Krebs Cycle), using
oxygen to breakdown glucose into CO2
and H2O, and provide up 38 ATP
molecules. Mitochondria reproduce by
themselves, and are not created by the
DNA in the cell nucleus. As time
continues some of the DNA from the
mitochondria merges with the cell
nucleus DNA. Mitochondria produce
sterol used to make the eukaryote cell
wall flexible. Because mitochondria
need Oxygen, but the level of oxygen is
very low on earth, oxygen may be
provided by photosynthesizing
cyanobacteria living near these cells.
All eukaryotes alive today either have
mitochondria except the amitochondriate
excavates (metamonads), the most
ancient of the eukaryotes alive today.
That parabasalids have hydrogenosomes,
anaerobic organelles that seem to have
evolved from mitochondria, many people
think amitochondriate species lost
their mitochondria over time.
This changes
the eukaryote cell from an anaerobic to
aerobic unicellular organism.
This early
mitochondria may have "tubular
christae".
Perhaps there was a period of time
where a system evolved to make sure
both halves received mitochondria
during cell division.
Protists with discoidal mitochondrial
cristea will later evolve from the
Bikont tubular mitochondrial christae
branch.
For the most part:
1) Excavates, Amoebozoa,
and Chromealveolates have or had
tubular christae,
2) Discicristata
(Euglenozoa) have discoidal christae.
3)
Cryptomonads, Glaucophytes, Red Algae,
Green Algae, Plants, Fungi, Animals all
have flat christae.
From this point on, all eukaryotes will
need Oxygen to use mitochondria and
receive the ATP made by mitochondria.
O
ne theory is that, as more O2 is
produced at the surface of the ocean,
protists (which require oxygen for
mitochondria) can move to the ocean
floor.
[1] Phylogenetic hypothesis of the
eukaryotic lineage based on
ultrastructural and molecular data.
Organisms are divided into three main
groups distinguished by mitochondrial
cristal shape (either discoidal,
flattened or tubular). Unbroken lines
indicate phylogenetic relationships
that are firmly supported by available
data; broken lines indicate
uncertainties in phylogenetic
placement, resolution of which will
require additional data. Color coding
of organismal genus names indicates
mitochondrial genomes that have been
completely (Table 1), almost completely
(Jakoba, Naegleria and
Thraustochytrium) or partially (*)
sequenced by the OGMP (red), the FMGP
(black) or other groups (green). Names
in blue indicate those species whose
mtDNAs are currently being sequenced by
the OGMP or are future candidates for
complete sequencing. Amitochondriate
retortamonads are positioned at the
base of the tree, with broken arrows
denoting the endosymbiotic origin(s) of
mitochondria from a Rickettsia-like
eubacterium. Macrophar.,
Macropharyngomonas.
source: http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/vol26/issue4/images/gkb18201.gif
[2] Figure 1 Phylogenetic tree of
eukaryotes based on ultrastructural and
molecular data. Organisms are
sub-divided into main groups as
discussed in the text. Only a few
representative species for which
complete (or almost complete) mtDNA
sequences are known are shown in each
lineage. In some cases, line drawings
or actual pictures of the organisms are
provided (Acanthamoeba, M. Nagata; URL:
http://protist.i.hosei.ac.jp/PDB/PCD3379
/htmls/21.html; Allomyces, Tom Volk;
URL:
http://botit.botany.wisc.edu/images/332/
Chytridiomycota/Allomyces_r_So_pa/A._arb
uscula_pit._sporangia_tjv.html;
Amoebidium, URL:
http://cgdc3.igmors.upsud.fr/microbiolog
ie/mesomycetozoaires.htm; Marchantia,
URL:
http://www.science.siu.edu/landplants/He
patophyta/images/March.female.JPEG
Scenedesmus, Entwisle et al.,
http://www.rbgsyd.gov.au/_data/page/1824
/Scenedesmus.gif). The color-coding of
the main groups (alternating between
dark and light blue) on the outer
circle corresponds to the color-coding
of the species names. Unbroken lines
indicate phylogenetic relationships
that are firmly supported by available
molecular data; broken lines indicate
uncertainties in phylogenetic
placement, resolution of which will
require additional sequence data. [t:
why not color code or add which type of
mito?]
source: http://arjournals.annualreviews.
org/doi/full/10.1146/annurev.genet.37.11
0801.142526
Unikonts (one cilium). Bikonts (also
called anterokonts for having anterior
{forward facing} cilia) will evolve
into the vast majority of the Protist
and all of the Plant Kingdoms. The
Unikonts will evolve into the ameobozoa
(tenatively), and the opisthokonts
(ancestrally posterior cilium) which
include the entire Fungi and Animal
Kingdoms.
Since members of both the unikont
(animals, fungi) and bikont
(metamonads, plants) can reproduce
sexually, sex had to evolve before this
branching, presuming sexual
reproduction is strictly inherited and
did not evolve twice.
[1] Figure 1. Phylogenetic hypothesis
of the eukaryotic lineage based on
ultrastructural and molecular data.
Organisms are divided into three main
groups distinguished by mitochondrial
cristal shape (either discoidal,
flattened or tubular). Unbroken lines
indicate phylogenetic relationships
that are firmly supported by available
data; broken lines indicate
uncertainties in phylogenetic
placement, resolution of which will
require additional data. Color coding
of organismal genus names indicates
mitochondrial genomes that have been
completely (Table 1), almost completely
(Jakoba, Naegleria and
Thraustochytrium) or partially (*)
sequenced by the OGMP (red), the FMGP
(black) or other groups (green). Names
in blue indicate those species whose
mtDNAs are currently being sequenced by
the OGMP or are future candidates for
complete sequencing. Amitochondriate
retortamonads are positioned at the
base of the tree, with broken arrows
denoting the endosymbiotic origin(s) of
mitochondria from a Rickettsia-like
eubacterium. Macrophar.,
Macropharyngomonas.
source:
a mineral that cannot exist for much
time if exposed to oxygen, indicating
that free oxygen is accumulating in the
air of earth for the first time.
on land, begin here and are evidence of
more free oxygen in the air of earth.
[1]
http://www.kgs.ukans.edu/Extension/redhi
lls/redhills.html
source:
oldest line of eukaryotes still in
existence, the oldest living protists,
in the Phylum "Metamonada" (Excavates)
originating now. This is where the
eukaryote line is created and separates
from the archaebacteria (archaea) line.
Most of these species have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. Mitochondria
are thought to have been lost
secondarily, although this is not
certain.
PHYLUM Metamonada
ORDER Carpediemondida
ORDER
Diplomonadida
ORDER Retortamonadida
CLASS Parabasalia
ORDER
Trichomonadida
ORDER Hypermastigida
CLASS Anaeromonada
ORDER Oxymonadida
ORDER Trimastigida
Includes Diplomonad
"Giardia", and Parabasalid "Trichomonas
vaginalis".
The trophozoite form of Giardia does
age and die.
Most Metamonads reproduce
asexually through closed (the nuclear
membrane does not dissolve during
mitosis) mitosis (and involves an
external spindle? is pluromitosis?),
but some species are "faculatively
sexual" (can reproduce sexually in
addition to asexually). So already by
the time of these most ancient of the
now living eukaryotes, sex had evolved.
eat bacteria?
Some people have this phylum as
part of the group "Excavates" which
includes the Phyla (Metamonada,
Percolozoa, and Euglenozoa).
The classification of the protists is
far from complete and settled. There
are currently more than one existing
classification scheme for the protists.
features of parabasalia and metamonada:
gamete type: flagellated
haplontic and
diplontic
condensed chromosomes in some
species
mitotic spindle:
parabasalia:
external
metamonadea: internal
polar
structures:
parabasalia: flagellar
root
metamonadea: kinetosome
flagella:
parabasalia: 4 to many
metamonadea: 2,4
heterokont, isokont, anisokont:
anisokont (Anisokont flagella are
those flagella that are unequal in
length, form, or direction. ) (Isokont
flagella are those flagella that are
equal in length, form, and direction.)
(The name heterokont refers to the
characteristic form of these cells,
which typically have two unequal
flagella. The anterior or tinsel
flagellum is covered with lateral
bristles or mastigonemes, while the
other flagellum is whiplash, smooth and
usually shorter, or sometimes reduced
to a basal body. The flagella are
inserted subapically or laterally, and
are usually supported by four
microtubule roots in a distinctive
pattern. )
flagellate stages: trophic
life
forms:
unicellular: flagellated
multice
llular: none
cell covering: naked
[1] Giardia lamblia, a parasitic
flagellate that causes giardiasis.
Image from public domain source at
http://www.nigms.nih.gov/news/releases/i
mages/para.jpg
source: http://www.nigms.nih.gov/news/re
leases/images/para.jpg
[2] . The cysts are hardy and can
survive several months in cold water.
Infection occurs by the ingestion of
cysts in contaminated water, food, or
by the fecal-oral route (hands or
fomites) . In the small intestine,
excystation releases trophozoites (each
cyst produces two trophozoites) .
Trophozoites multiply by longitudinal
binary fission, remaining in the lumen
of the proximal small bowel where they
can be free or attached to the mucosa
by a ventral sucking disk .
Encystation occurs as the parasites
transit toward the colon. The cyst is
the stage found most commonly in
nondiarrheal feces . Because the cysts
are infectious when passed in the stool
or shortly afterward, person-to-person
transmission is possible. While
animals are infected with Giardia,
their importance as a reservoir is
unclear.
source: http://www.dpd.cdc.gov/dpdx/HTML
/Giardiasis.asp?body=Frames/G-L/Giardias
is/body_Giardiasis_page1.htm
shows the eubacteria and archaebacteria
line separating here at 2,156 mybn,
first archaebacteria.
Eukaryote Phylum "Loukozoa" (Jakobea
and Malawimonadea) originating now.
These species have mitochondria with
tubular cristae, and are the most
ancient species that still have
mitochondria.
This species is the most ancient known
species to have a shell. This first
hard shells (lorika) made of calcium
carbonate (Calcite CaCO3), plates of
silica (SiO2), or carbon-based
molecules evolve around the
single-celled species living in the
ocean.
Perhaps this shell served to protect
the cell from external damage from
being eaten by other eukaryotes
(zooplankton), infection by bacteria or
viruses, control of buoyancy, to filter
UV light, against damage by non-living
sources.
Jakobids and Malawimonads are
also grouped as Excavates because they
have a ventral feeding groove.
Jakobids are flagellates with two
flagella located at the anterior end of
a ventral feeding groove (i.e., are
excavate), with mitochondria, freely
swimming or loricate (with protective
shell).
Flagellar apparatus with two basal
bodies giving rise to two major
microtubular roots, which support the
margins of the ventral groove. Other
cytoskeletal microtubules arise
directly or indirectly from the basal
bodies, no extrusomes.
Jakobids have tubular mitochondrial
cristae (transforming to flat cristae
in Jakoba libera). (1) This indicates
that flat evolved from tubular
cristae.
PHYLUM Loukozoa
ORDER Jakobida
ORDER
Malawimonadida
Reproduction=mitosis?
ORDER Jakobida
FAMILY Histionidae
The jakobid family
"Histionidae" reproduce asexually by
binary fission. In this family no
sexual reproduction has been observed
yet. (1)
FAMILY Jakobidae
[1] Histiona. This drawing was made by
D. J. Patterson. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://microscope.mbl.edu/script
s/microscope.php?func=imgDetail&imageID=
3479
[2] Histiona (hist-ee-own-a) is a
jakobid flagellate related to Jakoba.
As with other excavates, there is a
ventral groove and the flagella insert
at the head of the groove. There are
two flagella, one lying in the groove
and one curving outwards from the point
of insertion. The margins of the groove
can be mistaken for flagella. Unlike
most other excavates, Histiona sits in
a stalked lorica when feeding. Lorica
with a cyst is evident. Phase contrast.
This picture was taken by David
Patterson, Linda Amaral Zettler, Mike
Peglar and Tom Nerad from cultures and
other materials maintained at the
American Type Culture Collection during
2001. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://microscope.mbl.edu/script
s/microscope.php?func=imgDetail&imageID=
435
mitochondria split from the tubular
christae line.
This is the origin of the
Discicristata: species that have
discoid mitochondrial cristae and, in
some cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove.
The Discicristata are Acrasid
slime molds, vahlkampfiid amoebas,
euglenoids, trypanosomes, and
leishmanias.
[1] Figure 1. Phylogenetic hypothesis
of the eukaryotic lineage based on
ultrastructural and molecular data.
Organisms are divided into three main
groups distinguished by mitochondrial
cristal shape (either discoidal,
flattened or tubular). Unbroken lines
indicate phylogenetic relationships
that are firmly supported by available
data; broken lines indicate
uncertainties in phylogenetic
placement, resolution of which will
require additional data. Color coding
of organismal genus names indicates
mitochondrial genomes that have been
completely (Table 1), almost completely
(Jakoba, Naegleria and
Thraustochytrium) or partially (*)
sequenced by the OGMP (red), the FMGP
(black) or other groups (green). Names
in blue indicate those species whose
mtDNAs are currently being sequenced by
the OGMP or are future candidates for
complete sequencing. Amitochondriate
retortamonads are positioned at the
base of the tree, with broken arrows
denoting the endosymbiotic origin(s) of
mitochondria from a Rickettsia-like
eubacterium. Macrophar.,
Macropharyngomonas.
source: http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/vol26/issue4/images/gkb18201.gif
Diplobiontic) life cycle (organism with
both diploid and haploid "alternate
life stages" that reproduce asexually
by mitosis) with "sporic meiosis"
evolves.
In this life cycle haploid gametes fuse
to form a diploid zygote which divides
by meiosis producing haploid spores
that produce (differentiate?) gametes,
starting the cycle again.
Initially these species are single
celled in both stages (like
Haptophyta).
All plants, most brown algae,
blastocladiid chytrids, many red algae,
and some filamentous green algae (e.g.
Cladophora) and foraminifera have
haplodiploid life cycles.
Initially, these organisms are single
celled, but later the mitosis stages
will become multicellular when the
cells that result from mitosis stick
together. The only? example of this
is Haptophyta, where diploid cells
divide in sporic meiosis, into haploid
cells (gamonts) which then divide into
gametes.
Of the diplohaplonic species, those
where the haploid and diploid stages
look the same are called "isomorphic"
and those where the two stages look
different are called "heteromorphic".
In land plants the haploid
(gametophyte) stage is reduced to only
a few cells. Since double DNA
chromosomes (diploid) provides more
possibilities than a single chromosome,
diploid organisms have a selective
advantage over haploid organisms.
[1] Figure 23.1.Plants have
haplodiplontic life cycles that involve
mitotic divisions (resulting in
multicellularity) in both the haploid
and diploid generations (paths A and
D). Most animals are diplontic and
undergo mitosis only in the diploid
generation (paths B and D).
Multicellular organisms with haplontic
life cycles follow paths A and C.
COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://zygote.swarthmore.edu/pla
ntfig1.gif
[2] Drawn by self for Biological life
cycle Based on Freeman & Worth's
Biology of Plants (p. 171). GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sporic_meiosis.png
with flat christae evolve from those
with tubular christae.
[1] Figure 1. Phylogenetic hypothesis
of the eukaryotic lineage based on
ultrastructural and molecular data.
Organisms are divided into three main
groups distinguished by mitochondrial
cristal shape (either discoidal,
flattened or tubular). Unbroken lines
indicate phylogenetic relationships
that are firmly supported by available
data; broken lines indicate
uncertainties in phylogenetic
placement, resolution of which will
require additional data. Color coding
of organismal genus names indicates
mitochondrial genomes that have been
completely (Table 1), almost completely
(Jakoba, Naegleria and
Thraustochytrium) or partially (*)
sequenced by the OGMP (red), the FMGP
(black) or other groups (green). Names
in blue indicate those species whose
mtDNAs are currently being sequenced by
the OGMP or are future candidates for
complete sequencing. Amitochondriate
retortamonads are positioned at the
base of the tree, with broken arrows
denoting the endosymbiotic origin(s) of
mitochondria from a Rickettsia-like
eubacterium. Macrophar.,
Macropharyngomonas.
source: http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/co
ntent/vol26/issue4/images/gkb18201.gif
primitive living members of the Phylum
"Euglenozoa" (euglenids, leishmania,
trypanosomes, kinetoplastids) evolved
at this time.
This is the oldest eukaryote to exhibit
colonialism. Perhaps eukaryote
colonialism is partially or fully
inherited from prokaryotes, but
colonialism may have evolved
independently again in eukaryotes.
This is the most ancient species known
to have a cell covering, which is of
the type "pellicle".
No examples of sexual
reproduction in the group have been
found. Reproduction is through closed
mitosis and involves an internal
spindle. At least one account of a
sexual cycle has been reported in
Scytomonas.
The chloroplasts are contained in three
membranes and are pigmented similarly
to the plants, suggesting they were
retained from some captured green
alga.
All Euglenozoa have mitochondria with
discoid cristae, which in the
kinetoplastids characteristically have
a DNA-containing granule or kinetoplast
associated with the flagellar bases.
I think
they are still haploid, mitosis
duplicates in nucleus?
Euglenozoa age?
This group is sometimes called
"Discicristates" because all members
have mitochondria with "discoidal
cristae".
Euglenids are the first eukaryotes with
an eyespot. Most colored euglenids
also have a stigma or eyespot, which is
a small splotch of red pigment on one
side of the flagellar pocket. This
shades a collection of light sensitive
crystals near the base of the leading
flagellum, so the two together act as a
sort of directional eye. Euglenozoa
eyepots evolved from chloroplasts.
This is the beginning of a light
sensory system which evolves to eyes?
A small number of euglinids have
chloroplasts and can photosynthesize.
In these species, the chloroplasts
contain three membranes and are thought
to have evolved at least 900 million
years later from a captured green alga.
Euglenoids, however, share reproductive
habits with their kinetoplastid
relations by reproducing mainly by
asexual binary fission. Euglenoids
reproduce very rapidly, absorbing their
flagellum and dividing haploid cells
through mitosis. Mitosis produces 4-8
flagellated haploid cells, called
zoospores. The zoospores then break out
of the parent cell and grow to full
size.
condensed chromosomes: yes in all
kinetoplasts, and some euglenophyta.
pol
ar structures: none
number of flagella:
kinetoplastids=(1 in some) 2,
euglenophyta=2 (4 in some)
life forms:
unicellular: flagellated
multicellular:
colonial
cell covering: pellicle
2. Euglenoids are small (10-500
µm) freshwater unicellular organisms.
3.
One-third of all genera have
chloroplasts; those that lack
chloroplasts ingest or absorb their
food.
4. Their chloroplasts are
surrounded by three rather than two
membranes.
a. Their chloroplasts
resemble those of green algae.
b.
They are probably derived from a green
algae through endosymbiosis.
5. The pyrenoid
outside the chloroplast produces an
unusual type of carbohydrate polymer
(paramylon)
not seen in green algae.
6. They possess two flagella, one of
which typically is much longer and than
the other and projects
out of a
vase-shaped invagination; it is called
a tinsel flagellum because it has hairs
on it.
7. Near the base of the
longer flagellum is a red eyespot that
shades a photoreceptor for detecting
light.
8. They lack cell walls, but
instead are bounded by a flexible
pellicle composed of protein strips
side-by-side.
9. A contractile vacuole,
similar to certain protozoa, eliminates
excess water.
10. Euglenoids reproduce
by longitudinal cell division; sexual
reproduction is not known to occur.
PHYLUM Euglenozoa
CLASS Euglenoidea
CLASS Diplonemea
CLASS
Kinetoplastea
CLASS Postgaardea
Those Euglnozoa that do not
photosynthesize feed on bacteria
(phagocytosis) or feed through
absorption (osmosis) of nutrients.
Most are small,
around 15-40 µm in size, although many
euglenids get up to 500 µm long.
Most Euglenozoa have two flagella,
usually one leading and one trailing.
Some euglenozoa cause parasitic disease
in other species.
A kinetoplastid member of
Euglenozoa, such as trypanosoma brucei
which causes African sleeping sickness,
is transmitted from host to host by a
vector, most commonly the tsetse fly.
In
most forms there is an associated
cytostome (mouth) supported by one of
three microtubule groups that arise
from the flagellar bases.
Average life cycle=? days
Average age of
euglenozoa life=? days
Trypanosomes (Kinetoplastids) typically
have complex life-cycles involving more
than one host, and go through various
morphological stages.
1000 Species of Euglenoids
(euglenophyta).
[1] euglena
source: http://www.fcps.k12.va.us/Stratf
ordLandingES/Ecology/mpages/euglena.htm
[2] euglena
source: http://protist.i.hosei.ac.jp/PDB
/Images/Mastigophora/Euglena/genus1L.jpg
Phylum "Percolozoa" (also called
"Heterolobosea") (acrasid slime molds)
evolved at this time.
Percolozoa are a group
of heterotrophic colourless protozoa,
including many that can transform
between amoeboid, flagellate, and
encysted stages. These are collectively
referred to as amoeboflagellates,
schizopyrenids, or vahlkampfids. They
also include the acrasids, a group of
social amoebae that aggregate to form
sporangia.
Very closely related to Euglenozoa.
All
characteristics are like Euglenozoa:
Percolozoa
have mitochondria with discoid
christae.
No examples of sexual reproduction in
the group have been found.
Reproduction is through closed mitosis
and involves an internal spindle.
No
chloroplasts (check) or (The
chloroplasts are contained in three
membranes and are pigmented similarly
to the plants, suggesting they were
retained from some captured green
alga.)
I think they are still haploid, mitosis
duplicates in nucleus?
Percolozoa age?
Percolozoa
are sometimes included in the group
"Discicristates" because all members
have mitochondria with "discoidal
cristae".
No eyespots.
closed mitosis with internal spindle.
The Percolozoa are the most ancient
species to have members that move by
pseudopodia, like amoeba.
PHYLUM Percolozoa
CLASS
Heterolobosea
ORDER Schizopyrenida Singh, 1952
ORDER Acrasida Shröter, 1886
(acrasids, cellular slime molds)
ORDER
Lyromonadida Cavalier-Smith, 1993
CLASS
Percolatea
ORDER Acrasida (acrasids, cellular
slime molds):
a. Cellular slime
molds (Phylum Acrasiomycota) (ORDER
Acrasida) exist as individual amoeboid
cells. (Plasmodial slime molds,
mycetozoa, which evolve later, exist as
a plasmodium. )
b. They live
in soil and feed on bacteria and
yeast.
c. As food runs out,
amoeboid cells release a chemical that
causes them to aggregate into a
pseudoplasmodium.
d. The pseudoplasmodium
stage is temporary; it gives rise to
sporangia that produce spores.
e.
Spores survive until more favorable
environmental conditions return; then
they germinate.
f. Spore germinate to
release haploid amoeboid cells, which
is again the beginning of asexual
cycle.
g. Asexual cycle occurs
under very moist conditions.
Percolozoa
feed on bacteria (phagocytosis) or
feed through absorption (osmosis) of
nutrients. (check)
Most are small, around 15-40
µm in size, although many euglenids
get up to 500 µm long.
The flagellate stage is slightly
smaller, with two or four anterior
flagella anterior to the feeding
groove.
Average life cycle=? days
Average age of
Percolozoa life=? days
Most Percolozoa are found as
bacterivores in soil, freshwater, and
on feces. There are a few marine and
parasitic forms, including the species
Naegleria fowleri, which can become
pathogenic in humans and is often
fatal. The group is closely related to
the Euglenozoa, and share with them the
unusual though not unique
characteristic of having mitochondria
with discoid cristae. The presence of a
ventral feeding groove in the
flagellate stage, as well as other
features, suggests that they are part
of the excavate group.
The amoeboid stage is roughly
cylindrical, typically around 20-40
μm in length. They are
traditionally considered lobose
amoebae, but are not related to the
others and unlike them do not form true
lobose pseudopods. Instead, they
advance by eruptive waves, where
hemispherical bulges appear from the
front margin of the cell, which is
clear. The flagellate stage is slightly
smaller, with two or four anterior
flagella anterior to the feeding
groove.
Usually the amoeboid form is taken when
food is plentiful, and the flagellate
form is used for rapid locomotion.
However, not all members are able to
assume both forms. The genera
Percolomonas, Lyromonas, and
Psalteriomonas are known only as
flagellates, while Vahlkampfia,
Pseudovahlkampfia, and the acrasids do
not have flagellate stages. As
mentioned above, under unfavourable
conditions, the acrasids aggregate to
form sporangia. These are superficially
similar to the sporangia of the
dictyostelids, but the amoebae only
aggregate as individuals or in small
groups and do not die to form the
stalk.
The Heterolobosea were first defined by
Page and Blanton in 1985 as a class of
amoebae, and so only included those
forms with amoeboid stages.
Cavalier-Smith created the phylum
Percolozoa for the extended group,
together with the enigmatic flagellate
Stephanopogon. (currently I have
stephanopogon colpoda images under
ciliates...) He maintained the
Heterolobosea as a class for amoeboid
forms, but most others have expanded
them to include the flagellates as
well.
Stephanopogon closely resembles certain
ciliates and was originally classified
with them, but is now considered a
flagellate.
[1] Stages of Naegleria fowleri, a
member of the Percolozoa. Adapted from
Image:Free-living amebic
infections.gif, which is from the CDC.
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Naegleria.png
[2] CLASS Heterolobosea ORDER
Schizopyrenida Heteramoeba: The
flagellated form is large (30
�m), two flagella, an elongate
cytostome curving around the anterior
of the cell and forming a groove.
Nucleus with peripheral chromatin.
Probably feeds and divides as a
flagellate. One species. This genus is
most like Paratetramitus from which it
can be distinguished by peripheral
location of chromatin material. Cysts
without pores, excystment through a
weak region of wall. Marine.
Heteramoeba (het-err-a-me-ba) a naked
heterolobose amoeba, distinguished from
other types of naked amoebae with
lobose pseudopodia largely by
ultrastructural features, but trophic
heterolobose amoebae tend to form their
pseudopodially suddenly rather than
progressively. Phase contrast. This
picture was taken by David Patterson,
Linda Amaral Zettler, Mike Peglar and
Tom Nerad from cultures and other
materials maintained at the American
Type Culture Collection during 2001.
NONCOMMERCIAL USE
source: http://microscope.mbl.edu/script
s/microscope.php?func=imgDetail&imageID=
413
protist.
Multicellularity is a very important
event in the evolution of life on
earth. With multicellular organisms,
larger sized organisms could evolve.
There are many uncertainties
surrounding the origin of
multicellularity. Multicellularity may
have evolved independently for Plants,
Fungi and Animals, or multicellularity
may have evolved only once in
eukaryotes.
The key feature of this cell is that a
multicellular organism is made from a
single cell and the multicellular
organism is not a collection of
independent cells (colonialism). The
main difference between this organism
and single-celled organisms is the way
the cells stay fastened together after
cell division.
Which species was the first
multicellular species is not clear.
Multicellularity is found in all 3 life
cycles (haplontic, diplontic,
haplodiplontic). The 3 main life cycle
types (haplontic, etc.) probably
evolved in single cell species before
multicellularity evolved. If
multicellularity evolved once and is
inherited, perhaps all multicellular
organism descended from a single
haplodiplontic organism.
These multicellular organisms have
undifferentiated cells in the
multicellular stage (all cells in the
haploid or diploid multicellular
organism are made of one kind of cell).
Dinoph
yta, and Fungi are multicellular
Haplontic species.
Most animals are
multicellular Diplontic species.
Most brown
algae and all plants are multicellular
Haplodiplontic species.
The vast majority of multicellular
organisms reproduce only through sex,
although there are exceptions (like
some plants and rotifers) which have
lost the ability to sexually reproduce
or can also reproduce asexually. In
multicellularity, one cell goes on to
produce all the cells in a
multicellular species, so that each
individual organism is genetically
unique. This cell is usually a diploid
zygote, but can be a haploid cell.
This protist is most likely sexual, and
multicellularity evolved only in a
species that reproduces sexually.
Some describe algae multicellularity as
"filamentous".
The first multicellular eukaryuotes are
presumably undifferentiated. For
haplontic these cells are all gametes,
for diplontic these cells are all
capable of meiosis to form gametes, for
haplodiplontic, in the haploid stage
the cells are all gamete producing, in
the diploid stage the cells are all
spore producing.
Some people think that multicellular
organisms arose at least six times: in
animals, fungi and several groups of
algae.
What did the first
multicellular organism look like?
Perhaps it was a haplontic protist that
only did one or more haploid mitoses,
but this time the cells stuck together
(perhaps similar to the way bacteria
form filaments).
An interesting aspect of multicellular
organisms is that oxygen must still
reach each cell for mitochondria to
work, and so this requires that the
cells be only 1 cell thick, or if
thicker have some kind of (circulatory)
system for oxygen to reach each cell.
differentiation evolves.
Multicellular organisms are no longer
all haploid or diploid gamete producing
cells (or spore producing if
haplodiplontic), but are made of gamete
(or spore) producing cells in addition
to somatic cells which copy asexually
through mitosis.
Now, in addition to being large
multicell organisms, multicellular
organisms can have differentiated cells
that form a variety of different shaped
structures, and perform different
functions.
This process will evolve to the
metazoan multicellular differentiation
that arises from a single zygote cell,
where cells have different functions
and shapes.
Differentiation evolves for a
second time in eukaryotes?
this is not the first
monoadmulti one cell leading to a
multicellular organism (attached, free,
interchangible)?
where a multicellular organism is made
from one cell (interchangable, specific
cells: genetic specificity).
It is unknown how multicellular life
stages happen. For example, why one
specific cell line of many produced
from mitosis of a zygote will go on to
do meiosis producing the haploid gamete
cells which will fuse to form the next
zygote, but the many other cells made
from, for example, one of the two cells
made after the zygote divides, will not
contain the line of cells that
ultimately make the gamete producing
cells which continue the life cycle of
the organism. Since presumably each
cell in an organism contains an
identical genome, perhaps a gamete
producing cell can be made from any
cell if specific proteins are present,
or perhaps there is a protein which
simply points to a certain location in
the DNA which is located at a different
location in the DNA for every cell, or
perhaps some other explanation answers
the question of how cell
differentiation can happen when each
cell has the same genome.
A (diploid) zygote cell (the cell made
by two merging gamete cells) now
divides to form all cells in the
differentiated multicellular organism,
and is said to be "totipotent".
Totipotent cells differentiate into
"pluripotent" cells which can make most
but not all cells in the organism.
Pluripotent cells differentiate into
"multipotent" (can make a number of
cells) or "unipotent" cells (can only
make one kind of cell).
plants, this is where the plant kingdom
begins with the evolution of brown
algae (phaeophyta).
ancestor of the "Chromalveolates"
evolving now. Chromalveolates include
the Chromista and Alveolata. The
Chromista include the 3 Phyla
Haptophyta, Cryptophyta (Cryptomonads),
and Heterokontophyta (brown algae
{kelp}, diatoms, water molds).
Alveolata include the 3 Phyla
Dinoflagellata, Apicomplexa (Malaria,
Toxoplasmosis), and Ciliophora
(ciliates).
Chromealveolates have mitochondria
with tubular cristae.
Thomas Cavalier-Smith writes: "The
chromalveolate clade (Cavalier-Smith
1999) and its constituent taxa, kingdom
Chromista (Cavalier-Smith 1981) and
protozoan infrakingdom Alveolata
(Cavalier-Smith 1991b), were all
proposed based on morphological,
biochemical, and evolutionary reasoning
about protein targeting before there
was sequence evidence for any of them.
Now all are strongly supported by such
evidence. Chromalveolates comprise all
algae with chlorophyll c (the
chromophyte algae) and all their
nonphotosynthetic descendants. They
arose by a single symbiogenetic event
in which an early unicellular red alga
was phagocytosed by a biciliate host
and enslaved to provide photosynthate
(Cavalier-Smith 1999, 2002c, 2003a).
The strongest evidence that this
occurred once only in their cenancestor
is the replacement of the red algal
plastid glyceraldehyde phosphate
dehydrogenase (GAPDH) by a duplicate of
the gene for the cytosolic version of
this enzyme in all four chromalveolate
groups with plastids: the alveolate
sporozoa and dinoflagellates and the
chromist cryptomonads and chromobiotes
(Fast et al. 2001). It would be
incredible for such gene duplication,
retargeting by acquiring bipartite
targeting sequences, and loss of the
original red algal gene to have
occurred convergently in four groups,
but it was already pretty incredible
that these groups would all have
evolved a similar protein-targeting
system independently and all happened
to enslave a red alga, evolve
chlorophyll c, and place their plastids
within the rough endoplasmic reticulum
(ER) independently. Yet many assumed
just this because of the false dogma
that symbiogenesis is easy and the
failure of all these groups to cluster
in rRNA trees. For chromobiotes this
retargeting of GAPDH has been
demonstrated only for
heterokonts-information is lacking for
haptophytes. However, there are five
strong synapomorphies for Chromobiota,
making it highly probable that the
group is holophyletic (Cavalier-Smith
1994). They share the presence of the
periplastid reticulum in the
periplastid space instead of a
nucleomorph like cryptomonads, they
uniquely make the carotenoid
fucoxanthin and chlorophyll c3, they
uniquely have a single autofluorescent
cilium, and they have tubular
mitochondrial cristae with an
intracristal filament. Five plastid
genes now extremely robustly support
the monophyly of both chromists and
chromobiotes (Yoon et al. 2002). We are
confident that comparable sequence
evidence from nuclear genes will also
eventually catch up with the general
biological evidence for the holophyly
of chromobiotes to convince even the
most skeptical, who ignore or discount
such valuable evidence that
chromobiotes are holophyletic."
Chromista include phyla:
Heterokontophyta
(heterokonts) (many classes) (includes
colored: golden algae, axodines,
diatoms, yellow-green algea, brown
algae, colorless: water moulds, slime
nets)
Haptophyta
Cryptophyta (cryptomonads) (many
genera)
Alveolates include the phyla:
Dinoflagellata
(Dinoflagellates)
Apicomplexa (Apicomplexans)
Ciliophora (ciliates)
In 1981 Cavalier-Smith created a new
kingdom called "Chromista" in which all
chromalveolates are placed.
There are
a number of classification schemes for
the kingdom Protista and no one system
has emerged as most popular yet.
[1] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
[2] Beautiful marine diatoms as seen
through a microscope. These tiny
phytoplankton are encased within a
silicate cell wall. Image ID: corp2365,
NOAA Corps Collection Photographer: Dr.
Neil Sullivan, University of Southern
Calif. NOAA This image is a work of
the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, taken or made during
the course of an xxxxx? official
duties. As works of the U.S. federal
government, all NOAA images are in the
public domain.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Diatoms_through_the_microscope.jpg
ancestor of Chromalveolate Phlyum
Haptophyta evolving now.
Some Haptophytes
are haplodiploid (alternate between
haploid and diploid cycles that both
have mitosis), and this group is the
most primitive with a haplodiploid life
cycle.
Haptophytes are single cellular.
Haptophytes are found only in all
oceans (marine) and are flagellates,
almost all with plastids with
chlorophylls a and c, with two flagella
and one additional locomotor/feeding
organelle, the haptonema.
Haptophyta are a group of algae
(phytoplankton).
The chloroplasts are pigmented
similarly to those of the heterokonts,
such as golden algae, but the structure
of the rest of the cell is different,
so it may be that they are a separate
line whose chloroplasts are derived
from similar endosymbionts.
The cells typically have
two slightly unequal flagella, both of
which are smooth, and a unique
organelle called a haptonema, which is
superficially similar to a flagellum
but differs in the arrangement of
microtubules and in its use.
Haptophytes
have tubular mitochondria cristae.
Most
haptophytes are coccolithophores, which
live strictly in the oceans (marine)
and are ornmmented with calcified
scales called coccoliths, which are
sometimes found as microfossils. Other
planktonic haptophytes of note include
Chrysochromulina and Prymnesium, which
periodically form toxic marine algal
blooms. Both molecular and
morphological evidence supports their
division into five orders.
Emiliania is a small organism that is
famous for turning huge portions of the
ocean bright turquoise during its
blooms. They are also known for
contributing to the white cliffs of
Dover because of the calcite in their
coccolith cell structure. They play a
very important role in the carbon cycle
in the ocean because they form calcium
carbonate exoskeletons that sink to the
bottom of the ocean floor when they
die. They are also one of the worlds
major calcite producers.
Sexual reproduction: Asexual, Open
mitosis with spindle nucleating
(originating?) in cytoplasm.
Phaeocystis colonial
cells diploid, motile cells haploid or
diploid; reproduction by vegetative
division of non-motile cells and
fragmentation of colonies, vegetative
division of motile cells, or by fusion
of gametes.
Members of the Haptophytes Genus
"Phaocystis" form colonies (see
photo).
Haptophytes are also called
"Prymnesiophytes"
Some Haptophyta have hard shell made of
calcium carbonate evolves around the
single-celled species living in the
ocean.
KINGDOM Protista (Chromalveolata)
PHYLUM Haptophyta
CLASS
Pavlovophyceae
ORDER Pavlovales
CLASS Prymnesiophyceae
ORDER Prymnesiales
ORDER Phaeocystales
ORDER
Isochrysidales
ORDER Coccolithales
[1] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
[2] Emiliania huxleyi, a
coccolithophore. Photo courtesy Dr.
Markus Geisen - photographer, and The
Natural History Museum. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Emiliania_huxleyi_3.jpg
ancestor of the Chromalveolate Phylum
"Cryptophyta" (Cryptomonads) evolving
now.
The cryptomonads are a small group of
flagellates, most of which have
chloroplasts. They are common in
freshwater, and also occur in marine
and brackish habitats. Each cell has an
anterior groove or pocket with
typically two slightly unequal flagella
at the edge of the pocket.
Cryptomonads
distinguished by the presence of
characteristic extrusomes called
ejectisomes, which consist of two
connected spiral ribbons held under
tension. If the cells are irritated
either by mechanical, chemical or light
stress, they discharge, propelling the
cell in a zig-zag course away from the
disturbance. Large ejectisomes, visible
under the light microscope, are
associated with the pocket; smaller
ones occur elsewhere on the cell.
Crypto
monads have one or two chloroplasts,
except for Chilomonas which has
leucoplasts and Goniomonas which lacks
plastids entirely. These contain
chlorophylls a and c, together with
phycobilins and other pigments, and
vary in color from brown to green. Each
is surrounded by four membranes, and
there is a reduced cell nucleus called
a nucleomorph between the middle two.
This indicates that the chloroplast was
derived from a eukaryotic symbiont,
shown by genetic studies to have been a
red alga.
A few cryptomonads, such as
Cryptomonas, can form palmelloid
stages, but readily escape the
surrounding mucus to become free-living
flagellates again. Cryptomonad flagella
are inserted parallel to one another,
and are covered by bipartite hairs
called mastigonemes, formed within the
endoplasmic reticulum and transported
to the cell surface. Small scales may
also be present on the flagella and
cell body. The mitochondria have flat
cristae, and mitosis is open; sexual
reproduction has also been reported.
Originally the cryptomonads were
considered close relatives of the
dinoflagellates because of their
similar pigmentation. Later botanists
treated them as a separate division,
Cryptophyta, while zoologists treated
them as the flagellate order
Cryptomonadida. There is considerable
evidence that cryptomonad chloroplasts
are closely related to those of the
heterokonts and haptophytes, and the
three groups are sometimes united as
the Chromista. However, the case that
the organisms themselves are related is
not very strong, and they may have
acquired chloroplasts independently.
Crytomonads often forms blooms in
greater depths of lakes, or during
winter beneath the ice. The cells are
usually brownish in color, and have a
slit-like furrow at the anterior. They
are not known to produce any toxins and
are used to feed small zooplankton,
which is the food source for small fish
in fish farming.
Reproduction:
Number of species:
Size and shape: 10-50 μm
in size and flattened in shape
Mitochondria
Christae: flat (which is unusual, as
most chromalveolates have tubular
christae). Cryotphyta may be more
closely related to the Plant Kingdom
and nearest Glaucophyta which also have
flat christae.
After one species of jakobid that
changes tubular to flat christae,
cryptophyta are the most ancient phylum
to have flat christae.
KINGDOM
Protista (Chromalveolata)
PHYLUM Cryptophyta
CLASS
Cryptomonadea
ORDER Pyrenomonadales Novarino &
Lucas, 1993
ORDER Cryptomonadales
Pascher, 1913
[1] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
[2] Figure 1. Phylogenetic hypothesis
of the eukaryotic lineage based on
ultrastructural and molecular data.
Organisms are divided into three main
groups distinguished by mitochondrial
cristal shape (either discoidal,
flattened or tubular). Unbroken lines
indicate phylogenetic relationships
that are firmly supported by available
data; broken lines indicate
uncertainties in phylogenetic
placement, resolution of which will
require additional data. Color coding
of organismal genus names indicates
mitochondrial genomes that have been
completely (Table 1), almost completely
(Jakoba, Naegleria and
Thraustochytrium) or partially (*)
sequenced by the OGMP (red), the FMGP
(black) or other groups (green). Names
in blue indicate those species whose
mtDNAs are currently being sequenced by
the OGMP or are future candidates for
complete sequencing. Amitochondriate
retortamonads are positioned at the
base of the tree, with broken arrows
denoting the endosymbiotic origin(s) of
mitochondria from a Rickettsia-like
eubacterium. Macrophar.,
Macropharyngomonas. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/cg
i/content/full/26/4/865
ancestor of the Chromalveolate Phylum
"Heterokontophyta" (Heterokonts also
called Stramenopiles) evolving now.
Heterokonts include brown algae,
diatoms, golden algae, axodines,
yellow-green algae, water moulds and
slime nets.
Heterkonts evolved very near the
same time as the Euglinozoa did.
Heterokonts
all have mitochondria with tubular
christae. The motile cells of
heterokonts all have two unequal cilia
(flagella), one "tinsel" (covered with
hairs {mastigonemes}) cilium and one
"whiplash" (free of hair) cilium.
KINGDOM
Protista (Chromalveolata)
PHYLUM Heterokontophyta
Colored groups
CLASS
Chrysophyceae (golden algae)
CLASS
Synurophyceae
CLASS Actinochrysophyceae
(axodines)
CLASS Pelagophyceae
CLASS
Phaeothamniophyceae
CLASS Bacillariophyceae (diatoms)
CLASS
Raphidophyceae
CLASS Eustigmatophyceae
CLASS Xanthophyceae
(yellow-green algae)
CLASS Phaeophyceae
(brown algae)
Colorless groups
CLASS
Oomycetes(water moulds)
CLASS
Hypochytridiomycetes
CLASS Bicosoecea
CLASS
Labyrinthulomycetes(slime nets)
CLASS
Opalinea
CLASS Proteromonadea
[1] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
[2] Figure 1. Phylogenetic hypothesis
of the eukaryotic lineage based on
ultrastructural and molecular data.
Organisms are divided into three main
groups distinguished by mitochondrial
cristal shape (either discoidal,
flattened or tubular). Unbroken lines
indicate phylogenetic relationships
that are firmly supported by available
data; broken lines indicate
uncertainties in phylogenetic
placement, resolution of which will
require additional data. Color coding
of organismal genus names indicates
mitochondrial genomes that have been
completely (Table 1), almost completely
(Jakoba, Naegleria and
Thraustochytrium) or partially (*)
sequenced by the OGMP (red), the FMGP
(black) or other groups (green). Names
in blue indicate those species whose
mtDNAs are currently being sequenced by
the OGMP or are future candidates for
complete sequencing. Amitochondriate
retortamonads are positioned at the
base of the tree, with broken arrows
denoting the endosymbiotic origin(s) of
mitochondria from a Rickettsia-like
eubacterium. Macrophar.,
Macropharyngomonas. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/cg
i/content/full/26/4/865
Algae (Phaeophyta) evolves now.
Brown Algae is the most genetically
ancient multicellular organism still
living on earth. In addition to being
first to evolve multicellularity, cell
differentiation (cells of different
types) is already present in all brown
algae.
Genetic comparison shows the ancestor
of the Chromalveolate Heterokont Brown
Algae (Phaeophyta) evolving now.
Brown Algae is the most genetically
ancient multicellular organism still
living on earth. In addition to being
first to evolve multicellularity, cell
differentiation (cells of different
types) is already present in all brown
algae.
Brown algae belong to a large group
called the heterokonts, most of which
are colored flagellates. Most contain
the pigment fucoxanthin, which is
responsible for the distinctive
greenish-brown color that gives brown
algae their name. Brown algae are
unique among heterokonts in developing
into multicellular forms with
differentiated tissues, but they
reproduce by means of flagellate
spores, which closely resemble other
heterokont cells. Genetic studies show
their closest relatives are the
yellow-green algae.
Most Brown algae are haplodiplontic.
KINGDOM Protista
(Chromalveolata)
PHYLUM Heterokontophyta
Colored groups
CLASS Phaeophyceae
(brown algae)
Some people view brown algae as being
in the plant kingdom, and others as
being a multicellular protist in the
protist kingdom.
2. Brown algae range from small
forms with simple filaments to large
multicellular (50-100 m long) seaweeds.
(Fig. 30.8)
3. Brown algae have
chlorophylls a and c and a fucoxanthin
that give them their color.
4. Their
reserve food is a carbohydrate called
laminarin.
5. Seaweed refers to any large,
complex alga.
6. Their cell walls
contain a mucilaginous water-retaining
material that inhibits desiccation.
7.
Laminaria is an intertidal kelp that is
unique among protists; this genus shows
tissue differentiation.
8. Nereocystis and
Macrocystis are giant kelps found in
deeper water anchored to the bottom by
their holdfasts.
9. Individuals of the
genus Sargassum sometimes break off
from their holdfasts and form floating
masses.
10. Brown algae provide food
and habitat for marine organisms, and
they are also important to humans.
a. Brown algae are harvested for human
food and for fertilizer in several
parts of the world.
b. They are a
source of algin, a pectin-like
substance added to give foods a stable,
smooth consistency.
11. Most have an
alternation of generations life cycle.
12. Fucus is an intertidal rockweed;
meiotic cell division produces gametes
and adult is always diploid.
[1] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
[2] Figure 1. Phylogenetic hypothesis
of the eukaryotic lineage based on
ultrastructural and molecular data.
Organisms are divided into three main
groups distinguished by mitochondrial
cristal shape (either discoidal,
flattened or tubular). Unbroken lines
indicate phylogenetic relationships
that are firmly supported by available
data; broken lines indicate
uncertainties in phylogenetic
placement, resolution of which will
require additional data. Color coding
of organismal genus names indicates
mitochondrial genomes that have been
completely (Table 1), almost completely
(Jakoba, Naegleria and
Thraustochytrium) or partially (*)
sequenced by the OGMP (red), the FMGP
(black) or other groups (green). Names
in blue indicate those species whose
mtDNAs are currently being sequenced by
the OGMP or are future candidates for
complete sequencing. Amitochondriate
retortamonads are positioned at the
base of the tree, with broken arrows
denoting the endosymbiotic origin(s) of
mitochondria from a Rickettsia-like
eubacterium. Macrophar.,
Macropharyngomonas. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/cg
i/content/full/26/4/865
evolve.
Genetic comparison shows the ancestor
of the Chromalveolate Heterokont
Diatoms evolving now.
Diatoms are diplontic.
Diatoms are a very common types of
phytoplankton. Most diatoms are
unicellular, although some form chains
or simple colonies. A characteristic
feature of diatom cells is that they
are encased within a unique cell wall
made of silica. These walls show a wide
diversity in form, some quite beautiful
and ornate, but usually consist of two
symmetrical sides with a split between
them, hence the group name.
Life Cycle
When a cell divides each new cell
takes as its epitheca a valve of the
parent frustule, and within ten to
twenty minutes builds its own
hypotheca; this process may occur
between one and eight times per day.
Availability of dissolved silica limits
the rate of vegetative reproduction,
but also because this method
progressively reduces the average size
of the diatom frustule in a given
population there is a certain threshold
at which restoration of frustule size
is neccesary. Auxospores are then
produced, which are cells that posses a
different wall structure lacking the
siliceous frustule and swell to the
maximum frustule size. The auxospore
then forms an initial cell which forms
a new frustule of maximum size within
itself.
KINGDOM Protista
(Chromalveolata)
PHYLUM Heterokontophyta
Colored groups
CLASS
Bacillariophyceae (diatoms)
There are more than 200 genera of
living diatoms, and it is estimated
that there are approximately 100 000
extant species (Round & Crawford,
1990). Diatoms are a widespread group
and can be found in the oceans, in
freshwater, in soils and on damp
surfaces.
Their chloroplasts are typical of
heterokonts, with four membranes and
containing pigments such as
fucoxanthin. Individuals usually lack
flagella, but they are present in
gametes and have the usual heterokont
structure, except they lack the hairs
(mastigonemes) characteristic in other
groups.
Most diatom species are non-motile but
some are capable of an oozing motion.
As their relatively dense cell walls
cause them to readily sink, planktonic
forms in open water usually rely on
turbulent mixing of the upper layers by
the wind to keep them suspended in
sunlit surface waters. Some species
actively regulate their buoyancy to
counter sinking.
Diatoms cells are contained within a
unique silicate (silicic acid) cell
wall comprised of two separate valves
(or shells). The biogenic silica that
the cell wall is composed of is
synthesised intracellularly by the
polymerisation of silicic acid
monomers. This material is then
extruded to the cell exterior and added
to the wall. Diatom cell walls are also
called frustules or tests, and their
two valves typically overlap one other
like the two halves of a petri dish. In
most species, when a diatom divides to
produce two daughter cells, each cell
keeps one of the two valves and grows a
smaller valve within it. As a result,
after each division cycle the average
size of diatom cells in the population
gets smaller. Once such cells reach a
certain minimum size, rather than
simply divide vegetatively, they
reverse this decline by forming an
auxospore. This expands in size to give
rise to a much larger cell, which then
returns to size-diminishing divisions.
Auxospore production is almost always
linked to meiosis and sexual
reproduction.
Diatoms are traditionally divided into
two orders: centric diatoms
(Centrales), which are radially
symmetric, and pennate diatoms
(Pennales), which are bilaterally
symmetric. The former are paraphyletic
to the latter. A more recent
classification is that of Round &
Crawford (1990), who divide the diatoms
into three classes: centric diatoms
(Coscinodiscophyceae), pennate diatoms
without a raphe (Fragilariophyceae),
and pennate diatoms with a raphe
(Bacillariophyceae). It is probable
there will be further revisions as our
understanding of their relationships
increases.
Planktonic forms in freshwater and
marine environments typically exhibit a
"bloom and bust" lifestyle. When
conditions in the upper mixed layer
(nutrients and light) are favourable
(e.g. at the start of spring) their
competitive edge (Furnas, 1990) allows
them to quickly dominate phytoplankton
communities ("bloom").
When conditions turn unfavourable,
usually upon depletion of nutrients,
diatom cells typically increase in
sinking rate and exit the upper mixed
layer ("bust"). This sinking is induced
by either a loss of buoyancy control,
the synthesis of mucilage that sticks
diatoms cells together, or the
production of heavy resting spores.
In the open ocean, the condition that
typically causes diatom (spring) blooms
to end is a lack of silicon. Unlike
other nutrients, this is only a major
requirement of diatoms so it is not
regenerated in the plankton ecosystem
as efficiently as, for instance,
nitrogen or phosphorus nutrients. This
can be seen in maps of surface nutrient
concentrations - as nutrients decline
along gradients, silicon is usually the
first to be exhausted (followed
normally by nitrogen then phosphorus).
Heterokont chloroplasts appear to be
derived from those of red algae, rather
than directly from prokaryotes as
occurs in plants. This suggests they
had a more recent origin than many
other algae. However, fossil evidence
is scant, and it is really only with
the evolution of the diatoms themselves
that the heterokonts make a serious
impression on the fossil record.
The earliest known fossil diatoms date
from the early Jurassic (~185 Ma;
Kooistra & Medlin, 1996), although
recent genetic (Kooistra & Medlin,
1996) and sedimentary (Schieber,
Krinsley & Riciputi, 2000) evidence
suggests an earlier origin. Medlin et
al. (1997) suggest that their origin
may be related to the end-Permian mass
extinction (~250 Ma), after which many
marine niches were opened. The gap
between this event and the time that
fossil diatoms first appear may
indicate a period when diatoms were
unsilicified and their evolution was
cryptic (Raven & Waite, 2004). Since
the advent of silicification, diatoms
have made a significant impression on
the fossil record, with major deposits
of fossil diatoms found as far back as
the early Cretaceous, and some rocks
(diatomaceous earth, diatomite,
kieselguhr) being composed almost
entirely of them.
Although the diatoms
may have existed since the Triassic,
the timing of their ascendancy and
"take-over" of the silicon cycle is
more recent.
3. Diatoms are the most numerous
unicellular algae in the oceans. (Fig.
30.6a)
4. They are extremely numerous
and an important source of food and O2
in aquatic systems.
5. Diatom cell walls
consist of two silica-impregnated
halves or valves.
a. When diatoms
reproduce asexually, each received one
old valve.
b. The new valve fits
inside the old one; therefore, the new
diatom is smaller than the original
one.
c. This continues until
they are about 30 percent of their
original size.
d. Then they
reproduce sexually; a zygote grows and
divides mitotically to form diatoms of
normal size.
6. The cell wall has an
outer layer of silica (glass) with a
variety of markings formed by pores.
7. Diatom remains accumulate on the
ocean floor and are mined as
diatomaceous earth for use as filters,
abrasives, etc.
Life Cycle (cont.)
Many neritic planktonic
diatoms alternate between a vegetative
reproductive phase and a thicker walled
resting cyst or statospore stage. The
siliceous resting spore commonly forms
after a period of active vegetative
reproduction when nutrient levels have
been depleted. Statospores may remain
entirely within the the parent cell,
partially within the parent cell or be
isolated from it. An increase in
nutreint levels and/or length of
daylight cause the statospore to
germinate and return to its normal
vegatative state. Seasonal upwelling is
therefore a vital part of many diatoms
life cycle as a provider of nutrients
and as a transport mechanism which
brings statospores or their vegetative
products up into the photic zone.
The resting
spore morphology of some species is
similar to that of the corresponding
vegetative cell, whereas in other
species the resting spores and the
vegetative cells differ strongly. The
two valves of a resting spore may be
similar or distinctly different. Often
the first valve formed is more similar
to the valves of the vegetative cells
than the second valve.
[1] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
[2] Figure 1. Phylogenetic hypothesis
of the eukaryotic lineage based on
ultrastructural and molecular data.
Organisms are divided into three main
groups distinguished by mitochondrial
cristal shape (either discoidal,
flattened or tubular). Unbroken lines
indicate phylogenetic relationships
that are firmly supported by available
data; broken lines indicate
uncertainties in phylogenetic
placement, resolution of which will
require additional data. Color coding
of organismal genus names indicates
mitochondrial genomes that have been
completely (Table 1), almost completely
(Jakoba, Naegleria and
Thraustochytrium) or partially (*)
sequenced by the OGMP (red), the FMGP
(black) or other groups (green). Names
in blue indicate those species whose
mtDNAs are currently being sequenced by
the OGMP or are future candidates for
complete sequencing. Amitochondriate
retortamonads are positioned at the
base of the tree, with broken arrows
denoting the endosymbiotic origin(s) of
mitochondria from a Rickettsia-like
eubacterium. Macrophar.,
Macropharyngomonas. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/cg
i/content/full/26/4/865
molds (Oomycetes OemISETEZ) evolve.
Genetic
comparison shows the ancestor of the
Chromalveolate Heterokont Water molds
(Oomycetes OemISETEZ) evolving now.
Oomycetes (Water molds), with about 580
species, vary from unicellular, to
multicellular highly brached
filamentous forms. The filamentous
form is called "coenocytic" (grows as a
large multinucleate cell that results
from multiple nuclear divisions without
cell divisions, also called "mycelium"
in fungi) Oomycetes grow by closed
(or nearly closed) mitosis with pairs
of centrioles near the poles .
Filamentous forms grow by mitosis, but
only the nucleus is duplicated
(karyokinesis), no septa (horizontal
cell wall) is constructed, making these
multinucleate very large single cells.
Technically, filamentous oomycetes are
3 celled multicellular organisms
because a septa forms between the
vegetative filament and the diploid
sporangium (and oogonium) cells (and
the haploid antheridium multinucleate
cells are not free swimming), but many
people label oomycetes as single celled
organism. But it appears clear that
oomycetes would be constructed of many
cells if a cell wall was built at
mitosis. Sexual forms are diploid and
reproduce by conjugation.
Water Molds are microscopic organisms
that reproduce both sexually and
asexually and are composed of mycelia,
or a tube-like vegetative body (all of
an organism's mycelia are called its
thallus). The name "water mould" refers
to the fact that they thrive under
conditions of high humidity and running
surface water.
Water molds were originally classified
as fungi, but are now known to have
developed separately and show a number
of differences. Their cell walls are
composed of cellulose rather than
chitin and lack septa (a wall that
divides two spaces) except where
reproductive cells are produced, in
addition to having gene sequences more
closely related to brown algae than
fungi. Also, in the vegetative state
they have diploid nuclei, whereas fungi
have haploid nuclei.
The oomycetes include the water molds,
white rusts and the downy mildews. Many
oomycetes are multinucleate filaments
(hyphae) that resemble fungi. These
hyphae have no cross walls, but are one
long hollow tube and are called
"coenocytic". They were once thought to
be related to the fungi, but their cell
walls are made of cellulose, not chitin
as they are in the true fungi. The
superficial resemblance of the fungi
and the oomycetes is likely a case of
convergent evolution. Both groups have
a filamentous (hyphal) body form with a
high surface area to volume ration
which facilitates uptake of nutrients
from their surroundings.
The oomycetes are saprobic and
parasitic forms, including water molds
like Saprolegnia and downey mildews
like Peronospora.
1. These organisms (and slime
molds) resemble fungi but all have
flagellated cells which fungi never
do.
2. Water molds possess a cell
wall but it is made of cellulose, not
chitin as in fungi.
3. Water molds
produce diploid (2n) zoospores and
meiosis produces the gametes.
2. Aquatic water molds
parasitize fishes, forming furry
growths on their gills, and decompose
remains.
3. Terrestrial water molds
parasitize insects and plants; a water
mold caused the 1840s Irish potato
famine.
4. Water molds have a
filamentous body but cell walls are
composed largely of cellulose.
5. During
asexual reproduction, they produce
diploid motile spores (2n zoospores)
with flagella.
6. Unlike fungi, the adult
is diploid; gametes are produced by
meiosis.
7. Eggs are produced in
enlarged oogonia.
KINGDOM Protista
(Chromalveolata)
PHYLUM Heterokontophyta
Colorless groups
CLASS Oomycetes
(water moulds)
Oomycetes have mitochondria with
tubular christae.
Water mould motile cells are produced
as asexual spores called zoospores,
which capitalize on surface water
(including precipitation on plant
surfaces) for movement. The Zoospores
have 2 unequal anterior (apical)
flagella. They also produce sexual
spores, called oospores, that are
translucent double-walled spherical
structures used to survive adverse
environmental conditions.
The water molds are among the most
important plant pathogenic (capable of
causing disease) organisms that may be
facultatively or obligately parasitic.
The majority can be divided into three
groups, although more exist.
* The Phytophthora group is a genus
that causes diseases such as dieback,
potato blight (caused the potato famine
in Ireland), sudden oak death and
rhododendron root rot.
* The Pythium group is a genus that
is more ubiquitous than Phytophythora
and individual species have larger host
ranges, usually causing less damage.
Pythium damping off is a very common
problem in greenhouses where the
organism kills newly emerged seedlings.
Mycoparasitic members of this group
(e.g. P. oligandrum) parasitise other
oomycetes and fungi and have been
employed as biocontrol agents . One
Pythium species, Pythium insidiosum is
also known to infect mammals.
* The third group are the downy
mildews, which are easily identifable
by the appearance of white "mildew" on
leaf surfaces (although this group can
be confused with the unrelated powdery
mildews).
A male nuclei from a multinucleate
haploid cell is transfered to into the
haploid egg cell; the male gamete is
not free moving, only the female
gametes are although contained within
the oogonium.
[1] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
[2] Figure 1. Phylogenetic hypothesis
of the eukaryotic lineage based on
ultrastructural and molecular data.
Organisms are divided into three main
groups distinguished by mitochondrial
cristal shape (either discoidal,
flattened or tubular). Unbroken lines
indicate phylogenetic relationships
that are firmly supported by available
data; broken lines indicate
uncertainties in phylogenetic
placement, resolution of which will
require additional data. Color coding
of organismal genus names indicates
mitochondrial genomes that have been
completely (Table 1), almost completely
(Jakoba, Naegleria and
Thraustochytrium) or partially (*)
sequenced by the OGMP (red), the FMGP
(black) or other groups (green). Names
in blue indicate those species whose
mtDNAs are currently being sequenced by
the OGMP or are future candidates for
complete sequencing. Amitochondriate
retortamonads are positioned at the
base of the tree, with broken arrows
denoting the endosymbiotic origin(s) of
mitochondria from a Rickettsia-like
eubacterium. Macrophar.,
Macropharyngomonas. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/cg
i/content/full/26/4/865
(Ciliates, Dinoflagellates,
Apicomplexans) evolve.
Genetic comparison
shows the ancestor of the
Chromalveolate Alveolata (Ciliates,
Dinoflagellates, Apicomplexans)
evolving now.
The alveolates are a major line of
protists. There are three main groups,
which are very divergent in form, but
are now known to be close relatives
based on various ultrastructural and
genetic similarities:
Ciliates Very common protozoa,
with many short cilia arranged in rows
Apicom
plexa Parasitic protozoa that lack
locomotive structures except in
gametes
Dinoflagellates Mostly marine
flagellates, many of which have
chloroplasts
The most notable shared characteristic
is the presence of cortical alveoli,
flattened vesicles packed into a
continuous layer supporting the
membrane, typically forming a flexible
pellicle. In dinoflagellates they often
form armor plates. Alveolates have
mitochondria with tubular cristae, and
their flagella or cilia have a distinct
structure.
The Apicomplexa and dinoflagellates may
be more closely related to each other
than to the ciliates. Both have
plastids, and most share a bundle or
cone of microtubules at the top of the
cell. In apicomplexans this forms part
of a complex used to enter host cells,
while in some colorless dinoflagellates
it forms a peduncle used to ingest
prey.
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM
Protozoa (Goldfuss, 1818) R. Owen, 1858
- protozoa
SUBKINGDOM Biciliata
INFRAKINGDOM
Alveolata Cavalier-Smith, 1991
PHYLUM Myzozoa Cavalier-Smith & Chao,
2004
PHYLUM Ciliophora (Doflein,
1901) Copeland, 1956 - ciliates
Relationships between some of these the
major groups were suggested during the
1980s, and between all three by
Cavalier-Smith, who introduced the
formal name Alveolata in 1991. They
were confirmed by a genetic study by
Gajadhar et al. Some studies suggested
the haplosporids, mostly parasites of
marine invertebrates, might belong here
but they lack alveoli and are now
placed among the Cercozoa.
The development of plastids among the
alveolates is uncertain. Cavalier-Smith
proposed the alveolates developed from
a chloroplast-containing ancestor,
which also gave rise to the Chromista
(the chromalveolate hypothesis).
However, as plastids only appear in
relatively advanced groups, others
argue the alveolates originally lacked
them and possibly the dinoflagellates
and Apicomplexa acquired them
separately.
[1] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
[2] Figure 1. Phylogenetic hypothesis
of the eukaryotic lineage based on
ultrastructural and molecular data.
Organisms are divided into three main
groups distinguished by mitochondrial
cristal shape (either discoidal,
flattened or tubular). Unbroken lines
indicate phylogenetic relationships
that are firmly supported by available
data; broken lines indicate
uncertainties in phylogenetic
placement, resolution of which will
require additional data. Color coding
of organismal genus names indicates
mitochondrial genomes that have been
completely (Table 1), almost completely
(Jakoba, Naegleria and
Thraustochytrium) or partially (*)
sequenced by the OGMP (red), the FMGP
(black) or other groups (green). Names
in blue indicate those species whose
mtDNAs are currently being sequenced by
the OGMP or are future candidates for
complete sequencing. Amitochondriate
retortamonads are positioned at the
base of the tree, with broken arrows
denoting the endosymbiotic origin(s) of
mitochondria from a Rickettsia-like
eubacterium. Macrophar.,
Macropharyngomonas. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/cg
i/content/full/26/4/865
Genetic comparison shows
the ancestor of the Chromalveolate
Alveolata Ciliates evolving now.
The ciliates are one of the most
important groups of protists, common
almost everywhere there is water -
lakes, ponds, oceans, and soils, with
many ecto- (lives on host) and
endosymbiotic (lives in host) members,
as well as some obligate (depends on
host for survival) and opportunistic
parasites (does not depend on host for
survival). Ciliates tend to be large
protists, a few reaching 2 mm in
length, and are some of the most
complex in structure. The name ciliate
comes from the presence of hair-like
organelles called cilia, which are
identical in structure to flagella but
typically shorter and present in much
larger numbers. Cilia occur in all
members of the group, although the
peculiar suctoria only have them for
part of the life-cycle, and are
variously used in swimming, crawling,
attachment, feeding, and sensation.
Unlike other eukaryotes, ciliates have
two different sorts of nuclei: a small,
diploid micronucleus (reproduction),
and a large, polyploid macronucleus
(general cell regulation). The latter
is generated from the micronucleus by
amplification of the genome and heavy
editing. The high degree of polyploidi
allows the cell to sustain an
appropriate level of transcription.
Division of the macronucleus does not
occur by a mitotic process but
segregation of the chromosomes is by a
different process, whose mechanism is
unknown. This process is not perfect,
and after about 200 generations the
cell shows signs of aging (has so many
mutations that it does not function
properly). Periodically the macronuclei
is (must be?) regenerated from the
micronuclei. In most, this occurs
during sexual reproduction, which is
not usually through syngamy but through
conjugation. Here two cells line up,
the micronuclei undergo meiosis, some
of the haploid daughters are exchanged
and then fuse to form new micro- and
macronuclei.
With a few exceptions, there is a
distinct cytostome or mouth where
ingestion takes place. Food vacuoles
are formed through phagocytosis and
typically follow a particular path
through the cell as their contents are
digested and broken down via lysosomes
so the substances the vacuole contains
are then small enough to diffuse
through the membrane of the food
vacuole into the cell. Anything left in
the food vacuole by the time it reaches
the cytoproct (anus) is discharged via
exocytosis. Most ciliates also have one
or more prominent contractile vacuoles,
which collect water and expel it from
the cell to maintain osmotic pressure,
or in some function to maintain ionic
balance. These often have a distinctive
star-shape, with each point being a
collecting tube.
Most ciliates feed on smaller organisms
(heterotrophic), such as bacteria and
algae, and detritus swept into the
mouth by modified oral cilia. These
usually include a series of
membranelles to the left of the mouth
and a paroral membrane to its right,
both of which arise from polykinetids,
groups of many cilia together with
associated structures. This varies
considerably, however. Some ciliates
are mouthless and feed by absorption,
while others are predatory and feed on
other protozoa and in particular on
other ciliates. This includes the
suctoria, which feed through several
specialized tentacles.
Ciliates and Amoeboids have in common:
Food is
digested in food vacuoles.
Excess water is
expelled by contractile vacuoles.
DOMAI
N Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Protozoa
(Goldfuss, 1818) R. Owen, 1858 -
protozoa
SUBKINGDOM Biciliata
INFRAKINGDOM
Alveolata Cavalier-Smith, 1991
PHYLUM Ciliophora (Doflein, 1901)
Copeland, 1956 - ciliates
CLASS
Karyorelictea
CLASS Heterotrichea
CLASS
Spirotrichea
CLASS Litostomatea
CLASS
Phyllopharyngea
CLASS Nassophorea
CLASS
Colpodea {possibly in phylum
percolozoa}
CLASS Prostomatea
CLASS
Oligohymenophorea
CLASS Plagiopylea
In some forms there are also body
polykinetids, for instance, among the
spirotrichs where they generally form
bristles called cirri. More often body
cilia are arranged in mono- and
dikinetids, which respectively include
one and two kinetosomes (basal bodies),
each of which may support a cilium.
These are arranged into rows called
kineties, which run from the anterior
to posterior of the cell. The body and
oral kinetids make up the
infraciliature, an organization unique
to the ciliates and important in their
classification, and include various
fibrils and microtubules involved in
coordinating the cilia.
The infraciliature is one of the main
component of the cell cortex. Another
are the alveoli, small vesicles under
the cell membrane that are packed
against it to form a pellicle
maintaining the cell's shape, which
varies from flexible and contractile to
rigid. Numerous mitochondria and
extrusomes are also generally present.
The presence of alveoli, the structure
of the cilia, the form of mitosis and
various other details indicate a close
relationship between the ciliates,
Apicomplexa, and dinoflagellates. These
superficially dissimilar groups make up
the alveolates.
Ciliates move by coordinated strokes of
hundreds of cilia projecting through
holes in a semirigid pellicle.
They discharge
long, barbed trichocysts for defense
and for capturing prey; toxicysts
release a poison.
Most are holozoic and ingest
food through a gullet and eliminate
wastes through an anal pore.
During asexual
reproduction, ciliates divide by
transverse binary fission.
Ciliates possess two
types of nuclei-a large macronucleus
and one or more small micronuclei.
a. The
macronucleus controls the normal
metabolism of the cell.
b. The
micronucleus are involved in sexual
reproduction.
1) The macronucleus disintegrates
and the micronucleus undergoes
meiosis.
2) Two ciliates then exchange a
haploid micronucleus.
3) The micronuclei give
rise to a new macronucleus containing
only housekeeping genes.
Ciliates are
diverse.
a. Members of the genus Paramecium
are complex. (Fig. 30.13b)
b. The
barrel-shaped didinia expand to consume
paramecia much larger than themselves.
c.
Suctoria rest on a stalk and paralyze
victims, sucking them dry.
d. Stentor
resembles a giant blue vase with
stripes. (Fig. 30.13a)
Could the 2 nuclei in ciliates be the
result of an earlier fusion (or
engulfing) of 2 prokaryotes?
[1] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
[2] Figure 1. Phylogenetic hypothesis
of the eukaryotic lineage based on
ultrastructural and molecular data.
Organisms are divided into three main
groups distinguished by mitochondrial
cristal shape (either discoidal,
flattened or tubular). Unbroken lines
indicate phylogenetic relationships
that are firmly supported by available
data; broken lines indicate
uncertainties in phylogenetic
placement, resolution of which will
require additional data. Color coding
of organismal genus names indicates
mitochondrial genomes that have been
completely (Table 1), almost completely
(Jakoba, Naegleria and
Thraustochytrium) or partially (*)
sequenced by the OGMP (red), the FMGP
(black) or other groups (green). Names
in blue indicate those species whose
mtDNAs are currently being sequenced by
the OGMP or are future candidates for
complete sequencing. Amitochondriate
retortamonads are positioned at the
base of the tree, with broken arrows
denoting the endosymbiotic origin(s) of
mitochondria from a Rickettsia-like
eubacterium. Macrophar.,
Macropharyngomonas. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/cg
i/content/full/26/4/865
Genetic Ribosomal
RNA comparison shows Chromalveolate
Alveolata, Dinoflagellates evolve.
Dinoflagellat
es reproduce mainly by haploid mitosis,
but also reproduce sexually.
In dinoflagellates, the chromosomes are
always visible and do not condense
prior to mitosis. The chromosomes are
attached to the nuclear envelope, which
persists during mitosis.
The main method of reproduction of the
dinoflagellates is by longitudinal cell
division, with each daughter cell
receiving one of the flagella ad a
portion of the theca and then
constructing the missing parts in a
very intricate sequence. Some
nonmotile species form zoospores, which
may be colonial. A number of species
reproduce sexually, mostly by isogamy,
but a few species reproduce by
heterogamy (anisogamy).
Dinoflagellate zygotes are similar to
some acritarchs (early eukaryote
fossils).
Some Dinoflagellates produce cysts.
The dinoflagellates are a large group
of flagellate protists. Most are marine
plankton, but they are common in fresh
water habitats as well; their
populations are distributed depending
on temperate, saltiness, or depth.
About half of all dinoflagellates are
photosynthetic, and these make up the
largest group of eukaryotic algae aside
from the diatoms. Being primary
producers make them an important part
of the food chain. Some species, called
zooxanthellae, are endosymbionts of
marine animals and protozoa, and play
an important part in the biology of
coral reefs. Other dinoflagellates are
colorless predators on other protozoa,
and a few forms are parasitic.
Some dinoflagellates are reported to be
filamentous (multicellular).
Mitochondri
a christae are tubular.
Dinoflagellates
are haploid (haplontic).
DOMAIN
Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Protozoa
(Goldfuss, 1818) R. Owen, 1858 -
protozoa
SUBKINGDOM Biciliata
INFRAKINGDOM
Alveolata Cavalier-Smith, 1991
PHYLUM Dinoflagellata Bütschli, 1885
CLASS Dinophyceae (Bütschli,
1885) Pascher, 1914
CLASS
Blastodiniophyceae Fensome et al.,
1993
CLASS Noctiluciphyceae
Fensome et al., 1993
CLASS
Syndiniophyceae Loeblich III, 1976
Most dinoflagellates are unicellular
forms with two dissimilar flagella. One
of these extends towards the posterior,
called the longitudinal flagellum,
while the other forms a lateral circle,
called the transverse flagellum. In
many forms these are set into grooves,
called the sulcus and cingulum. The
transverse flagellum provides most of
the force propelling the cell, and
often imparts to it a distinctive
whirling motion, which is what gives
the name dinoflagellate refers to
(Greek dinos, whirling). The
longitudinal acts mainly as the
steering wheel, but providing little
propulsive force as well.
Dinoflagellates have a complex cell
covering called an amphiesma, composed
of flattened vesicles, called alveoli.
In some forms, these support
overlapping cellulose plates that make
up a sort of armor called the theca.
These come in various shapes and
arrangements, depending on the species
and sometimes stage of the
dinoflagellate. Fibrous extrusomes are
also found in many forms. Together with
various other structural and genetic
details, this organization indicates a
close relationship between the
dinoflagellates, Apicomplexa, and
ciliates, collectively referred to as
the alveolates.
The chloroplasts in most photosynthetic
dinoflagellates are bound by three
membranes, suggesting they were
probably derived from some ingested
alga, and contain chlorophylls a and c
and fucoxanthin, as well as various
other accessory pigments. However, a
few have chloroplasts with different
pigmentation and structure, some of
which retain a nucleus. This suggests
that chloroplasts were incorporated by
several endosymbiotic events involving
already colored or secondarily
colorless forms. The discovery of
plastids in Apicomplexa have led some
to suggest they were inherited from an
ancestor common to the two groups, but
none of the more basal lines have them.
All the same, the dinoflagellate still
consists of the more common organelles
such as rough and smooth endoplasmic
reticulum, Golgi apparatus,
mitochondria, lipid and starch grains,
and food vacuoles. Some have even been
found with light sensitive organelle
such as the eyespot or a larger nucleus
containing a prominent nucleolus.
Life-cycle
Dinoflagellates have a peculiar form of
nucleus, called a dinokaryon, in which
the chromosomes are attached to the
nuclear membrane. These lack histones
and remained condensed throughout
interphase rather than just during
mitosis, which is closed and involves a
unique external spindle. This sort of
nucleus was once considered to be an
intermediate between the nucleoid
region of prokaryotes and the true
nuclei of eukaryotes, and so were
termed mesokaryotic, but now are
considered advanced rather than
primitive traits.
In most dinoflagellates, the nucleus is
dinokaryotic throughout the entire life
cycle. They are usually haploid, and
reproduce primarily through fission,
but sexual reproduction also occurs.
This takes place by fusion of two
individuals to form a zygote, which may
remain mobile in typical dinoflagellate
fashion or may form a resting cyst,
which later undergoes meiosis to
produce new haploid cells.
However, when the conditions become
desperate, usually starvation or no
light, their normal routines change
dramatically. Two dinoflagellates will
fuse together forming a planozygote.
Next is a stage not much different from
hibernation called hypnozygote when the
organism takes in excess fat and oil.
At the same time its shape is getting
fatter and the shell gets harder.
Sometimes even spikes are formed. When
the weathers allows it, these
dinoflagellates break out of their
shell and are in a temporary stage,
planomeiocyte, when they quickly
reforms their individual thecas and
return to the dinoflagellates at the
beginning of the process.
Ecology and fossils
Dinoflagellates sometimes
bloom in concentrations of more than a
million cells per millilitre. Some
species produce neurotoxins, which in
such quantities kill fish and
accumulate in filter feeders such as
shellfish, which in turn may pass them
on to people who eat them. This
phenomenon is called a red tide, from
the color the bloom imparts to the
water. Some colorless dinoflagellates
may also form toxic blooms, such as
Pfiesteria. It should be noted that not
all dinoflagellate blooms are
dangerous. Bluish flickers visible in
ocean water at night often come from
blooms of bioluminescent
dinoflagellates, which emit short
flashes of light when disturbed.
Dinoflagellate cysts are found as
microfossils from the Triassic period,
and form a major part of the
organic-walled marine microflora from
the middle Jurassic, through the
Cretaceous and Cenozoic to the present
day. Arpylorus, from the Silurian of
North Africa was at one time considered
to be a dinoflagellate cyst, but this
palynomorph is now considered to be
part of the microfauna. It is possible
that some of the Paleozoic acritarchs
also represent dinoflagellates.
Chloroplast features:
Chloroplasts:
Brown
Mitochondria christae are
tubular.
Nuclear features:
Gamete type:
flagellated
Dinoflagellates are
haploid (haplontic).
has condensed
chromosomes.
Mitotic spindle:
external.
polar structures: none, and
centrioles
Flagellar features:
Number of flagella:
2
Heterokont, isokont, or anisokont:
anisokont
shaft features: paraxial
rod, hairs
flagellate stages: gamete,
trophic, zoospore
trophic:
(trophozoites) The activated, feeding
stage in the life cycle of protozoan
parasites.
A protozoan, especially of
the class Sporozoa, in the active stage
of its life cycle.
The feeding stage of
a protozoan (as distinct from
reproductive or encysted stages).
zoospo
re: A zoospore is a motile asexual
spore utilizing a flagellum for
locomotion. Also called a swarm spore,
these spores are used by some algae and
fungi to propagate themselves.
Golgi type: dictyosome
Food stores:
carbohydrate: alpha 1-4
glucan
fat=yes
extrusomes: tricocysts, nematocysts
eyespot type: cytoplasmic stigma, ?
Life Forms:
unicellular: flagellate,
amoeboid, coccoid
multicellular:
filementous
Cell covering: pellicle with plates.
[1] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
[2] Figure 1. Phylogenetic hypothesis
of the eukaryotic lineage based on
ultrastructural and molecular data.
Organisms are divided into three main
groups distinguished by mitochondrial
cristal shape (either discoidal,
flattened or tubular). Unbroken lines
indicate phylogenetic relationships
that are firmly supported by available
data; broken lines indicate
uncertainties in phylogenetic
placement, resolution of which will
require additional data. Color coding
of organismal genus names indicates
mitochondrial genomes that have been
completely (Table 1), almost completely
(Jakoba, Naegleria and
Thraustochytrium) or partially (*)
sequenced by the OGMP (red), the FMGP
(black) or other groups (green). Names
in blue indicate those species whose
mtDNAs are currently being sequenced by
the OGMP or are future candidates for
complete sequencing. Amitochondriate
retortamonads are positioned at the
base of the tree, with broken arrows
denoting the endosymbiotic origin(s) of
mitochondria from a Rickettsia-like
eubacterium. Macrophar.,
Macropharyngomonas. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/cg
i/content/full/26/4/865
Genetic comparison
shows Apicomplexans evolve.
The
Apicomplexa are a large group of
protozoa, characterized by the presence
of an apical complex at some point in
their life-cycle. They are exclusively
parasitic, and completely lack flagella
or pseudopods except for certain gamete
stages. Diseases caused by Apicomplexa
include:
* Babesiosis (Babesia)
*
Cryptosporidiosis (Cryptosporidium)
* Malaria
(Plasmodium)
* Toxoplasmosis (Toxoplasma
gondii)
Most members have a complex life-cycle,
involving both asexual and sexual
reproduction. Typically, a host is
infected by ingesting cysts, which
divide to produce sporozoites that
enter its cells. Eventually, the cells
burst, releasing merozoites which
infect new cells. This may occur
several times, until gamonts are
produced, forming gametes that fuse to
create new cysts. There are many
variations on this basic pattern,
however, and many Apicomplexa have more
than one host.
DOMAIN Eukaryota -
eukaryotes
KINGDOM Protozoa (Goldfuss, 1818) R.
Owen, 1858 - protozoa
SUBKINGDOM Biciliata
INFRAKINGDOM Alveolata Cavalier-Smith,
1991
PHYLUM Apicomplexa
CLASS
Conoidasida Levine, 1988
CLASS
Aconoidasida Mehlhorn, Peters &
Haberkorn, 1980
CLASS
Metchnikovellea Weiser, 1977
CLASS
Blastocystea Cavalier-Smith, 1998
[1] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
[2] Figure 1. Phylogenetic hypothesis
of the eukaryotic lineage based on
ultrastructural and molecular data.
Organisms are divided into three main
groups distinguished by mitochondrial
cristal shape (either discoidal,
flattened or tubular). Unbroken lines
indicate phylogenetic relationships
that are firmly supported by available
data; broken lines indicate
uncertainties in phylogenetic
placement, resolution of which will
require additional data. Color coding
of organismal genus names indicates
mitochondrial genomes that have been
completely (Table 1), almost completely
(Jakoba, Naegleria and
Thraustochytrium) or partially (*)
sequenced by the OGMP (red), the FMGP
(black) or other groups (green). Names
in blue indicate those species whose
mtDNAs are currently being sequenced by
the OGMP or are future candidates for
complete sequencing. Amitochondriate
retortamonads are positioned at the
base of the tree, with broken arrows
denoting the endosymbiotic origin(s) of
mitochondria from a Rickettsia-like
eubacterium. Macrophar.,
Macropharyngomonas. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nar.oxfordjournals.org/cg
i/content/full/26/4/865
(the Phyla "Radiolaria", "Cercozoa",
and "Foraminifera") evolve now.
This marks the beginning of the
protists described as "amoeboid",
because they have pseudopods.
5. Amoeboids
phagocytize their food; pseudopods
surround and engulf prey.
6. Food is digested
inside food vacuoles.
7. Freshwater amoeboids
have contractile vacuoles to eliminate
excess water.
Some foraminifera are haplodiploid
(alternate between haploid and diploid
cycles that both have mitosis).
The Rhizaria are a major line of
protists. They vary considerably in
form, but for the most part they are
amoeboids with filose, reticulose, or
microtubule-supported pseudopods. Many
produce shells or skeletons, which may
be quite complex in structure, and
these make up the vast majority of
protozoan fossils. Nearly all have
mitochondria with tubular cristae.
There
are three main groups of Rhizaria:
Cercozoa
Various amoebae and flagellates,
usually with filose pseudopods and
common in soil
Foraminifera Amoeboids with
reticulose pseudopods, common as marine
benthos
Radiolaria Amoeboids with axopods,
common as marine plankton
The name Rhizaria was created recently
by Cavalier-Smith in 2002. Most are
biciliate amoeboflagellates at some
point in the life cycle. Pseudopodia
are root-like reticulopodia, filopodia
and/or axopodia - not broad lobopodia
as in Amoeba. All of these features
can, however, be found in members of
other clades. Nevertheless, the
Rhizaria are supported by both rRNA and
actin trees (Cavalier-Smith & Chao,
2003; Nikolaev et al. 2004).
A few
other groups may be included in the
Cercozoa, but on some trees appear
closer to the Foraminifera. These are
the Phytomyxea and Ascetosporea,
parasites of plants and animals
respectively, and the peculiar amoeba
Gromia. The different groups of
Rhizaria are considered close relatives
based mainly on genetic similarities,
and have been regarded as an extension
of the Cercozoa. The name Rhizaria for
the expanded group was introduced by
Cavalier-Smith in 2002, who also
included the centrohelids and Apusozoa.
[1] FIG. 2. The tree of life based on
molecular, ultrastructural and
palaeontological evidence. Contrary to
widespread assumptions, the root is
among the eubacteria, probably within
the double-enveloped Negibacteria, not
between eubacteria and archaebacteria
(Cavalier-Smith, 2002b); it may lie
between Eobacteria and other
Negibacteria (Cavalier-Smith, 2002b).
The position of the eukaryotic root has
been nearly as controversial, but is
less hard to establish: it probably
lies between unikonts and bikonts (Lang
et al., 2002; Stechmann and
Cavalier-Smith, 2002, 2003). For
clarity the basal eukaryotic kingdom
Protozoa is not labelled; it comprises
four major groups (alveolates, cabozoa,
Amoebozoa and Choanozoa) plus the small
bikont phylum Apusozoa of unclear
precise position; whether Heliozoa are
protozoa as shown or chromists is
uncertain (Cavalier-Smith, 2003b).
Symbiogenetic cell enslavement occurred
four or five times: in the origin of
mitochondria and chloroplasts from
different negibacteria, of
chromalveolates by the enslaving of a
red alga (Cavalier-Smith, 1999, 2003;
Harper and Keeling, 2003) and in the
origin of the green plastids of
euglenoid (excavate) and chlorarachnean
(cercozoan) algae-a green algal cell
was enslaved either by the ancestral
cabozoan (arrow) or (less likely) twice
independently within excavates and
Cercozoa (asterisks) (Cavalier-Smith,
2003a). The upper thumbnail sketch
shows membrane topology in the
chimaeric cryptophytes (class
Cryptophyceae of the phylum Cryptista);
in the ancestral chromist the former
food vacuole membrane fused with the
rough endoplasmic reticulum placing the
enslaved cell within its lumen (red) to
yield the complex membrane topology
shown. The large host nucleus and the
tiny nucleomorph are shown in blue,
chloroplast green and mitochondrion
purple. In chlorarachneans (class
Chlorarachnea of phylum Cercozoa) the
former food vacuole membrane remained
topologically distinct from the ER to
become an epiplastid membrane and so
did not acquire ribosomes on its
surface, but their membrane topology is
otherwise similar to the cryptophytes.
The other sketches portray the four
major kinds of cell in the living world
and their membrane topology. The upper
ones show the contrasting ancestral
microtubular cytoskeleton (ciliary
roots, in red) of unikonts (a cone of
single microtubules attaching the
single centriole to the nucleus, blue)
and bikonts (two bands of microtubules
attached to the posterior centriole and
an anterior fan of microtubules
attached to the anterior centriole).
The lower ones show the single plasma
membrane of unibacteria (posibacteria
plus archaebacteria), which were
ancestral to eukaryotes and the double
envelope of negibacteria, which were
ancestral to mitochondria and
chloroplasts (which retained the outer
membrane, red).
source: http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/cg
i/content/full/95/1/147/FIG2
[2] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group.
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
now.
The Cercozoa are a group of protists,
including most amoeboids and
flagellates that feed by means of
filose pseudopods. These may be
restricted to part of the cell surface,
but there is never a true cytostome or
mouth as found in many other protozoa.
They show a variety of forms and have
proven difficult to define in terms of
structural characteristics, although
their unity is strongly supported by
genetic studies.
The best-known Cercozoa are
the euglyphids, filose amoebae with
shells of siliceous scales or plates,
which are commonly found in soils,
nutrient-rich waters, and on aquatic
plants. Some other filose amoebae
produce organic shells, including the
tectofilosids and Gromia. They were
formerly classified with the euglyphids
as the Testaceafilosia. This group is
not monophyletic, but nearly all
studied members fall in or near the
Cercozoa, related to similarly shelled
flagellates.
Another important group placed here are
the chlorarachniophytes, strange
amoebae that form a reticulating net.
They are set apart by the presence of
chloroplasts, which apparently
developed from an ingested green alga.
They are bound by four membranes and
still possess a vestigial nucleus,
called a nucleomorph. As such, they
have been of great interest to
researchers studying the endosymbiotic
origins of organelles.
Other notable cercozoans include the
cercomonads, which are common soil
flagellates. Two groups traditionally
considered heliozoa, the dimorphids and
desmothoracids, belong here. Recently
the marine Phaeodarea have also been
included. The Cercozoa are closely
related to the Foraminifera and
Radiolaria, amoeboids that usually have
complex shells, and together with them
form a supergroup called the Rhizaria.
Their exact composition and
relationships are still being worked
out.
PHYLUM Cercozoa (Cavalier-Smith 1998)
CLASS Spongomonadea
CLASS Proteomyxidea -
desmothoracids, dimorphids,
gymnophryids, etc.
CLASS Sarcomonadea -
cercomonads
CLASS Imbricatea - euglyphids and
thaumatomonads
CLASS Thecofilosea - tectofilosids
and cryomonads
CLASS Phaeodarea
CLASS Chlorarachnea
(Hibberd & Norris, 1984)
Class Spongomonadea
Chlorarachniophytes
are a small group of algae occasionally
found in tropical oceans. They are
typically mixotrophic, ingesting
bacteria and smaller protists as well
as conducting photosynthesis. Normally
they have the form of small amoebae,
with branching cytoplasmic extensions
that capture prey and connect the cells
together, forming a net. They may also
form flagellate zoospores, which
characteristically have a single
subapical flagellum that spirals
backwards around the cell body, and
walled coccoid cells.
The chloroplasts were presumably
acquired by ingesting some green alga.
They are surrounded by four membranes,
the outermost of which is continuous
with the endoplasmic reticulum, and
contain a small nucleomorph between the
middle two, which is a remnant of the
alga's nucleus. This contains a small
amount of DNA and divides without
forming a mitotic spindle. The origin
of the chloroplasts from green algae is
supported by their pigmentation, which
includes chlorophylls a and b, and by
genetic similarities. The only other
group of algae that contain
nucleomorphs are the cryptomonads, but
their chloroplasts seem to be derived
from a red alga.
The chlorarachniophytes only include
five genera, which show some variation
in their life-cycles and may lack one
or two of the stages described above.
Genetic studies place them among the
Cercozoa, a diverse group of amoeboid
and amoeboid-like protozoa.
Class Proteomyxidea
Order Desmothoracida (Hertwig &
Lesser 1874)
The desmothoracids are a group
of heliozoan protists, usually sessile
and found in freshwater environments.
Each adult is a spherical cell around
10-20 μm in diameter surrounded by
a perforated organic lorica or shell,
with many radial pseudopods projecting
through the holes to capture food.
These are supported by small bundles of
microtubules that arise near a point on
the nuclear membrane. Unlike other
heliozoans, the microtubules are not in
any regular geometric array, there does
not appear to be a microtubule
organizing center, and there is no
distinction between the outer and inner
cytoplasm.
Reproduction takes place by the budding
off of small motile cells, usually with
two flagella. Later these are lost, and
pseudopods and a lorica are formed.
Typically a single lengthened pseudopod
will secrete a hollow stalk that
attached the adult to the substrate.
The form of the flagella, the tubular
cristae within the mitochondria, and
other characters led to the suggestion
that the desmothoracids belong among
what is now the Cercozoa, which has now
been confirmed by genetic studies.
Order Heliomonadida
Genus Dimorpha
The dimorphids or
heliomonads are a small group of
heliozoa that are unusual in possessing
flagella throughout their life-cycle.
There are two genera: Dimorpha, a tiny
organism found in freshwater, and the
larger Tetradimorpha, which is
distinguished by having four rather
than two flagella. Bundles of
microtubules, typically in square
array, arise from a body near the
flagellar bases and support the
numerous axopods that project from the
cell surface.
Dimorphids have a single nucleus, and
mitochondria with tubular cristae.
Genetic studies place them among the
Cercozoa, a group including various
other flagellates that form pseudopods.
Order Reticulosida
Family Gymnophryidae (Mikrjukov &
Mylnikov, 1996)
The gymnophryids are a small
group of amoeboids that lack shells and
produce thin, reticulose pseudopods.
These contain microtubules and have a
granular appearance, owing to the
presence of extrusomes, but are
distinct from the pseudopods of
Foraminifera. They are included among
the Cercozoa, but differ from other
cercozoans in having mitochondria with
flat cristae, rather than tubular
cristae.
Gymnophrys cometa, found in freshwater
and soil, is representative of the
group. The cell body is under 10
μm in size, and has a pair of
reduced flagella, which are smooth and
insert parallel to one another. It may
also produce motile zoospores and
cysts. Gymnophrys and Borkovia are the
only confirmed genera, but other naked
reticulose amoebae such as Biomyxa may
be close relatives.
Class Sarcomonadea
Order Cercomonadida (Poche,
1913)
Cercomonads are small flagellates,
widespread in aqueous habitats and
especially common in soils. The cells
are generally around 10 μm in
length, without any shell or covering.
They produce filose pseudopods to
capture bacteria, but do not use them
for locomotion, which usually takes
place by gliding along surfaces. Most
members have two smooth flagella, one
directed forward and one trailing under
the cell, inserted at right angles near
its anterior. The nucleus is connected
to the flagellar bases and accompanied
by a characteristic paranuclear body.
Genetic studies place the cercomonads
among the core Cercozoa, a diverse
group of amoeboid and flagellate
protozoans. They are divided into two
families. The Heteromitidae tend to be
relatively rigid, and produce only
temporary pseudopods. The
Cercomonadidae are more plastic, and
when food supplies are plentiful may
become amoeboid and even multinucleate.
The classification of genera and
species continues to undergo revision.
Some genera have been merged, like
Cercomonas and Cercobodo, and some have
been moved to other groups.
Class Imbricatea
Order Euglyphida (Copeland,
1956)
The euglyphids are a prominent group of
filose amoebae that produce shells or
tests from siliceous scales, plates,
and sometimes spines. These elements
are created within the cell and then
assembled on its surface in a more or
less regular arrangement, giving the
test a textured appearance. There is a
single opening for the long slender
pseudopods, which capture food and pull
the cell across the substrate.
Euglyphids are common in soils,
marshes, and other organic-rich
environments, feeding on tiny organisms
such as bacteria. The test is generally
30-100 μm in length, although the
cell only occupies part of this space.
During reproduction a second shell is
formed opposite the opening, so both
daughter cells remain protected.
Different genera and species are
distinguished primarily by the form of
the test. Euglypha and Trinema are the
most common.
The euglyphids are traditionally
grouped with other amoebae. However,
genetic studies instead place them with
various amoeboid and flagellate groups,
forming an assemblage called the
Cercozoa. Their closest relatives are
the thaumatomonads, flagellates that
form similar siliceous tests.
Class Thecofilosea
Order Tectofilosida
(Cavalier-Smith & Chao, 2003)
The
tectofilosids or amphitremids are a
group of filose amoebae with shells.
These are composed of organic materials
and sometimes collected debris, in
contrast to the euglyphids, which
produce shells from siliceous scales.
The shell usually has a single opening,
but in Amphitrema and a few other
genera it has two on opposite ends. The
cell itself occupies most of the shell.
They are most often found on marsh
plants such as Sphagnum.
This group was previously classified as
the Gromiida or Gromiina. However,
molecular studies separate Gromia from
the others, which must therefore be
renamed. They are placed among the
Cercozoa, and presumably developed from
flagellates like Cryothecomonas, which
has a similar test. However, only a few
have been studied in detail, so their
relationships and monophyly are not yet
certain.
Class: Phaeodarea (Haeckel, 1879)
The
Phaeodarea are a group of amoeboid
protists. They are traditionally
considered radiolarians, but in
molecular trees do not appear to be
close relatives of the other groups,
and are instead placed among the
Cercozoa. They are distinguished by the
structure of their central capsule and
by the presence of a phaeodium, an
aggregate of waste particles within the
cell.
Phaeodarea produce hollow skeletons
composed of amorphous silica and
organic material, which rarely
fossilize. The endoplasm is divided by
a cape with three openings, of which
one gives rise to feeding pseudopods,
and the others let through bundles of
microtubules that support the axopods.
Unlike other radiolarians, there are no
cross-bridges between them. They also
lack symbiotic algae, generally living
below the photic zone, and do not
produce any strontium sulphate.
CLASS Chlorarachnea
Chlorarachniophytes are a small
group of algae occasionally found in
tropical oceans. They are typically
mixotrophic, ingesting bacteria and
smaller protists as well as conducting
photosynthesis. Normally they have the
form of small amoebae, with branching
cytoplasmic extensions that capture
prey and connect the cells together,
forming a net. They may also form
flagellate zoospores, which
characteristically have a single
subapical flagellum that spirals
backwards around the cell body, and
walled coccoid cells.
The chloroplasts were presumably
acquired by ingesting some green alga.
They are surrounded by four membranes,
the outermost of which is continuous
with the endoplasmic reticulum, and
contain a small nucleomorph between the
middle two, which is a remnant of the
alga's nucleus. This contains a small
amount of DNA and divides without
forming a mitotic spindle. The origin
of the chloroplasts from green algae is
supported by their pigmentation, which
includes chlorophylls a and b, and by
genetic similarities. The only other
group of algae that contain
nucleomorphs are the cryptomonads, but
their chloroplasts seem to be derived
from a red alga.
The chlorarachniophytes only include
five genera, which show some variation
in their life-cycles and may lack one
or two of the stages described above.
Genetic studies place them among the
Cercozoa, a diverse group of amoeboid
and amoeboid-like protozoa.
[1] FIG. 2. The tree of life based on
molecular, ultrastructural and
palaeontological evidence. Contrary to
widespread assumptions, the root is
among the eubacteria, probably within
the double-enveloped Negibacteria, not
between eubacteria and archaebacteria
(Cavalier-Smith, 2002b); it may lie
between Eobacteria and other
Negibacteria (Cavalier-Smith, 2002b).
The position of the eukaryotic root has
been nearly as controversial, but is
less hard to establish: it probably
lies between unikonts and bikonts (Lang
et al., 2002; Stechmann and
Cavalier-Smith, 2002, 2003). For
clarity the basal eukaryotic kingdom
Protozoa is not labelled; it comprises
four major groups (alveolates, cabozoa,
Amoebozoa and Choanozoa) plus the small
bikont phylum Apusozoa of unclear
precise position; whether Heliozoa are
protozoa as shown or chromists is
uncertain (Cavalier-Smith, 2003b).
Symbiogenetic cell enslavement occurred
four or five times: in the origin of
mitochondria and chloroplasts from
different negibacteria, of
chromalveolates by the enslaving of a
red alga (Cavalier-Smith, 1999, 2003;
Harper and Keeling, 2003) and in the
origin of the green plastids of
euglenoid (excavate) and chlorarachnean
(cercozoan) algae-a green algal cell
was enslaved either by the ancestral
cabozoan (arrow) or (less likely) twice
independently within excavates and
Cercozoa (asterisks) (Cavalier-Smith,
2003a). The upper thumbnail sketch
shows membrane topology in the
chimaeric cryptophytes (class
Cryptophyceae of the phylum Cryptista);
in the ancestral chromist the former
food vacuole membrane fused with the
rough endoplasmic reticulum placing the
enslaved cell within its lumen (red) to
yield the complex membrane topology
shown. The large host nucleus and the
tiny nucleomorph are shown in blue,
chloroplast green and mitochondrion
purple. In chlorarachneans (class
Chlorarachnea of phylum Cercozoa) the
former food vacuole membrane remained
topologically distinct from the ER to
become an epiplastid membrane and so
did not acquire ribosomes on its
surface, but their membrane topology is
otherwise similar to the cryptophytes.
The other sketches portray the four
major kinds of cell in the living world
and their membrane topology. The upper
ones show the contrasting ancestral
microtubular cytoskeleton (ciliary
roots, in red) of unikonts (a cone of
single microtubules attaching the
single centriole to the nucleus, blue)
and bikonts (two bands of microtubules
attached to the posterior centriole and
an anterior fan of microtubules
attached to the anterior centriole).
The lower ones show the single plasma
membrane of unibacteria (posibacteria
plus archaebacteria), which were
ancestral to eukaryotes and the double
envelope of negibacteria, which were
ancestral to mitochondria and
chloroplasts (which retained the outer
membrane, red).
source: http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/cg
i/content/full/95/1/147/FIG2
[2] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group.
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
evolve now.
Ribosomal RNA indicates that
Rhizaria Phylum "Radiolaria" evolve
now.
Radiolarians (also radiolaria) are
amoeboid protozoa that produce
intricate mineral skeletons, typically
with a central capsule dividing the
cell into inner and outer portions,
called endoplasm and ectoplasm. They
are found as plankton throughout the
ocean, and their shells are important
fossils found from the Cambrian
onwards.
Move by pseudopodia.
external tests
made of silica (glass).
Radiolaria have a test composed of
silica or strontium sulfate.
Most have a radial
arrangement of spines.
Pseudopods (actinopods)
project from an external layer of
cytoplasm and are supported by rows of
microtubules.
Tests of dead foraminiferans and
radiolarians form deep layers of ocean
floor sediment.
Back to the Precambrian, each
layer has distinctive foraminiferans
which helps date rocks.
Over hundreds of
millions of years, the CaCO3 shells
have contributed to the formation of
chalk deposits (i.e. White Cliffs of
Dover, limestone of pyramids).
Lifecycle
Simple asexual fission of radiolarian
cells has been observed. Sexual
reproduction has not been confirmed but
is assumed to occur; possible
gametogenesis has been observed in the
form of "swarmers" being expelled from
swellings in the cell. Swarmers are
formed from the central capsule after
the ectoplasm has been discarded. The
central capsule sinks through the water
column to depths hundreds of meters
greater than the normal habitat and
swells, eventually rupturing and
releasing the flagellated cells.
Recombination of these cells, which are
assumed to be haploid, to produce
diploid "adults" has not been observed
however and is only inferred to occur.
Comparisons of standing crops within
the water column and sediment trap
samples have ascertained that the
average life span of radiolarians is
about two weeks, ranging from a few
days to a few weeks.
All radiolarians
secrete strontium sulphate at some
point in the life cycle - as the adult
shell in Acantharea, and as crystals in
‘swarmer cells" produced during
asexual reproduction in Polycystinea.
La
rge, planktonic forms that produce a
glassy, intricate shell.
Radiolarians have many needle-like
pseudopods supported by microtubules,
called axopods, which aid in flotation.
The nuclei and most other organelles
are in the endoplasm, while the
ectoplasm is filled with frothy
vacuoles and lipid droplets, keeping
them buoyant. Often it also contains
symbiotic algae, especially
zooxanthellae, that provide most of the
cell's energy. Some of this
organization is found among the
heliozoa, but those lack central
capsules and only produce simple scales
and spines.
The main class of radiolarians are the
Polycystinea, which produce siliceous
skeletons. These include the majority
of fossils. They also include the
Acantharea, which produce skeletons of
strontium sulfate. Despite some initial
suggestions to the contrary, genetic
studies place these two groups close
together. They also include the
peculiar genus Sticholonche, which
lacks an internal skeleton and so is
usually considered a heliozoan.
Traditionally the radiolarians also
include the Phaeodarea, which produce
siliceous skeletons but differ from the
polycystines in several other respects.
However, on molecular trees they branch
with the Cercozoa, a group including
various flagellate and amoeboid
protists. The other radiolarians appear
near, but outside, the Cercozoa, so the
similarity is due to convergent
evolution. The radiolarians and
Cercozoa are included within a
supergroup called the Rhizaria.
German biologist Ernst Haeckel produced
exquisite (and perhaps somewhat
exaggerated) drawings of radiolaria,
helping to popularize these protists
among Victorian parlor microscopists
alongside foraminifera and diatoms.
PHYL
UM Radiolaria (Müller 1858 emend.)
CLASS Polycystinea
CLASS Acantharea
(Haeckel, 1881)
CLASS Sticholonchea
(CLASS Phaeodarea Haeckel, 1879 )?
CLASS Polycystinea:
The polycystines are a group of
radiolarian protists. They include the
vast majority of the fossil radiolaria,
as their skeletons are abundant in
marine sediments, making them one of
the most common groups of microfossils.
These skeletons are composed of opaline
silica. In some it takes the form of
relatively simple spicules, but in
others it forms more elaborate
lattices, such as concentric spheres
with radial spines or sequences of
conical chambers.
Class Acantharea
The Acantharea are a small group
of radiolarian protozoa, distinguished
mainly by their skeletons. These are
composed of strontium sulfate crystals,
which do not fossilize, and take the
form of either ten diametric or twenty
radial spines. The central capsule is
made up of microfibrils arranged into
twenty plates, each with a hole through
which one spine projects, and there is
also a microfibrillar cortex linked to
the spines by myonemes. These assist in
flotation, together with the vacuoles
in the ectoplasm, which often contain
zooxanthellae.
The axopods are fixed in
number. Reproduction takes place by
formation of spores, which may be
flagellate. These develop into
mononucleate amoebae; adults are
usually multinucleate.
Class Sticholonchea
Sticholonche is a peculiar genus
of protozoan with a single species, S.
zanclea, found in open oceans at depths
of 100-500 metres. It is generally
considered a heliozoan, placed in its
own order, called the Taxopodida.
However it has also been classified as
an unusual radiolarian, and this has
gained support from genetic studies,
which place it near the Acantharea.
Sticholonche are usually around 200
μm, though this varies
considerably, and have a bilaterally
symmetric shape, somewhat flattened and
widened at the front. The axopods are
arranged into distinct rows, six of
which lie in a dorsal groove and are
rigid, and the rest of which are
mobile. These are used primarily for
buoyancy, rather than feeding. They
also have fourteen groups of prominent
spines, and many smaller spicules,
although there is no central capsule as
in true radiolarians.
Cercozoa, originally named by
Cavalier-Smith in 1998, is a diverse
group of taxa united solely on
molecular grounds, but supported by a
number of genes (Longet et al., 2003).
Amongst notable members of the Cercozoa
are amoeboid forms such as Difflugia,
which produce agglutinated tests that
may be fossilised (the record extends
back to the Neoproterozoic - Finlay
et al., 2004), and the Chlorarachnea
(e.g. Chlorarachnion), marine amoeboid
organisms which possess chloroplasts
derived from a secondary endosymbiosis
with a green alga. Cavalier-Smith,
(2003). The nucleus of the endosymbiont
in Chlorarachnion, in fact, has not
fully degraded as in most secondarily
plastid-bearing eukaryotes, and the
chloroplast retains a small nucleomorph
contained within the surrounding
membranes.
The Polycystinea (sometimes spelled
Polycistinea or Polycystina) are one
group of the Radiolaria. These are not
just "small shelly fauna," they are
tiny shelly fauna made up of single, if
rather complex, cells. The shell turns
out to be made of amorphous silica --
essentially sand -- without the
admixture of organics that characterize
similar forms. Polycystinea are
exclusively marine but found in great
numbers in the oceans. Their fossil
record goes back almost a billion
years, well into Precambrian time.
Like other radiolarians, the cytoplasm
of Polycystinea is divided into
ectoplasm and endoplasm by a perforated
protein capsule -- not the nuclear
membrane, but a novel structure unique
to this group. The endoplasm forms a
central medulla enclosed by this
porous, membranous capsule. The nucleus
is inside this central region. The
ectoplasm is outside the capsule and
forms the region known as the cortex
(or calymma). The visible remains shown
in the image are made up of perforated
tests (the "shells"). In life, these
are located in the ectoplasm.
Polycystinates extend pseudopods
supported by a complex microtubular
array (axopods) which originate in the
endoplasm. The pseudopods pass through
pores in the test and extend, covered
with a thin layer of cytoplasm, from
the surface of the cell. Spines of the
test, if any, also pass through the
capsule and extend, covered with
cytoplasm, from the surface of the
cell. The ectoplasm is often vacuolated
and frequently contains photosynthetic
zooxanthellae.
The endoplasm actually contains all of
the organelles normally associated with
a "normal" heterotrophic eukaryotic
cell, including mitochondria, a
nucleus, and a cytoskeleton. The
ectoplasm is largely filled with
digestive vacuoles, symbiotic algae,
and the test. From an evolutionary
standpoint, the Polycystina appear to
be one step towards a whole different
type of biological organization based
on a 3-compartment cell, rather than
the 2-compartment cell of metazoans. In
fact, a number of polycystinean species
are colonial. It is interesting to
speculate on what might have evolved on
this model, had circumstances been
different.
[1] FIG. 2. The tree of life based on
molecular, ultrastructural and
palaeontological evidence. Contrary to
widespread assumptions, the root is
among the eubacteria, probably within
the double-enveloped Negibacteria, not
between eubacteria and archaebacteria
(Cavalier-Smith, 2002b); it may lie
between Eobacteria and other
Negibacteria (Cavalier-Smith, 2002b).
The position of the eukaryotic root has
been nearly as controversial, but is
less hard to establish: it probably
lies between unikonts and bikonts (Lang
et al., 2002; Stechmann and
Cavalier-Smith, 2002, 2003). For
clarity the basal eukaryotic kingdom
Protozoa is not labelled; it comprises
four major groups (alveolates, cabozoa,
Amoebozoa and Choanozoa) plus the small
bikont phylum Apusozoa of unclear
precise position; whether Heliozoa are
protozoa as shown or chromists is
uncertain (Cavalier-Smith, 2003b).
Symbiogenetic cell enslavement occurred
four or five times: in the origin of
mitochondria and chloroplasts from
different negibacteria, of
chromalveolates by the enslaving of a
red alga (Cavalier-Smith, 1999, 2003;
Harper and Keeling, 2003) and in the
origin of the green plastids of
euglenoid (excavate) and chlorarachnean
(cercozoan) algae-a green algal cell
was enslaved either by the ancestral
cabozoan (arrow) or (less likely) twice
independently within excavates and
Cercozoa (asterisks) (Cavalier-Smith,
2003a). The upper thumbnail sketch
shows membrane topology in the
chimaeric cryptophytes (class
Cryptophyceae of the phylum Cryptista);
in the ancestral chromist the former
food vacuole membrane fused with the
rough endoplasmic reticulum placing the
enslaved cell within its lumen (red) to
yield the complex membrane topology
shown. The large host nucleus and the
tiny nucleomorph are shown in blue,
chloroplast green and mitochondrion
purple. In chlorarachneans (class
Chlorarachnea of phylum Cercozoa) the
former food vacuole membrane remained
topologically distinct from the ER to
become an epiplastid membrane and so
did not acquire ribosomes on its
surface, but their membrane topology is
otherwise similar to the cryptophytes.
The other sketches portray the four
major kinds of cell in the living world
and their membrane topology. The upper
ones show the contrasting ancestral
microtubular cytoskeleton (ciliary
roots, in red) of unikonts (a cone of
single microtubules attaching the
single centriole to the nucleus, blue)
and bikonts (two bands of microtubules
attached to the posterior centriole and
an anterior fan of microtubules
attached to the anterior centriole).
The lower ones show the single plasma
membrane of unibacteria (posibacteria
plus archaebacteria), which were
ancestral to eukaryotes and the double
envelope of negibacteria, which were
ancestral to mitochondria and
chloroplasts (which retained the outer
membrane, red).
source: http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/cg
i/content/full/95/1/147/FIG2
[2] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group.
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
evolve now.
Ribosomal RNA shows Rhizaria
Phylum "Foraminifera" (also known as
"Granuloreticulosea") evolve now.
Forminifera are catagorized as amoeboid
because they have pseudopods.
The Foraminifera, or forams for short,
are a large group of amoeboid protists
with reticulating pseudopods, fine
strands that branch and merge to form a
dynamic net. They typically produce a
shell, or test, which can have either
one or multiple chambers, some becoming
quite elaborate in structure. About 250
000 species are recognized, both living
and fossil. They are usually less than
1 mm in size, but some are much larger,
and the largest recorded specimen
reached 19 cm. As fossils, foraminifera
are extremely useful.
Foraminifera are
haplodiploid.
Most have a kind of shell
called a "test", which is composed of
calcium carbonate.
move by pseudopodia
most are marine
test
s are major components of limestone
used
to date marine sediments.
Foraminifera, especially the calcareous
forms, have a fossil record stretching
back to the Cambrian (Lee, 1990), and
are especially important
biostratigraphically.
b. Foraminiferans have a
multi-chambered CaCO3 (calcium
carbonate) shell; thin pseudopods
extend through holes.
Of the approximately 4000 living
species of foraminifera the life cycles
of only 20 or so are known. There are a
great variety of reproductive, growth
and feeding strategies, however the
alternation of sexual and asexual
generations is common throughout the
group and this feature differentiates
the foraminifera from other members of
the Granuloreticulosea. An asexually
produced haploid generation commonly
form a large proloculus (initial
chamber) and are therefore termed
megalospheric. Sexually produced
diploid generations tend to produce a
smaller proloculus and are therefore
termed microspheric. Importantly in
terms of the fossil record, many
foraminiferal tests are either
partially dissolved or partially
disintegrate during the reproductive
process.The planktonic foraminifera
Hastigerina pelagica reproduces by
gametogenesis at depth, the spines,
septa and apertural region are resorbed
leaving a tell-tale test.
Globigerinoides sacculiferproduces a
sac-like final chamber and additional
calcification of later chambers before
dissolution of spines occurs, this
again produces a distinctive test,
which once gametogenesis is complete
sinks to the sea bed. Since the
meiosis products have to differentiate
or mature into gametes, meiosis does
not result directly in gametes, these
species are haplodipoid
(haplodiplontic).
Modern forams are primarily marine,
although they can survive in brackish
conditions. A few species survive in
fresh water (e.g. Lake Geneva) and one
species even lives in damp rainforrest
soil. They are very common in the
meiobenthos, and about 40 species are
planktonic. The cell is divided into
granular endoplasm and transparent
ectoplasm. The pseudopodial net may
emerge through a single opening or many
perforations in the test, and
characteristically has small granules
streaming in both directions.
The pseudopods are used for locomotion,
anchoring, and in capturing food, which
consists of small organisms such as
diatoms or bacteria. A number of forms
have unicellular algae as
endosymbionts, from diverse lineages
such as the green algae, red algae,
golden algae, diatoms, and
dinoflagellates. Some forams are
kleptoplastic, retaining chloroplasts
from ingested algae to conduct
photosynthesis.
The foraminiferan life-cycle involves
an alternation between haploid and
diploid generations, although they are
mostly similar in form. The haploid or
gamont initially has a single nucleus,
and divides to produce numerous
gametes, which typically have two
flagella. The diploid or schizont is
multinucleate, and after meiosis
fragments to produce new gamonts.
Multiple rounds of asexual reproduction
between sexual generations is not
uncommon.
The form and composition of the test is
the primary means by which forams are
identified and classified. Most have
calcareous tests, composed of calcium
carbonate, which generally takes the
form of interlocking microscopic
crystals, giving it a glassy or hyaline
appearance. In other forams the test
may be composed of organic material,
made from small pieces of sediment
cemented together (agglutinated), and
in one genus of silica. Openings in the
test, including those that allow
cytoplasm to flow between chambers, are
called apertures.
Tests are known as fossils as far back
as the Cambrian period, and many marine
sediments are composed primarily of
them. For instance, the nummulitic
limestone that makes up the pyramids of
Egypt is composed almost entirely of
them. Forams may also make a
significant contribution to the overall
deposition of calcium carbonate in
coral reefs.
Because of their diversity, abundance,
and complex morphology, fossil
foraminiferal assembleages can give
accurate relative dates for rocks and
thus are extremely useful in
biostratigraphy. Before more modern
techniques became available, the oil
industry relied heavily on microfossils
such as foraminifera to find potential
oil deposits.
For the same reasons they make good
biostratigraphic markers, living
foraminiferal assembleages have been
used as bioindicators in coastal
environments, including as indicators
of coral reef health.
Fossil foraminifera are also useful in
paleoclimatology and paleoceanography.
They can be used to reconstruct past
climate by examining their oxygen
stable isotope ratios. Geographic
patterns seen in the fossil record of
planktonic forams are also used to
reconstruct paleo ocean current
patterns.
Genetic studies have identified the
naked amoeba Reticulomyxa and the
peculiar xenophyophores as
foraminiferans without tests. A few
other ameoboids produce reticulose
pseudopods, and were formerly
classified with the forams as the
Granuloreticulosa, but this is no
longer considered a natural group, and
most are now placed among the Cercozoa.
Both the Cercozoa and Radiolaria are
close relatives of the Foraminifera,
together making up the Rhizaria, but
the exact position of the forams is
still unclear.
PHYLUM Foraminifera
CLASS Athalamea (Haeckel,
1862)
CLASS Xenophyophorea (F.E.
Schulze, 1904)
CLASS Foraminifera
(Lee, 1990)
CLASS Foraminifera
ORDER Allogromiida
The
Allogromiida are a small group of
foraminiferans, including those that
produce organic tests (Lagynacea).
Genetic studies have shown that some
foraminiferans with agglutinated tests,
previously included in the Textulariida
or as their own order Astrorhizida,
also belong here. Allogromiids produce
relatively simple tests, usually with a
single chamber, similar to those of
other protists such as Gromia. They are
found in stressed environments,
including both marine and freshwater
forms, and are the oldest forams known
from the fossil record.
ORDER
Fusulinida
The fusulinids are an extinct group of
foraminiferan protozoa. They produce
calcareous shells, which are of fine
calcite granules packed closely
together; this distinguishes them from
other calcareous forams, where the test
is usually hyaline. Fusulinids are
important indicator fossils.
ORDER
Globigerinida
The Globigerinida are a common group of
foraminiferans that are found as marine
plankton (other groups are primarily
benthic). They produce hyaline
calcareous tests, and are known as
fossils from the Jurassic period
onwards. The group has included more
than 100 genera and over 400 species,
of which about 30 species are extant.
One of the most important genera is
Globigerina; vast areas of the ocean
floor are covered with Globigerina ooze
(named by Murray and Renard in 1873),
dominated by the shells of planktonic
forams.
ORDER Miliolida
The miliolids are a
group of foraminiferans, abundant in
shallow waters such as estuaries and
coastlines, though they also include
oceanic forms. They are distinguished
by producing porcelaneous tests,
composed of calcite needles and organic
material; the needles have a high
proportion of magnesium and are
oriented randomly. The test lacks pores
and generally has multiple chambers,
which are often arranged in a
distinctive fashion called milioline.
ORDER Rotaliida
The Rotaliida are a large and
abundant group of foraminiferans. They
are primarily oceanic benthos, although
some are common in shallower waters
such as estuaries. They also include
many important fossils, such as
nummulites. Rotaliids produce hyaline
tests, in which the microscopic
crystals may be oriented either
radially (as in other forams) or
obliquely.
ORDER Textulariida
The Textulariida are
a group of common foraminiferans that
produce agglutinated shells, composed
of foreign particles in an organic or
calcareous cement. Previously they were
taken to include all such species, but
genetic studies have shown that they
are not all closely related, and
several superfamilies have been moved
to the order Allogromiida. The
remaining forms are sometimes divided
into three orders: the Trochamminida
and Lituolida (organic cement) and the
Textulariida sensu stricto (calcareous
cement). All three are known as fossils
from the Cambrian onwards.
CLASS Xenophyophorea
Xenophyophores are marine
protozoans, giant single-celled
organisms found throughout the world's
oceans, but in their greatest numbers
on the abyssal plains of the deep
ocean. They were first described as
sponges in 1889, then as testate
amoeboids, and later as their own
phylum of Protista. A recent genetic
study suggested that the xenophyophores
are a specialized group of
Foraminifera. There are approximately
42 recognized species in 13 genera and
2 orders; one of which, Syringammina
fragillissima, is among the largest
known protozoans at a maximum 20
centimetres in diameter.
Abundant but poorly understood,
xenophyophores are delicate organisms
with a variable appearance; some may
resemble flattened discs, angular
four-sided shapes (tetrahedra), or like
frilly or spherical sponges. Local
environmental conditions-such as
current direction and speed-may play a
part in influencing these forms.
Xenophyophores are essentially lumps of
viscous fluid called cytoplasm
containing numerous nuclei distributed
evenly throughout. Everything is
contained in a ramose system of tubes
called a granellare, itself composed of
an organic cement-like substance.
As benthic deposit feeders,
xenophyophores tirelessly root through
the muddy sediments on the sea floor.
They excrete a slimy substance whilst
feeding; in locations with a dense
population of xenophyophores, such as
at the bottoms of oceanic trenches,
this slime may cover large areas. Local
population densities may be as high as
2,000 individuals per 100 square
metres, making them dominant organisms
in some areas. These giant protozoans
seem to feed in a manner similar to
amoebas, enveloping food items with a
foot-like structure called a
pseudopodium. Most are epifaunal
(living atop the seabed), but one
species (Occultammina profunda), is
known to be infaunal; it buries itself
up to 6 cm deep into the sediment.
Their glue-like secretions cause silt
and strings of their own fecal matter,
called stercomes, to build up into
masses (called stercomares) on their
exteriors. In this way, the organisms
form structures which project from the
sea floor; this characteristic also
explains their name, which may be
translated from the Greek to mean
"bearer of foreign bodies". A
protective, shell-like test is thereby
agglutinated around the granellare,
which is composed of scavenged minerals
and the microscopic skeletal remains of
other organisms, such as sponges,
radiolarians, and other foraminiferans.
Xenophyophores may be an important part
of the benthic ecosystem by virtue of
their constant bioturbation of the
sediments, providing a habitat for
other organisms such as isopods.
Research has shown that areas dominated
by xenophyophores have 3-4 times the
number of benthic crustaceans,
echinoderms, and molluscs than
equivalent areas which lack
xenophyophores. The xenophyophores
themselves also play commensal host to
a number of organisms-such as isopods
(e.g., genus Hebefustis), sipunculan
and polychaete worms, nematodes, and
harpacticoid copepods-some of which may
take up semi-permanent residence within
a xenophyophore's test. Brittle stars
(Ophiuroidea) also appear to have some
sort of relationship with
xenophyophores, as they are
consistently found directly underneath
or on top of the protozoans.
Xenophyophores are difficult to study
due to their extreme fragility.
Specimens are invariably damaged during
sampling, rendering them useless for
captive study or cell culture. For this
reason, very little is known of their
life history. As they occur in all the
world's oceans and in great numbers,
xenophyophores could be indispensable
agents in the process of sediment
deposition and in maintaining
biological diversity in benthic
ecosystems.
Xenophyophores are large marine Amoebae
containing barite (BaSO4) crystals.
CLASS Athalamea
Granuloreticulosea, lacking a
test or shell, though some forms might
be covered by a thin lorica. Pseudopods
could arise anywhere over the surface
of the body, and could be branched to a
greater or lesser extent in different
representa-tives of the group, with or
without anastomosing connections in the
pseudopodial network. Organisms that
have not been examined by modern
techniques, nor have been seen in
recent years, to check the fact that
they do have granular reticulopodial
bidirectional streaming, have been
removed from this class and placed with
the amoebae of uncertain affinities.
One genus remains: Reticulomyxa.
[1] FIG. 2. The tree of life based on
molecular, ultrastructural and
palaeontological evidence. Contrary to
widespread assumptions, the root is
among the eubacteria, probably within
the double-enveloped Negibacteria, not
between eubacteria and archaebacteria
(Cavalier-Smith, 2002b); it may lie
between Eobacteria and other
Negibacteria (Cavalier-Smith, 2002b).
The position of the eukaryotic root has
been nearly as controversial, but is
less hard to establish: it probably
lies between unikonts and bikonts (Lang
et al., 2002; Stechmann and
Cavalier-Smith, 2002, 2003). For
clarity the basal eukaryotic kingdom
Protozoa is not labelled; it comprises
four major groups (alveolates, cabozoa,
Amoebozoa and Choanozoa) plus the small
bikont phylum Apusozoa of unclear
precise position; whether Heliozoa are
protozoa as shown or chromists is
uncertain (Cavalier-Smith, 2003b).
Symbiogenetic cell enslavement occurred
four or five times: in the origin of
mitochondria and chloroplasts from
different negibacteria, of
chromalveolates by the enslaving of a
red alga (Cavalier-Smith, 1999, 2003;
Harper and Keeling, 2003) and in the
origin of the green plastids of
euglenoid (excavate) and chlorarachnean
(cercozoan) algae-a green algal cell
was enslaved either by the ancestral
cabozoan (arrow) or (less likely) twice
independently within excavates and
Cercozoa (asterisks) (Cavalier-Smith,
2003a). The upper thumbnail sketch
shows membrane topology in the
chimaeric cryptophytes (class
Cryptophyceae of the phylum Cryptista);
in the ancestral chromist the former
food vacuole membrane fused with the
rough endoplasmic reticulum placing the
enslaved cell within its lumen (red) to
yield the complex membrane topology
shown. The large host nucleus and the
tiny nucleomorph are shown in blue,
chloroplast green and mitochondrion
purple. In chlorarachneans (class
Chlorarachnea of phylum Cercozoa) the
former food vacuole membrane remained
topologically distinct from the ER to
become an epiplastid membrane and so
did not acquire ribosomes on its
surface, but their membrane topology is
otherwise similar to the cryptophytes.
The other sketches portray the four
major kinds of cell in the living world
and their membrane topology. The upper
ones show the contrasting ancestral
microtubular cytoskeleton (ciliary
roots, in red) of unikonts (a cone of
single microtubules attaching the
single centriole to the nucleus, blue)
and bikonts (two bands of microtubules
attached to the posterior centriole and
an anterior fan of microtubules
attached to the anterior centriole).
The lower ones show the single plasma
membrane of unibacteria (posibacteria
plus archaebacteria), which were
ancestral to eukaryotes and the double
envelope of negibacteria, which were
ancestral to mitochondria and
chloroplasts (which retained the outer
membrane, red).
source: http://aob.oxfordjournals.org/cg
i/content/full/95/1/147/FIG2
[2] Fig. 1. A consensus phylogeny of
eukaryotes. The vast majority of
characterized eukaryotes, with the
notable exception of major subgroups of
amoebae, can now be assigned to one of
eight major groups. Opisthokonts (basal
flagellum) have a single basal
flagellum on reproductive cells and
flat mitochondrial cristae (most
eukaryotes have tubular ones).
Eukaryotic photosynthesis originated in
Plants; theirs are the only plastids
with just two outer membranes.
Heterokonts (different flagellae) have
a unique flagellum decorated with
hollow tripartite hairs (stramenopiles)
and, usually, a second plain one.
Cercozoans are amoebae with filose
pseudopodia, often living with in tests
(hard outer shells), some very
elaborate (foraminiferans). Amoebozoa
are mostly naked amoebae (lacking
tests), often with lobose pseudopodia
for at least part of their life cycle.
Alveolates have systems of cortical
alveoli directly beneath their plasma
membranes. Discicristates have discoid
mitochondrial cristae and, in some
cases, a deep (excavated) ventral
feeding groove. Amitochondrial
excavates lack substantial molecular
phylogenetic support, but most have an
excavated ventral feeding groove, and
all lack mitochondria. The tree shown
is based on a consensus of molecular
(1-4) and ultrastructural (16, 17) data
and includes a rough indication of new
ciPCR ''taxa'' (broken black lines)
(7-11). An asterisk preceding the taxon
name indicates probable paraphyletic
group.
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/300/5626/1703
fossils.
These fossils are reported to be both
in Chuanlinggou Formation, China and in
Russia.
Acritarchs, the name coined by Evitt in
1963 which means "of uncertain origin",
are an artificial group. The group
includes any small (most are between
20-150 microns across), organic-walled
microfossil which cannot be assigned to
a natural group. They are characterised
by varied sculpture, some being spiny
and others smooth. They are believed to
have algal affinities, probably the
cysts of planktonic eukaryotic algae.
They are valuable Proterozoic and
Palaeozoic biostratigraphic and
palaeoenvironmental tools.
Chitinozoa
are large (50-2000 microns)
flask-shaped palynomorphs which appear
dark, almost opaque when viewed using a
light microscope. They are important
Palaeozoic microfossils as
stratigraphic markers.
The oldest known Acritarchs are
recorded from shales of
Palaeoproterozoic (1900-1600 Ma) age in
the former Soviet Union. They are
stratigraphically useful in the Upper
Proterozoic through to the Permian.
From Devonian times onwards the
abundance of acritarchs appears to have
declined, whether this is a reflection
of their true abundance or the volume
of scientific research is difficult to
tell.
[1] Figure 1 Protistan microfossils
from the Roper Group. a, c, Tappania
plana, showing asymmetrically
distributed processes and bulbous
protrusions (arrow in a). b, detail of
a, showing dichotomously branching
process. d, Valeria lophostriata. e,
Dictyosphaera sp. f, Satka favosa. The
scale bar in a is 35 µm for a and c;
10 µm for b; 100 µm for d; 15 µm for
e; and 40 µm for f.
source: Nature 412
[2] Diagram showing basic
morphological classification of
acritarchs. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.ucl.ac.uk/GeolSci/mic
ropal/acritarch.html
fossil Grypania spiralis (an alga 10 cm
long) from BIF in Michigan. Oldest
algae fossil.
The date of this fossil
was originally 2100mybn, but Schneider
measured the Marquette Range Supergroup
(MRS), A rhyolite in the Hemlock
Formation, a mostly bimodal submarine
volcanic deposit that is laterally
correlative with the Negaunee
Iron-formation, yields a sensitive
high-resolution ion microprobe (SHRIMP)
U-Pb zircon age of 1874 ± 9 Ma.
In 1992, Han and Runnegar, finders of
this fossil, compared the fossil to
Acetabularia, a single-celled green
algae. If true, this would make
Grypania the oldest green algae fossil.
source: file:/root/web/Grypania_spiralis
_wmel0000.htm
source: http://www.peripatus.gen.nz/pale
ontology/lrgGrypaniaspiralis.jpg
shows the archaebacteria and eukaryote
line separating here at 1,870 mybn
(first eukaryote, and first protist).
Rocks.
source:
shows Gram-negative and Gram-positive
eubacteria here at 1,584 mybn (first
Gram-positive bacteria).
relationship with cyanobacteria, which
form plastids (chloroplasts). Like
mitochondria, these organelles copy
themselves and are not made by the cell
DNA.
Depending on their morphology and
function, plastids are commonly
classified as chloroplasts,
leucoplasts, amyloplasts or
chromoplasts.
Genetic comparison
shows fungi evolving now. This begins
the fungi kingdom. Perhaps fungi
evolved from the amoebozoa slime mold
line, because the sporangiophore
(stalk) and sporangium (ball on top) of
slime molds look very similar to many
fungi.
to glaucophytes) evolves.
Ribosomal RNA place
first plant (single cell, similar to
glaucophytes) evolving here. This
begins the plant kingdom.
Cavelier-Smith and Ema E. -Y. Chao
write: "Kingdom Plantae
(sensuCavalier-Smith 1981) was
originally defined as comprising all
eukaryotes with chloroplasts possessing
an envelope of two membranes and
mitochondria with (irregularly) flat
cristae. It originally included
Viridaeplantae (green algae and
embryophyte or "higher" plants),
Rhodophyta (red algae), and Glaucophyta
(e.g., Cyanophora, Glaucocystis). It
was argued that all three groups
diverged from a single primary
symbiogenetic origin of plastids
(Cavalier-Smith 1982). Both the
monophyly of plastids and that of
Glaucophyta and Plantae long met
unreasonably strong opposition because
of widespread false dogma that
symbiogenesis is easy and because the
three taxa usually do not group
together in 18S rRNA trees. Now,
however, derived features of all
plastids compared with cyanobacteria
and numerous molecular trees have led
to the acceptance of plastid monophyly
(Delwiche and Palmer 1998) and to the
monophyly of glaucophyte algae.
Furthermore, a sister relation between
red algae and Viridaeplantae is
strongly supported by concatenated
protein trees for nuclei (Moreira et
al. 2000; Baldauf et al. 2000) and
chloroplasts (Martin et al. 1998;
Turmel et al. 1999). The sister
relationship between them and
glaucophytes is convincingly, but
significantly more weakly, supported by
the same trees. Thus the case of
Plantae shows that arguments from
morphology and evolutionary
considerations of protein targeting
during symbiogenesis (Cavalier-Smith
2000b) gave the correct answer much
more rapidly than single-gene trees,
which still do not clearly group all
three taxa together. In all our trees
in the present study (and the recent
tree of Edgcomb et al. 2002),
Rhodophyta and Viridaeplantae are
sisters, but with weak support.
Glaucophyta wander aimlessly from one
place to another in different trees."
R
ibosomal RNA place first plant evolving
here, although glaucophytes, the
earliest living plants (for many
people) do not evolve until later.
microfossils.
Genetic comparison
shows Phylum Glaucophyta evolving at
this time.
Some people catagorize Glaucophyta
in the kingdom Plantae instead of
Protista, and label glaucophyta the
most ancient living plants.
The glaucophytes, also referred to as
glaucocystophytes or glaucocystids, are
a tiny group of freshwater algae. They
are distinguished mainly by the
presence of cyanelles, primitive
chloroplasts which closely resemble
cyanobacteria and retain a thin
peptidoglycan wall between their two
membranes.
It is thought that the green algae
(from which the higher plants evolved),
red algae and glaucophytes acquired
their chloroplasts from endosymbiotic
cyanobacteria. The other types of algae
received their chloroplasts through
secondary endosymbiosis, by engulfing
one of those types of algae along with
their chloroplasts.
The glaucophytes are of obvious
interest to biologists studying the
development of chloroplasts: if the
hypothesis that primary chloroplasts
had a single origin is correct,
glaucophytes are closely related to
both green plants and red algae, and
may be similar to the original alga
type from which all of these developed.
Glaucophytes have mitochondria with
flat cristae, and undergo open mitosis
without centrioles. Motile forms have
two unequal flagella, which may have
fine hairs and are anchored by a
multilayered system of microtubules,
both of which are similar to forms
found in some green algae.
The
chloroplasts of glaucophytes, like the
cyanobacteria and the chloroplasts of
red algae, use the pigment phycobilin
to capture some wavelengths of light;
the green algae and higher plants have
lost that pigment.
There are three main genera included
here. Glaucocystis is non-motile,
though it retains very short vestigial
flagella, and has a cellulose wall.
Cyanophora is motile and lacks a cell
wall. Gloeochaete has both motile and
non-motile stages, and has a cell wall
that does not appear to be composed of
cellulose.
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Plantae
Haeckel, 1866 - plants
SUBKINGDOM Biliphyta
Cavalier-Smith, 1981
PHYLUM Glaucophyta
Skuja, 1954
CLASS Glaucocystophyceae
Schaffner, 1922
[1] ? COPYRIGHTED
source: http://protist.i.hosei.ac.jp/PDB
3/PCD3711/htmls/86.html
[2] ? COPYRIGHTED
source: http://protist.i.hosei.ac.jp/PDB
/Images/Others/Glaucocystis/
evolve from Unikonts (ancestrally only
one cilium). Opisthokonts have flat
mitochondrial cristae and go on to form
the Animal and Fungi kingdoms.
Thomas
Cavalier-Smith and Ema E.-Y. Chao
write: "The term opisthokont,
signifying "posterior cilium," was
applied to animals, Choanozoa, and
Fungi because all three groups
ancestrally had a single posterior
cilium (Cavalier-Smith 1987b). They
were argued to be a clade because they
also were characterized (uniquely at
the time) by flat, nondiscoid
mitochondrial cristae that were not
irregularly inflated like the flat
cristae of Plantae (Cavalier-Smith
1987b). Four other characters also
suggested that animals and fungi were
more closely related to each other than
plants (chitinous exoskeletons; storage
of glycogen, not starch; absence of
chloroplasts; and UGA coding for
tryptophane, not chain termination).
However, the first three were probably
ancestral states for eukaryotes and the
last convergent, so the ciliary and
cristal morphology were stronger
indications. Although early rRNA trees
did not group animals and fungi
together, the opisthokonts are now
consistently supported by all
well-sampled rRNA trees and trees using
several or many proteins, as discussed
above. Moreover a derived 12-amino acid
insertion in translation elongation
factor 1agr and three small gaps in
enolase clearly indicate that animals
and fungi have a common ancestor not
shared with plants (or other bikonts)
or Amoebozoa (Baldauf and Palmer 1993;
Baldauf 1999). Thus opisthokonts are
now well accepted as a robust clade of
eukaryotes (Patterson 1999)."
[1] cavalier-smith diagram COPYRIGHTED
source: cavalier_jmolevol_2003_56_540-56
3.pdf
[2] Figure 1. Phylogenetic hypothesis
of the eukaryotic lineage based on
ultrastructural and molecular data.
Organisms are divided into three main
groups distinguished by mitochondrial
cristal shape (either discoidal,
flattened or tubular). Unbroken lines
indicate phylogenetic relationships
that are firmly supported by available
data; broken lines indicate
uncertainties in phylogenetic
placement, resolution of which will
require additional data. Color coding
of organismal genus names indicates
mitochondrial genomes that have been
completely (Table 1), almost completely
(Jakoba, Naegleria and
Thraustochytrium) or partially (*)
sequenced by the OGMP (red), the FMGP
(black) or other groups (green). Names
in blue indicate those species whose
mtDNAs are currently being sequenced by
the OGMP or are future candidates for
complete sequencing. Amitochondriate
retortamonads are positioned at the
base of the tree, with broken arrows
denoting the endosymbiotic origin(s) of
mitochondria from a Rickettsia-like
eubacterium. Macrophar.,
Macropharyngomonas.
source: unknown
evolve now.
Ribosomal RNA shows the Protist
Phylum Amoebozoa (also called
Ramicristates) which includes amoeba
and slime molds evolving now.
The Amoebozoa are a major group of
amoeboid protozoa, including the
majority that move by means of internal
cytoplasmic flow. Their pseudopodia are
characteristically blunt and
finger-like, called lobopodia. Most are
unicellular, and are common in soils
and aquatic habitats, with some found
as symbiotes of other organisms,
including several pathogens. The
Amoebozoa also include the slime
moulds, multinucleate or multicellular
forms that produce spores and are
usually visible to the unaided eye.
Mycetozoa are the slime molds.
4. Plasmodial
Slime Molds
a. Plasmodial
slime molds exist as a plasmodium. (the
earlier evolved acrasid cellular slime
molds exist as individual amoeboid
cells.)
b. This diploid
multinucleated cytoplasmic mass creeps
along, phagocytizing decaying plant
material.
c. Fan-shaped plasmodium
contains tubules of concentrated
cytoplasm in which liquefied cytoplasm
streams.
d. Under unfavorable
environmental conditions (e.g.,
drought), the plasmodium develops many
sporangia
that produce spores by
meiosis.
e. When mature, spores are
released and survive until more
favorable environmental conditions
return;
then each releases a
haploid flagellated cell or an amoeboid
cell.
f. Two flagellated or
amoeboid cells fuse to form diploid
zygote that produces a multi-nucleated
plasmodium.
Nuclear division in giant amoebas
(Peolobiont/Amoebozoa) is neither
mitosis nor binary fission, but
incorporates aspects of both (Fig.
3-7). Chromosomes are attached
permanently to the nuclear membrane by
their centromeres (MTOCs, microtubule
organizing centers), and the nuclear
membrane remains intact throughout
division. After DNA duplication
produces two chromatids, the point of
attachment, the MTOC duplicates or
divides, and microtubules are assembled
between the two resulting MTOCs.
Elongating microtubules form something
akin to a spindle within the nuclear
membrane that pushes the daughter
chromosomes apart and elongate the
membrane-bounded nucleus until it blebs
in half in something akin to binary
fission. Simple assembly of
microtubules accomplishes the
separation of daughter genomes in this
simple nuclear division. In typical
eukaryotic mitosis, the separation of
daughter chromosomes is accomplished by
a dual action, the disassembly of
spindle fibers connecting the daughter
chromosome to the polar MTOC, and
assembly of spindle fibers running pole
to pole.
amoeba haplodiploid?
Thomas Cavalier-Smith and Ema
E. -Y. Chao write: "Amoebozoa are a key
protozoan phylum because of the
possibility that they are ancestrally
uniciliate and unicentriolar
(Cavalier-Smith 2000a,b); present data
on the DHFR-TS gene fusion leaves open
the possibility that they might be the
earliest-diverging eukaryotes
(Stechmann and Cavalier-Smith 2002),
but they may be evolutionarily closer
to bikonts or even opisthokonts.
Amoebozoa comprise two subphyla
(Cavalier-Smith 1998a): Lobosa,
classical aerobic amoebae with broad
("lobose") pseudopods (including the
testate Arcellinida), and Conosa (slime
molds {Mycetozoa, e.g., Dictyostelium}
and amitochondrial-often
uniciliate-archamaebae {entamoebae,
mastigamoebae}). Contrary to early
analyses (Sogin 1991; Cavalier-Smith
1993a), there is no reason to regard
Amoebozoa as polyphyletic; the defects
of those classical uncorrected rRNA
trees are shown by trees using 123
proteins that robustly establish the
monophyly of both Archamoebae and
Conosa (Bapteste et al. 2002). Unless
the tree's root is within Conosa,
Dictyostelium and Entamoeba must have
evolved independently from aerobic
flagellates by ciliary losses. A recent
mitochondrial gene tree based on
concatenating six different proteins
grouped Dictyostelium with Physarum
(99% support) and both Mycetozoa as
sisters to Acanthamoeba (99% support),
thus providing strong evidence for the
monophyly of Mycetozoa and the grouping
of Lobosa and Conosa as Amoebozoa
(Forget et al. 2002)-the same tree also
strongly supports the idea based on
morphology that Allomyces should be
excluded from Chytridiomycetes (in the
separate class Allomycetes) and is
phylogenetically closer to zygomycetes
and higher fungi (Cavalier-Smith 1998a,
2000c). Furthermore, the derived gene
fusion between two cytochrome oxidase
genes, coxI and coxII (Lang et al.
1999), strongly supports the holophyly
of Mycetozoa. Since Archamoebae
secondarily lost mitochondria, the root
cannot lie among them either-although
anaerobiosis in Archamoebae is derived,
it is unjustified to conclude from this
that their simple ciliary root
organization, which was a key reason
for considering them early eukaryotes
(Cavalier-Smith 1991c), is also
secondarily derived (Edgcomb et al.
2002). Thus the root of the eukaryote
tree cannot lie within the Conosa.
As Mycetozoa and Archamoebae have very
long-branch rRNA sequences, Conosa were
excluded from the analysis in Fig. 1,
which includes only Lobosa. Although
the monophyly of Acanthamoebida (99%)
and of Euamoebida (85%) is well
supported, the basal branching of the
Lobosa is so poorly resolved that the
monophyly of Lobosa might appear open
to question. The four lobosan lineages
apparently diverged early. However, in
the 279- and 227-species trees, which
included Conosa, anaeromonads did not
intrude into the Amoebozoa as they do
in Fig. 1, and Amoebozoa were
monophyletic (low support) except for
the exclusion of M. invertens. M.
invertens is another wandering branch,
which in some taxon sample/methods
groups very weakly with other
Amoebozoa, but more often ends up in a
different place in each tree! We concur
with the judgment of Milyutina et al.
(2001)Edgcomb et al. (2002) that it
should not be regarded as a pelobiont
or Archamoeba, but as a lobosan that
independently became an anaerobe with
degenerate mitochondria. Its tendency
to drift around the tree, coupled with
its short branch, suggests that it may
be a particularly early-diverging
amoebozoan lineage. If so, its
unicentriolar condition would give
added support to the idea that
Amoebozoa are ancestrally uniciliate,
if it could be shown that Amoebozoa are
either holophyletic or not at the base
of the tree.
Most, if not all, amoebae evolved from
amoeboid zooflagellates by multiple
ciliary losses (Cavalier-Smith 2000a).
As the uniciliate condition is
widespread within Amoebozoa
(Cavalier-Smith 2000a, 2002b), it may
be their ancestral condition; if so,
ordinary nonciliate amoebozoan amoebae
arose several times independently.
Evolution of amoebae from
zooflagellates by ciliary loss also
occurred separately in Choanozoa to
produce Nuclearia and in several bikont
groups, notably Percolozoa
(heterolobosean amoebae, e.g.,
Vahlkampfia) and Cercozoa. However, we
cannot currently exclude the
possibility that the eukaryote tree is
rooted within the lobosan Amoebozoa, in
which case one of its nonciliate
lineages (Euamoebida or Vanellidae)
might be primitively nonciliate and the
earliest-diverging eukaryotic lineage.
However, as the idea that the nucleus
and a single centriole and cilium
coevolved in the ancestral eukaryote
(Cavalier-Smith 1987a) retains its
theoretical merits, we think it more
likely that all Amoebozoa are derived
from a uniciliate ancestor and that
crown Amoebozoa are a clade."
Amoebozoa vary greatly in size. Many
are only 10-20 μm in size, but
they also include many of the larger
protozoa. The famous species Amoeba
proteus may reach 800 μm in
length, and partly on account of its
size is often studied as a
representative cell. Multinucleate
amoebae like Chaos and Pelomyxa may be
several millimetres in length, and some
slime moulds cover several square feet.
The cell is typically divided into a
granular central mass, called
endoplasm, and a clear outer layer,
called ectoplasm. During locomotion the
endoplasm flows forwards and the
ectoplasm runs backwards along the
outside of the cell. Many amoebae move
with a definite anterior and posterior;
in essence the cell functions as a
single pseudopod. They usually produce
numerous clear projections called
subpseudopodia (or determinate
pseudopodia), which have a defined
length and are not directly involved in
locomotion.
Other amoebozoans may form multiple
indeterminate pseudopodia, which are
more or less tubular and are mostly
filled with granular endoplasm. The
cell mass flows into a leading
pseudopod, and the others ultimately
retract unless it changes direction.
Subpseudopodia are usually absent. In
addition to a few naked forms like
Amoeba and Chaos, this includes most
amoebae that produce shells. These may
be composed of organic materials, as in
Arcella, or of collected particles
cemented together, as in Difflugia,
with a single opening through which the
pseudopodia emerge.
The primary mode of nutrition is by
phagocytosis: the cell surrounds
potential food particles, sealing them
into vacuoles where the may be digested
and absorbed. Some amoebae have a
posterior bulb called a uroid, which
may serve to accumulate waste,
periodically detaching from the rest of
the cell. When food is scarce, most
species can form cysts, which may be
carried aerially and introduce them to
new environments. In slime moulds,
these structures are called spores, and
form on stalked structures called
fruiting bodies or sporangia.
Most Amoebozoa lack flagella and more
generally do not form
microtubule-supported structures except
during mitosis. However, flagella occur
among the pelobionts, and many slime
moulds produce biflagellate gametes.
The flagella is generally anchored by a
cone of microtubules, suggesting a
close relationship to the opisthokonts.
The mitochondria characteristically
have branching tubular cristae, but
have been lost among pelobionts and the
parasitic entamoebids, collectively
referred to as archamoebae based on the
earlier assumption that the absence was
primitive.
Traditionally all amoebae with lobose
pseudopods were treated together as the
Lobosea, placed with other amoeboids in
the phylum Sarcodina or Rhizopoda, but
these were considered to be unnatural
groups. Structural and genetic studies
identified several independent groups:
the percolozoans, pelobionts, and
entamoebids. In phylogenies based on
rRNA their representatives were
separate from other amoebae, and
appeared to diverge near the base of
eukaryotic evolution, as did most slime
molds.
However, revised trees by
Cavalier-Smith and Chao in 1996
suggested that the remaining lobosans
do form a monophyletic group, and that
the archamoebae and Mycetozoa are
closely related to it, although the
percolozoans are not. Subsequently they
emended (to improve by editing) the
older phylum Amoebozoa to refer to this
supergroup. Studies based on other
genes have provided strong support for
the unity of this group. Patterson
treated most with the testate filose
amoebae as the ramicristates, based on
mitochondrial similarities, but the
latter are now removed to the Cercozoa.
Amoebae are difficult to classify, and
relationships within the phylum remain
confused. Originally it was divided
into the subphyla Conosa, comprising
the archamoebae and Mycetozoa, and
Lobosa, including the more typical
lobose amoebae. Molecular phylogenies
provide some support for this division
if the Lobosa are understood to be
paraphyletic. They also suggest the
morphological families of naked
lobosans may correspond at least partly
to natural groups:
* Leptomyxida
* Amoebidae
* Hartmannellidae
* Paramoebidae
*
Vannellidae
* Vexilliferidae
* Acanthamoebidae
* Stereomyxidae
However, many amoebae have not yet been
studied via molecular techniques,
including all those that produce shells
(Arcellinida).
PHYLUM Amoebozoa (Lühe, 1913 emend.)
Cavalier-Smith, 1998
CLASS
Breviatea
CLASS Variosea
CLASS Phalansterea (T. Cavalier-Smith,
2000)
SUBPHYLUM Lobosa (Carpenter,
1861) Cavalier-Smith, 1997 (lobose
amoebas)
CLASS Amoebaea
CLASS
Testacealobosea (includes shelled
lobosid amebas {testate amoebas})
CLASS
Holomastigea T. Cavalier-Smith, 1997
("1996-1997")
SUBPHYLUM Conosa
(Cavalier-Smith, 1998)
INTRAPHYLUM
Mycetozoa (De Bary, 1859)
Cavalier-Smith, 1998 (Slime Molds)
SUPERCLASS Eumyxa (Cavalier-Smith,
1993) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
CLASS
Protostelea (C.J. Alexopoulos & C.W.
Mims, 1979 orthog. emend.)
CLASS Myxogastrea (E.M. Fries, 1829
stat. nov. J. Feltgen, 1889 orthog.
emend.) (plasmodial slime molds)
SUPERCLASS Dictyostelia (Lister, 1909)
Cavalier-Smith, 1998
CLASS
Dictyostelea™ (D.L. Hawksworth et
al., 1983, orthog. emend.)
INTRAPHYLUM Archamoebae
(Cavalier-Smith, 1983) Cavalier-Smith,
1998
CLASS Pelobiontea (F.C. Page,
1976 stat. nov. T. Cavalier-Smith,
1981)
CLASS Entamoebea (T.
Cavalier-Smith, 1991)
SUBPHYLUM Lobosa
SUBPHYLUM Conosa
The Conosea unifies amoebae
which usually possess flagellate stages
or are amoeboflagellates. This clade
consists of two relatively solid groups
� the Mycetozoa and Archamoebae,
grouped by Cavalier-Smith (1998) in the
taxon Conosa, as well as a number of
independent lineages, including two
flagellates � Phalansterium
(Cavalier-Smith et al. 2004) and
Multicilia (Nikolaev et al. 2004), and
two gymnamoebae � Gephyramoeba
and Filamoeba (Amaral Zettler et al.
2000). Because of large variations of
the substitution rates in SSU rRNA
genes within this clade, its internal
relationships are not resolved yet.
The Mycetozoa comprises two distinct
groups of �slime molds�
� the Myxogastria and
Protostelia (Dykstra and Keller 2000).
This is a well-defined group of
protists, characterized by the ability
to form so-called �fruiting
bodies�. In some lineages of
Mycetozoa the fruiting body is raised
over the substratum on a distinct
stalk. Both groups possess complex life
cycles including an aggregation of
cells, however the essential difference
between them is that in Protostelia,
only a pseudoplasmodium is formed
(without fusion of the cells
constituting the aggregate), while in
Myxogastria a true plasmodium is formed
(the cells completely fuse, forming a
single organism) (Olive 1975; Dykstra
and Keller 2000). The monophyly of
Mycetozoa was proposed based on
elongation factor 1-alpha gene
sequences (Baldauf and Doolittle 1997)
but it is not always recovered in SSU
rRNA trees (Cavalier-Smith et al. 2004;
Nikolaev et al. 2004).
The Archamoebae comprise amoeboid and
amoeboflagellate protists characterized
by a secondary absence of mitochondria
(mostly due to parasitism or life in
anoxic environments). This group
includes the free-living genera
Mastigamoeba, Mastigella, and Pelomyxa
(the pelobionts) and the parasitic
genera Entamoeba and Endolimax (the
entamoebids). The consistent grouping
of all these amitochondriate amoeboid
organisms in both SSU rRNA and actin
gene phylogenies (Fahrni et al. 2003)
suggests a single loss of the
mitochondria during the evolution of
Amoebozoa.
CLASS Amoebaea
ORDER Euamoebida Lepsi, 1960
FAMILY Amoebidae (Ehrenberg 1838)
The
Amoebidae are a family of amoebozoa,
including naked amoebae that produce
multiple pseudopodia of indeterminate
length. These are roughly cylindrical
in form, with a central stream of
granular endoplasm, and do not have
subpseudopodia. During locomotion one
pseudopod typically becomes dominant,
and the others are retracted as the
body flows into it. In some cases the
cell moves by "walking", with the
relatively permanent pseudopodia
serving as limbs.
The most important genera are Amoeba
and Chaos, which are set apart from the
others by longitudinal ridges. They
group together on molecular trees,
suggesting the Amoebidae are a natural
group. Shelled amoebozoans have not
been studied molecularly but produce
very similar pseudopodia, so although
they are traditionally classified
separately they may be closely related
to this group.
GENUS Amoeba (Bery de St. Vincent 1822)
Amoeba (also spelled ameba) is a genus
of protozoa that moves by means of
temporary projections called
pseudopods, and is well-known as a
representative unicellular organism.
The word amoeba is variously used to
refer to it and its close relatives,
now grouped as the Amoebozoa, or to all
protozoa that move using pseudopods,
otherwise termed amoeboids.
Amoeba itself is found in freshwater,
typically on decaying vegetation from
streams, but is not especially common
in nature. However, because of the ease
with which they may be obtained and
kept in the lab, they are common
objects of study, both as
representative protozoa and to
demonstrate cell structure and
function. The cells have several lobose
pseudopods, with one large tubular
pseudopod at the anterior and several
secondary ones branching to the sides.
The most famous species, Amoeba
proteus, is 700-800 μm in length,
but many others are much smaller. Each
has a single nucleus, and a simple
contractile vacuole which maintains its
osmotic pressure, as its most
recognizable features.
Early naturalists referred to Amoeba as
the Proteus animalcule, after a Greek
god who could change his shape. The
name "amibe" was given to it by Bery
St. Vincent, from the Greek amoibe,
meaning change.
A good method of collecting amoeba is
to lower a jar upside down until it is
just above the sediment surface. Then
one should slowly let the air escape so
the top layer will be sucked into the
jar. Deeper sediment should not be
allowed to get sucked in. It is
possible to slowly move the jar when
tilting it to collect from a larger
area. If no amoeba are found, one can
try introducing some rice grains into
the jar and waiting for them to start
to rot. The bacteria eating the rice
will be eaten by the amoeba, thus
increasing the population and making
them easier to find.
Family Hartmannellidae (Volkonsky
1931)
The Hartmannellidae are a common family
of amoebozoa, usually found in soils.
When active they tend to be roughly
cylindrical in shape, with a single
leading pseudopod and no
subpseudopodia. This form somewhat
resembles a slug, and as such they are
also called limax amoebae. Trees based
on rRNA show the Hartmannellidae are
paraphyletic to the Amoebidae and
Leptomyxida, which may adopt similar
forms.
FAMILY Vannellidae (Bovee 1970)
The
Vannellidae are a distinctive family of
amoebozoa. During locomotion they tend
to be flattened and fan-shaped,
although some are long and narrow, and
have a prominent clear margin at the
anterior. In most amoebae, the
endoplasm glides forwards through the
center of the cell, but in vannellids
the cell undergoes a sort of rolling
motion, with the outer membrane sliding
around like a tank tread.
These amoebae are usually 10-40 μm
in size, but some are smaller or
larger. The most common genus is
Vannella, found mainly in soils, but
also in freshwater and marine habitats.
Trees based on rRNA support the
monophyly of the family.
SUBPHYLUM Conosa Cavalier-Smith, 1998
INTRAPHYLUM Archamoebae
(Cavalier-Smith, 1983) Cavalier-Smith,
1998
CLASS Pelobiontea F.C. Page, 1976
stat. nov. T. Cavalier-Smith, 1981
ORDER Pelobiontida (Page 1976)
The pelobionts
are a small group of amoebozoa. The
most notable member is Pelomyxa, a
giant amoeba with multiple nuclei and
inconspicuous non-motile flagella. The
other genera, called mastigamoebae, are
often uninucleate, have a single
anterior flagellum used in swimming,
and produce numerous determinate
pseudopodia.
Pelobionts are closely related to the
entamoebids and like them have no
mitochondria; in addition, pelobionts
also do not have dictyosomes. At one
point these absences were considered
primitive. However, molecular trees
place the two groups with other lobose
amoebae in the phylum Amoebozoa, so
these are secondary losses.
SUBPHYLUM Conosa Cavalier-Smith, 1998
INTRAPHYLUM Archamoebae
(Cavalier-Smith, 1983) Cavalier-Smith,
1998
CLASS Entamoebea T. Cavalier-Smith,
1991
The entamoebids or entamoebae are a
group of amoebozoa found as internal
parasites or commensals of animals. The
cells are uninucleate small, typically
10-100 μm across, and usually have
a single lobose pseudopod taking the
form of a clear anterior bulge. There
are two major genera, Entamoeba and
Endolimax. They include several species
that are pathogenic in humans, most
notably Entamoeba histolytica, which
causes amoebic dysentery.
Entamoebids lack mitochondria. This is
a secondary loss, possibly associated
with their parasitic life-cycle.
Studies show they are close relatives
of the pelobionts, another group of
amitochondriate amoebae, but unlike
them entamoebids retain dictyosomes.
Both groups are now placed alongside
other lobose amoebae in the phylum
Amoebozoa.
Studying Entamoeba invadens, David
Biron of the Weizmann Institute of
Science and coworkers found that about
one third of the cells are unable to
separate unaided and recruit a
neighboring amoeba (dubbed the
"midwife") to complete the fission. He
writes:
"When an amoeba divides, the two
daughter cells stay attached by a
tubular tether which remains intact
unless mechanically severed. If called
upon, the neighbouring amoeba midwife
travels up to 200 μm towards the
dividing amoeba, usually advancing in a
straight trajectory with an average
velocity of about 0.5 μm/s. The
midwife then proceeds to rupture the
connection, after which all three
amoebae move on."
They also reported a similar behavior
in Dictyostelium.
Entamoeba coli is a non-pathogenic
species of entamoebid that is important
clinically in humans only because it
can be confused with Entamoeba
histolytica, which is pathogenic, on
microscopic examination of stained
stool specimens. A simple finding of
Entamoeba coli trophozoites or cysts in
a stool specimen requires no treatment.
Entamoeba histolytica is an anaerobic
parasitic protozoan, classified as an
entamoebid. It infects predominantly
humans and other primates. Diverse
mammals such as dogs and cats can
become infected but usually do not shed
cysts (the environmental survival form
of the organism) with their feces, thus
do not contribute significantly to
transmission. The active (trophozoite)
stage exists only in the host and in
fresh feces; cysts survive outside the
host in water and soils and on foods,
especially under moist conditions on
the latter. When swallowed they cause
infections by excysting (to the
trophozoite stage) in the digestive
tract.
Endolimax nana, a small entamoebid that
is a commensal of the human intestine,
causes no known disease. It is most
significant in medicine because it can
provide false positives for other
tests, such as for the related species
Entamoeba histolytica which causes
amoebic dysentery, and because its
presence indicates that the host once
consumed feces. It forms cysts with
four nuclei which excyst in the body
and become trophozoites. Endolimax nana
nuclei have a large endosome somewhat
off-center and small amounts of visible
chromatin or none at all.
Actinopod reproduction may involve
binary fission or the formation of
swarmer cells, and sexual processes
occur in some groups. Their
mitochondrial cristae are usually
tubular, but in some groups there are
vesicular or flattened, plate-like
cristae.
[1] SUBPHYLUM Lobosa CLASS Amoebaea
Chaos diffluens, an amoeba. Photo
released by Dr. Ralf Wagner.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Chaos_diffluens.jpg
[2] CLASS Amoebaea Mayorella
(may-or -ell-a) a medium sized
free-living naked amoeba with conical
pseudopodia. Central body is the
nucleus. Phase contrast. This picture
was taken by David Patterson of
material from Limulus-ridden sediments
at Plum Island (Massachusetts USA) in
spring and summer, 2001. NONCOMMERCIAL
USE
source: http://microscope.mbl.edu/script
s/microscope.php?func=imgDetail&imageID=
515
Phlya Chlorophyta (volvox, sea lettuce)
and Charophyta (Spirogyra) evolve.
Gene
tic comparison shows Green Algae,
composed of the 2 Phlya Chlorophyta
(volvox, sea lettuce) and Charophyta
(Spirogyra) evolving now.
The Green Algae are the large group of
algae from which the embryophytes
(higher plants) emerged. As such they
form a paraphyletic group, some people
placing them in the Plantae Kingdom,
while others placing them in the
Protist Kingdom.
Almost all forms have chloroplasts.
They are bound by a double membrane, so
presumably were acquired by direct
endosymbiosis of cyanobacteria.
All green algae have mitochondria with
flat cristae. When present flagella are
typically anchored by a cross-shaped
system of microtubules, but these are
absent among the higher plants and
charophytes. They usually have cell
walls containing cellulose, and undergo
open mitosis without centrioles. Sexual
reproduction varies from fusion of
identical cells (isogamy) to
fertilization of a large non-motile
cell by a smaller motile one (oogamy).
However, these traits show some
variation, most notably among the basal
green algae, called prasinophytes.
The first land plants most likely
evolved from green algae.
Here is where the green algae separate
from the ancestor of the first land
plants.
Spirogyra reproduce through
conjugation, which either was inherited
from prokaryotes or evolved a second
time in eukaryotes.
Some filamentous green algae (e.g.
cladophora) are haplodiploid (alternate
between haploid and diploid cycles that
both have mitosis).
1. Phylum Chlorophyta (green
algae) contains about 7,000 species.
2.
Most live in the ocean but are more
likely found in fresh water; they can
even be found on moist land.
3. Green
algae are believed to be closely
related to the first plants because
both of these groups
a. have a
cell wall that contains cellulose,
b.
possess chlorophylls a and b, and
c. store reserve food as starch
inside of the chloroplast.
4. Green algae
are not always green; some have
pigments that give them an orange, red,
or rust color.
5. Body organizations
include single cells, colonies,
filaments and multicellular forms.
C. Flagellated Green Algae
1.
Chlamydomonas is a unicellular green
alga less than 25 cm long. (Fig. 30.3)
2. It has a cell wall and a single,
large, cup-shaped chloroplast with a
pyrenoid for starch synthesis.
3. The
chloroplast contains a light-sensitive
eyespot (stigma) that directs the cell
to light for photosynthesis.
4. Two long
whip-like flagella project from the
anterior end to propel the cell toward
light.
5. When growth conditions are
favorable, Chlamydomonas reproduces
asexually with zoospores.
6. When growth
conditions are unfavorable,
Chlamydomonas reproduces sexually.
a.
Gametes from two different mating types
join to form a zygote.
b. A heavy
wall forms around the zygote; a
resistant zygospores survives until
conditions are favorable.
c. Some are
heterogametes similar to sperm and egg
that stores food, a condition called
oogamy.
d. In most, gametes are
identical, a condition called isogamy.
D. Filamentous Green Algae
1.
Cell division in one plane produces
end-to-end chains of cells or
filaments.
2. Spirogyra is a filamentous
algae found on surfaces of ponds and
streams.
a. It has ribbon-like
spiral chloroplasts. (Fig. 30.4)
b. Two strands may unite in conjugation
and exchange genetic material, forming
a diploid zygote.
c. The zygotes
withstand winter; in spring they
undergo meiosis to produce haploid
filaments.
3. Oedogonium is another
filamentous algae.
a. It has
cylindrical cells with netlike
chloroplasts.
b. During sexual
reproduction, there is a definite egg
and sperm.
E. Multicellular Green Algae
1.
Multicellular Ulva is called sea
lettuce because of its leafy
appearance. (Fig. 30.5)
2. The
thallus (body) is two cells thick but
can be a meter long.
3. Ulva has an
alternation of generations life cycle,
as do plants, but the generations look
alike.
4. The gametes look alike
(isogametes) and the spores are
flagellated.
5. In true plants, one
generation is dominant, sperm and eggs
are produced, and spores lack flagella.
F. Colonial Green Algae
1. Volvox
is a hollow sphere with thousands of
cells arranged in a single layer. (Fig.
30.6)
2. Volvox cells resembles
Chlamydomonas cells; a colony arises as
if daughter cells fail to separate.
3.
Volvox cells cooperate when flagella
beat in a coordinated fashion.
4. Some
cells are specialized forming a new
daughter colony within the parental
colony.
5. Daughter colonies are inside
a parent colony until an enzyme
dissolves part of a wall so it can
escape.
6. Sexual reproduction involves
oogamy
Order Chlorococcales, probably includes
the first coccoidal green algae,
probably even the earliest eukaryotes,
but unequivocal indentification in the
Precambrien is unlikely to be achived.
Spirogyra reproduce through
conjugation, which either was inherited
from prokaryotes or evolved a second
time in eukaryotes. If inherited from
prokaryotes, then spirogrya would be
very old although the fossil record and
Ribosomal RNA put them late compared to
other algae.
[1] Micrograph of Volvox aureus.
Copyright held by Dr. Ralf Wagner,
uploaded to German Wikipedia under
GFDL. Permission is granted to copy,
distribute and/or modify this document
under the terms of the GNU Free
Documentation License, Version 1.2 or
any later version published by the Free
Software Foundation; with no Invariant
Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no
Back-Cover Texts. Subject to
disclaimers.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vol
vox
[2] Photo of green algal growth
(Enteromorpha sp.) on rocky areas of
the ocean intertidal shore, indicating
a nearby nutrient source (in this case
land runoff). Photographed by Eric
Guinther near Kahuku, O'ahu,
Hawai'i. GFDL Permission is granted
to copy, distribute and/or modify this
document under the terms of the GNU
Free Documentation License, Version 1.2
or any later version published by the
Free Software Foundation; with no
Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover
Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts Subject
to disclaimers
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Intertidal_greenalgae.jpg
Gene
tic comparison show Phylum Rhodophyta
(red algae) evolves now.
There are between 2500 and 6000 species
in about 670 largely marine genera.
Many red algae are haplodiploid
(alternate between haploid and diploid
cycles that both have mitosis).
The red algae (Rhodophyta) are a large
group of mostly multicellular, marine
algae, including many notable seaweeds.
Most of the coralline algae, which
secrete calcium carbonate and play a
major role in building coral reefs,
belong here. Red algae such as dulse
and nori are a traditional part of
European and Asian cuisine and are used
to make certain other products like
agar and food additives.
Many red algae have multicellular
stages but these lack differentiated
tissues and organs. Unlike most other
algae, no cells with a flagellum are
found in any member of the group.
Unicellular forms typically live
attached to surfaces rather than
floating among the plankton, and both
the larger female and smaller male
gametes are non-motile, so that most
have a low chance of fertilization.
They have cell walls are made out of
cellulose and thick gelatinous
polysaccharides, which are the basis
for most of the industrial products
made from red algae.
The chloroplasts of red algae are bound
by a double membrane, like those of
green plants; both groups
(Archaeplastida) probably share a
common origin. Their plastids formed by
direct endosymbiosis of a
cyanobacteria, and in red algae are
pigmented with chlorophyll a and
various proteins called phycobilins,
which are responsible for their reddish
color. Other algae that lack
chlorophyll b appear to have acquired
their chloroplasts from red algae,
although their pigmentations are
somewhat different.
unicellular to multicellular (up to 1
m) mostly free-living but some
parasitic or symbiotic, with
chloroplasts containing phycobilins.
Cell walls made of cellulose with
mucopolysaccharides penetrated in many
red algae by pores partially blocked by
proteins (complex referred to as pit
connections). Usually with separated
phases of vegetative growth and sexual
reproduction. Common and widespread,
ecologically important, economically
important (source of agar). No
flagella. Ultrastructural identity:
Mitochondria with flat cristae,
sometimes associated with forming faces
of dictyosomes. Thylakoids single, with
phycobilisomes, plastids with
peripheral thylakoid. During mitosis,
nuclear envelope mostly remains intact
but some microtubules of spindle extend
from noncentriolar polar bodies through
polar gaps in the nuclear envelope.
Synapomorphy: No clear-cut feature
available; possibly pit connections
Composition: About 4,000 species.
CLASS Florideophyceae
CLASS Bangiophyceae
CLASS Rhodellophyceae
DOMAIN Eukaryota -
eukaryotes
KINGDOM Plantae Haeckel, 1866 -
plants
SUBKINGDOM Biliphyta
Cavalier-Smith, 1981
PHYLUM Rhodophyta
Wettstein, 1922 - red algae
SUBPHYLUM Rhodellophytina
Cavalier-Smith, 1998
CLASS
Rhodellophyceae™ Cavalier-Smith, 1998
SUBPHYLUM Macrorhodophytina
Cavalier-Smith, 1998
CLASS
Bangiophyceae
CLASS Florideophyceae
There is a debate as to if Rhodophyta
are plants or protists.
1. Red algae (phylum
Rhodophyta) are chiefly marine
multicellular algae that live in warmer
seawater.
2. They are generally much
smaller and more delicate that brown
algae.
3. Some are filamentous, but
most are branched, having a feathery,
flat, or ribbon-like appearance. (Fig.
30.7)
4. Coralline algae are red
algae with cell walls with calcium
carbonate; they contribute to coral
reefs.
5. Sexual reproduction involves
oogamy but the sperm are
non-flagellated.
6. Their chloroplasts resemble
cyanobacteria by containing chlorophyll
a and the pigment phycobilin.
7. The food
reserve (floridean starch) resembles
glycogen.
8. Like brown algae, red algae
are economically important.
a.
Mucilaginous material in cell walls is
source of agar used in drug capsules,
dental impressions, cosmetics.
b. In
the laboratory, agar is a major
microbiological media, and when
purified, is a gel for
electrophoresis.
c. Agar is used in food
preparation to keep baked goods from
drying and to set jellies and desserts.
The taxonomy of the algae is still in a
state of flux.
[1] Close-up of a red alga (Genus?
Laurencia), Class Florideophyceae,
Order=? a marine seaweed from Hawaii.
GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Laurencia.jpg
[2] Bangia atropurpurea Profile:
unbranched filaments in tufts. Often
forming dense fringes in the spalsh
zone. Uniseriate at base, multiseriate
above with protoplasts separate in a
firm gelatinous sheath. Stellate
chloroplasts. US NOAA PD
source: http://www.glerl.noaa.gov/seagra
nt/GLWL/Algae/Rhodophyta/Cards/Bangia.ht
ml
is enslaved by a chromealveolate
eukaryote to form a plastid in the
chromealveolate. This kind of plastid
is presumably inherited by all other
chromalveolates (brown algae, diatoms,
water molds, Dinoflagellata,
Apicomplexa, ciliates) that have
plastids.
If this red alga endosymbiosis occured
only once, then all chromalveolates
with plastids inherited them and all
without lost them. Ciliates presumably
lost any inherited plastids.
(red algae) fossils (Bangiomorpha
pubescens) from Hunting Formation,
Somerset Island, arctic Canada.
This
is the oldest multicellular eukaryote
fossil and the oldest fossil of a
sexual species found yet.
[1] get images from Life on a Young
Planet, Knoll
source: Science 1990 vol 250
Butterfield N. J. A. H. Knoll K. Swett
1990 A bangiophyte red alga from the
Proterozoic of Arctic Canada. Science
250: 104-107[ISI][Medline]
[2] Figure 2. Griffithsia pacifica
(Florideophyceae). Electron micrograph
showing cytoplasm with numerous
chloroplasts (C) and starch (S). Starch
is the photosynthetic reserve and is
deposited free in the cytoplasm.
source: (American Journal of Botany.
2004;91:1494-1507.)
shows the protist and plant line
separating here at 1,230 mybn (first
plant).
"Microsporidia" evolves.
Ribosomal RNA shows
most ancient living fungi phylum
"Microsporidia" evolving now.
Microsporidia are parasites of animals,
now considered to be extremely reduced
fungi. Most infect insects, but they
are also responsible for common
diseases of crustaceans and fish, and
have been found in most other animal
groups, including humans and other
mammals which can be parasitized by
species of Encephalitozoon. Replication
takes place within the host's cells,
which are infected by means of
unicellular spores. These vary from
1-40 μm, making them some of the
smallest eukaryotes. They also have the
shortest eukaryotic genomes.
Microsporidia are unusual in lacking
mitochondria, and also lack motile
structures such as flagella. The spores
are protected by a layered wall
including proteins and chitin. Their
interior is dominated by a unique
coiled structure called a polar tube
(not to be confused with the polar
filaments of Myxozoa). In most cases
there are two closely associated
nuclei, forming a diplokaryon, but
sometimes there is only one.
Intracellular parasites, no
mitochondria, ribosomes are unusual in
being of prokaryotic size (70S) and
lacking characteristic eukaryotic 5.8S
ribosomal RNA as a separate molecule in
the microsporidia but is incorporated
into the 23S r RNA.
binucleate haploid?
During infection, the polar
tube penetrates the host cell (the
process has been compared by Patrick J.
Keeling to "turning a garden hose
inside out"), and the contents of the
spore are pumped through it. Keeling
likens the system to a combination of
"harpoon and hypodermic syringe",
adding that it is "one of the most
sophisticated infection mechanisms in
biology".
Once inside the host cell, the
sporoplasm grows, dividing or forming a
multinucleate plasmodium before
producing new spores. The
plasmodium divides by merogony to
produce merozoites that enter other
host cells, to repeat merogony, or to
undergo sporogony. The latter
parasites divide by binary fission to
produce numerous sporoblasts which
develop into spores.
The life cycle varies considerably.
Some have a simple asexual life cycle,
while others have a complex life cycle
involving multiple hosts and both
asexual and sexual reproduction.
Different types of spores may be
produced at different stages, probably
with different functions including
autoinfection (transmission within a
single host). The Microsporidia often
cause chronic, debilitating diseases
rather than lethal infections. Effects
on the host include reduced longevity,
fertility, weight, and general vigor.
Vertical transmission of microsporidia
is frequently reported.
Because they are unicellular,
Microsporidia were traditionally
treated as protozoa, and like other
amitochondriate eukaryotes were
considered to have diverged very early
on. However, other genes place them
alongside or within the Fungi, and this
is supported by several chemical and
morphological features. In particular
they appear to be allied with the
Zygomycota or Ascomycota.
Comparison of tubulin gene sequences
suggest that they are related to fungi;
hosts include most invertebrate phyla;
all classes of vertebrates, the
greatest number of species being known
from arthropods and fish; with growing
and dividing stages (meronts and
sporonts), and spores which are used
for transmission between hosts; meronts
with one nucleus or two closely
adhering and synchronously dividing
nuclei; with endoplasmic reticulum,
ribosomes and an atypical dictyosome
but no mitochondria, flagella, or
cytoskeletal structures; sporonts have
more abundant endoplasmic reticulum and
develop a surface coat which becomes
the outer layer of the spore wall;
spores unicellular with one or two
nuclei, a polar tube (polar filament),
the polaroplast and the posterior
vacuole; cytoplasm and nucleus (or
nuclei) become the infective agent
(sporoplasm), as it emerges from the
spore; meronts, ranging from small
rounded cells to plasmodia or
ribbon-like formations, divide
repeatedly by binary fission,
plasmotomy or multiple fission;
merogony is followed by sporogony, in
which cells known as sporonts are
committed to spore production;
sporonts, divide into sporoblasts, the
number of which is characteristic of
the genera; sporoblasts mature into
spores; but individual life cycles are
highly variable; meiosis occurs and
this indicates that gametogenesis and
fusion of gametes must occur but this
has been recognised for only a few
species; genera with an alternation of
diplokaryotic and monokaryotic stages
can be dimorphic and heterosporous.
Genus descriptions are usually based on
the type species.
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Fungi
(Linnaeus, 1753) Nees, 1817 - fungi
PHYLUM Microsporidia (Balbiani, 1882)
Weiser, 1977
[1] Sporoblast of the Microsporidium
Fibrillanosema crangonycis. Electron
micrograph taken by Leon White. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fibrillanosema_spore.jpg
[2] Spironema
multiciliatum Spironema:
Octosporoblastic sporogony producing
horseshoe-shaped monokaryotic spores in
sporophorous vesicles; monomorphic,
diplokaryotic and monokaryotic;
merogony - last generation merozoites
are diplokaryotic; sporogony - initial
division of the sporont nuclei is
meiotic as indicated by the occurrence
of synaptonemal complexes; spores are
horse-shoe-shaped, with swollen ends in
T. variabilis and have one elongate
nucleus; exospore with three layers,
endospore is of medium thickness;
polaroplast composed of two lamellar
parts, an anterior part of closely
packed lamellae and a posterior part of
wider compartments; polar tube is
isofilar and forms, in the posterior
quarter of the spore, 3-4 coils in a
single rank (T. variabilis) or 8-10
coils in a single rank (T. chironomi);
type species Toxoglugea vibrio in
adipose tissue of larvae of Ceratopogon
sp. (Diptera, Ceratopogonidae).
Spironema (spire-oh-knee-ma)
multiciliatum Klebs, 1893. Cells are
lanceolate, relatively flattened and
flexible. The cells have a spiral
groove, long kinetics and a tail, which
tapers posteriorly, and are about 15 -
21 microns without the tail. The
nucleus is located anteriorly or near
the centre of the cell. When the cells
are squashed, the cells are more
flexible. Food materials are seen under
the cell surface. Rarely observed.
This picture was taken by Won Je Lee
using conventional photographic film
using a Zeiss Axiophot microscope of
material collected in marine sediments
of Botany Bay (Sydney, Australia). The
image description refers to material
from Botany Bay. NONCOMMERCIAL USE
source: http://microscope.mbl.edu/script
s/microscope.php?func=imgDetail&imageID=
3928
shows the plant and fungi line
separating here at 1,000 mybn (first
fungi).
evolves.
Ribosomal RNA place fungi phylum
"Chytridiomycota" evolving now.
Many chytrids are haplodiploid
(alternate between haploid and diploid
cycles that both have mitosis).
Chytridiomycota is a division of the
Fungi kingdom and contains only one
class, Chytridiomycetes. The name
refers to the chytridium (from the
Greek, chytridion, meaning "little
pot"): the structure containing
unreleased spores.
The chytrids are the
most primitive of the fungi and are
mostly saprobic (feed on dead species,
degrading chitin and keratin). Many
chytrids are aquatic (mostly found in
freshwater). There are approximately
1,000 chytrid species, in 127 genera,
distributed among 5 orders. Both
zoospores and gametes of the chytrids
are mobile by their flagella, one
whiplash per individual. The thalli are
coenocytic and usually form no true
mycelium (having rhizoids instead).
Some species are unicellular.
DOMAIN
Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Fungi (Linnaeus,
1753) Nees, 1817 - fungi
PHYLUM
Chytridiomycota
CLASS Chytridiomycetes™ (De
Bary, 1863) Sparrow, 1958
Some chytrid species are known to kill
frogs in large numbers by blocking the
frogs' respiratory skins - the
infection is referred to as
chytridomycosis. Decline in frog
populations led to the discovery of
chytridomycosis in 1998 in Australia
and Panama. Chytrids may also infect
plant species; in particular,
maize-attacking and alfalfa-attacking
species have been described.
[1] Chytrids (Chytridiomycota): The
Primitive Fungi These fungi are
mostly aquatic, are notable for having
a flagella on the cells (a flagella is
a tail, somewhat like a tail on a sperm
or a pollywog), and are thought to be
the most primitive type of
fungi. actual photo comes
from: http://www.csupomona.edu/~jcclark
/classes/bot125/resource/graphics/chy_al
l_sph.html
source: http://www.davidlnelson.md/Cazad
ero/Fungi.htm
[2] Chytridiomycota - Blastocladiales
- zoospore of Allomyces (phase contrast
illumination) X 2000
source: http://www.mycolog.com/chapter2b
.htm
(Mesomycetozoea/DRIPs,
Choanoflagellates) evolves.
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Protozoa
(Goldfuss, 1818) R. Owen, 1858 -
protozoa
SUBKINGDOM Sarcomastigota
(means=?)
PHYLUM Amoebozoa (Lühe, 1913)
Cavalier-Smith, 1998
PHYLUM Choanozoa
CLASS Choanoflagellatea
(Choanoflagellates)
CLASS Corallochytrea
CLASS
Mesomycetozoea Mendoza et al., 2001
(DRIPs)
CLASS Cristidiscoidea
(DRIPs) evolve.
The Mesomycetozoea or
DRIP clade are a small group of
protists, mostly parasites of fish and
other animals. One species,
Rhinosporidium seeberi, infects birds
and mammals, including humans. They are
not particularly distinctive
morphologically, appearing in host
tissues as enlarged spheres or ovals
containing spores, and most were
originally classified in various groups
of fungi, protozoa, and algae. However,
they form a coherent group on molecular
trees, closely related to both animals
and fungi and so of interest to
biologists studying their origins.
The name DRIP is an acronym for the
first protozoa identified as members of
the group - Dermocystidium, the rosette
agent, Ichthyophonus, and
Psorospermium. Cavalier-Smith later
treated them as the class
Ichthyosporea, since they were all
parasites of fish. Since other new
members have been added, Mendoza et al.
suggested changing the name to
Mesomycetozoea, which refers to their
evolutionary position. Note the name
Mesomycetozoa (without a second e) is
also used to refer to this group, but
Mendoza et al. use it as an alternate
name for the phylum Choanozoa.
Assemblage identified from molecular
studies, mostly pathogens, a few
genera, no synapomorphy. Grouping
formalized by Herr, Ajello, Taylor,
Arseculeratne & Mendoza, 1999.
DOMAIN
Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Protozoa
(Goldfuss, 1818) R. Owen, 1858 -
protozoa
SUBKINGDOM Sarcomastigota
(means=?)
PHYLUM Amoebozoa (Lühe, 1913)
Cavalier-Smith, 1998
PHYLUM Choanozoa
CLASS Choanoflagellatea
(Choanoflagellates)
CLASS Corallochytrea
CLASS
Mesomycetozoea Mendoza et al., 2001
(DRIPs)
CLASS Cristidiscoidea
[1] Ichthyophonus, a fungus-like
protistan that occurs in high
prevalence in Pacific Ocean perch
(Sebastes aultus) and yellowtail
rockfish (Sebastes flavedus). Note the
parasite forms branching hyphae-like
structures. Ichthyophonus hoferi has
caused massive mortalities in herring
in the Atlantic ocean, and has recently
been reported to cause disease in wild
Pacific herring from Washington through
Alaska. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://oregonstate.edu/dept/salm
on/projects/images/16Ichthyophonus.jpg
[2] Microscopic appearence of the
organism is dependent on its stage of
development. The stages include (1)
spore at ''resting'' stage, (2)
germinating spore, (3) hyphal
stage. It is believed that there are
two forms of Ichthyophonus, both
belonging to one genus. One of them is
known as the ''salmon'' form, occuring
in freshwater and cold-preferring sea
fishes: this form is characterized by
its ability to produce long tubulose
germ hyphae. The other is called the
''aquarium fish'' form, typical of the
tropical freshwater fishes. This form
is completely devoid of hyphae.
Developmental cycle of Ichthyophonus
hoferi: 1-5 - development of
''daughter'' spores, 7-11 - development
of resting spore from the ''daughter''
spore, 12-19 - development of resting
spore by fragmentation. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.fao.org/docrep/field/
003/AC160E/AC160E02.htm
a period of dramatic global change and
quickening reef evolution. The
appearance of heavily calcified
microbial elements (calcimicrobes; e.g.
Girvanella and Renalcis) in the Tonian
(1.0-0.85Ga), coincident with the
disappearance of conical elements and
decline in stromatolites, is a critical
event.
evolve in unicellular eukaryote living
objects. This is the first proto eye.
The
eye spot probably evolved from a
plastid, and plastids may have only
formed symbiotic relationships in
euglenozoa much later, since the
plastids in euglenozoa are enclosed in
3 membranes (the same as chloroplasts
in plants), they are thought to have
been formed from captured green algae
which evolve much later.
shows the fungi and pseudocoeles lines
separating here at 965 mybn (first
pseudocoel and first animal).
"Choanoflagellates" and "Acanthoecida"
evolve.
The choanoflagellates are a
group of flagellate protozoa. They are
considered to be the closest relatives
of the animals, and in particular may
be the direct ancestors of sponges.
Each choanoflagellate has a single
flagellum, surrounded by a ring of
hairlike protrusions called microvilli,
forming a cylindrical or conical collar
(choanos in Greek). The flagellum pulls
water through the collar, and small
food particles are captured by the
microvilli and ingested. It also pushes
free-swimming cells along, as in animal
sperm, whereas most other flagellates
are pulled by their flagella.
Most choanoflagellates are sessile,
with a stalk opposite the flagellum. A
number of species are colonial, usually
taking the form of a cluster of cells
on a single stalk. Of special note is
Proterospongia, which takes the form of
a glob of cells, of which the external
cells are typical flagellates with
collars, but the internal cells are
non-motile.
The choanocytes (also known as
"collared cells") of sponges have the
same basic structure as
choanoflagellates. Collared cells are
occasionally found in a few other
animal groups, such as flatworms. These
relationships make colonial
choanoflagellates a plausible candidate
as the ancestors of the animal kingdom.
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Protozoa
(Goldfuss, 1818) R. Owen, 1858 -
protozoa
SUBKINGDOM Sarcomastigota
(means=?)
PHYLUM Amoebozoa (Lühe, 1913)
Cavalier-Smith, 1998
PHYLUM Choanozoa
CLASS Choanoflagellatea
(Choanoflagellates and Acanthoecida)
ORDER
Choanoflagellida™ W.S. Kent, 1880 -
(Choanoflagellates)
ORDER Acanthoecida
CLASS
Corallochytrea
CLASS Mesomycetozoea Mendoza et
al., 2001 (DRIPs)
CLASS Cristidiscoidea
Also identified in the Phylum Choanozoa
are the Ichthyosporea.
[1] DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Protozoa (Goldfuss, 1818) R.
Owen, 1858 - protozoa SUBKINGDOM
Sarcomastigota (means=?) PHYLUM
Choanozoa CLASS
Choanoflagellatea (Choanoflagellates
and Acanthoecida) ORDER
Acanthoecida Saepicula: Cells
solitary, lorica funnel-shaped, 2
chambers delimited by a waist;
constructed of rod-shaped costal
strips; posterior chamber obconical
with 2 series of costae located more or
less regularly around chamber, one
series almost parallel to the long axis
of cell and second series almost
perpendicular to long axis; anterior
chamber formed by ring of equally
spaced longitudinal costae surmounted
by single transverse costa; marine
This image is based on a drawing
provided by Won Je Lee. NONCOMMERCIAL
USE
source: http://microscope.mbl.edu/script
s/microscope.php?func=imgDetail&imageID=
3229
[2] Choanoeca: Cells solitary with
distinct, firm flask-shaped theca more
or less closely investing protoplast,
with short pedicel; collar relatively
long, widely expanded; flagellum absent
in adult, but produced prior to cell
division for locomotory use by juvenile
cell; in marine and brackish habitats,
frequently attached to filamentous
algae and hydrozoa Choanoeca
(ko-an-o-eek-a), an unusual loricate
collar flagellate (choanoflagellate) in
that the usual form is without a
flagellum. Flagellated motile stage is
occasionally produced. Widely dispersed
pseudopodial elements of the collar are
evident in this image. Differential
interference contrast. This picture
was taken by David Patterson and Aimlee
Laderman of material collected from a
freshwater Atantic white cedar swamp at
Cumloden near Woods Hole in
Massachusetts, USA in spring and
summer, 2001. NONCOMMERCIAL USE
source: http://microscope.mbl.edu/script
s/microscope.php?func=imgDetail&imageID=
170
multicellularity evolves, where a
zygote produces differentiated cells
that stick together to form one
organism.
Metazoan multicellularity appears to
be different from colonialism (where
independent cells of the same species
work together and function as one
unit), because one zygote produces all
the cells in the organism.
evolve. Metazoans are multicellular,
but their cells perform different
functions and originate from one
cell(?). This is`also the beginning of
the Animal Subkingdom "Radiata",
species with radial symmetry. These are
the sponges. There are only 3 kinds of
metazoans: sponges, cnidarians, and
bilaterians (which include all insects
and vertibrates). Sponges are the
first organisms whose DNA codes for
more than one kind of cell. Sponges
have 3 different cell types. Some
cells form a body wall, some digest
food, some form a skeletal frame.
All sponge
cells are totipotent and are capable of
regrowing a new sponge.
The two major
subkingdoms of the Kingdom Animalia are
Radiata (the radiates) and Bilateria
(the bilaterians).
[1]
source: http://www.museums.org.za/bio/me
tazoa.htm
[2]
source: http://www.museums.org.za/bio/me
tazoa.htm
evolve. These genes regulate the
building of major body parts.
division "Zygomycota" (bread molds, pin
molds, microsporidia,...) evolving now.
[1] Figure 2. Zygomycota A: sporangia
of Mucor sp. B: whorl of sporangia of
Absidia sp. C: zygospore of
Zygorhynchus sp. D: sporangiophore and
sporangiola of Cunninghamella sp.
source: http://www.botany.utoronto.ca/Re
searchLabs/MallochLab/Malloch/Moulds/Cla
ssification.html
[2] Figure 3. Syncephalis, a member
of the Zygomycota parasitic on other
Zygomycota
source: http://www.botany.utoronto.ca/Re
searchLabs/MallochLab/Malloch/Moulds/Cla
ssification.html
Placozoans
look like amoebas but are
multicellular.
There is only one known species,
"Tricoplax adhaerens", and one other
potential species "Tricoplax reptans"
in the entire Placozoa phylum.
Putative eggs have been observed, but
they degrade at the 32-64 cell stage.
Neither embryonic development nor sperm
have been observed, however Trichoplax
genomes show evidence of sexual
reproduction. Asexual reproduction by
binary fission is the primary mode of
reproduction observed in the lab.
The haploid number of chromosomes is
six. It has the smallest amount of DNA
yet measured for any animal with only
50 megabases (80 femtograms per cell).
A trichoplax genome project is
currently underway.
DOMAIN Eukaryota -
eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 -
animals
SUBKINGDOM Radiata (Linnaeus, 1758)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - radiates
INFRAKINGDOM Placozoa Cavalier-Smith,
1998
PHYLUM Placozoa™ Grell, 1971
jellies) evolves.
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM Radiata
(Linnaeus, 1758) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 -
radiates
INFRAKINGDOM Coelenterata
Leuckart, 1847
PHYLUM Ctenophora
Eschscholtz, 1829 - comb jellies
CLASS Tentaculata
CLASS Nuda
division "Glomeromycota" (Arbuscular
mycorrhizal fungi) evolving now.
[1] germinating Gigaspora decipiens
source: http://pages.unibas.ch/bothebel/
people/redecker/ff/glomero.htm
[2] Archaeospora leptoticha spores
source: http://pages.unibas.ch/bothebel/
people/redecker/ff/glomero.htm
jellyfish evolves. Jellyfish have
photon detecting cells and a lens made
of ?.
the phylum "Basidiomycota" (most
mushrooms, rusts, club fungi) evolve.
Genetic
comparison shows the second largest
group of Fungi, the phylum
"Basidiomycota" (most mushrooms, rusts,
club fungi) evolving now.
The Division Basidiomycota is a large
taxon within the Kingdom Fungi that
includes those species that produce
spores in a club-shaped structure
called a basidium. Essentially the
sibling group of the Ascomycota, it
contains some 30,000 species (37% of
the described fungi)
[1] Amanita muscaria
(Homobasidiomycetes)
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Agaricales.jpg
[2] Basidiomycete Life Cycle tjv
source: http://botit.botany.wisc.edu/ima
ges/332/Basidiomycota/General_basidio/Ba
sidiomycete_Life_Cycle_tjv.php?highres=t
rue
"Ascomycota" (yeasts, truffles,
Penicillium, morels, sac fungi)
evolves.
Genetic comparison shows the largest
Fungi phylum "Ascomycota" (yeasts,
truffles, Penicillium, morels, sac
fungi) evolving now.
47,000 described
species.
[1] white truffle
cutted photographed by
myself GNU head Permission is
granted to copy, distribute and/or
modify this document under the terms of
the GNU Free Documentation License,
Version 1.2 or any later version
published by the Free Software
Foundation; with no Invariant Sections,
no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover
Texts. A copy of the license is
included in the section entitled ''Text
of the GNU Free Documentation
License.''
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fd/Truffle_washed_and_cu
tted.jpg
[2] EColi-Scerevisiae.jpg (50KB, MIME
type: image/jpeg) Wikimedia Commons
logo This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons. The description on its
description page there is shown
below. Escherichia coli (little
forms) & Saccharomyces cerevisiae (big
forms) by MEB Public domain This file
has been released into the public
domain by the copyright holder, its
copyright has expired, or it is
ineligible for copyright. This applies
worldwide. brewer's yeast/baker's
yeast
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:EColi-Scerevisiae.jpg
largest and second largest lines of
Fungi (Ascomycota and Basidiomycota)
splitting now.
of Ascomycota Fungi called
"Archaeascomycetes" (fission yeast,
pneumonia fungus) evolving now.
shows the pseudocoel and schizocoel
lines separating here at 675 mybn
(first schizocoel).
mybn).
Ascomycota Fungi "Hemiascomycetes"
evolving now.
symmetry) species evolves. Animal
phylum Acoelomorpha (acoela flat worms
and nemertodermatida) evolves.
This
begins the Subkingdom "Bilateria".
lack
a digestive track, anus and coelom.
DO
MAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
PHYLUM
"Acoelomorpha" - acoelomorphs
ORDER Acoela
- acoels
ORDER Nemertodermatida -
nemertodermatids
[1] Convoluta pulchra Smith and Bush
1991, a typical mud-inhabiting acoel
that feeds on diatoms
source: ?
"Ustilaginomycetes" (corn smut fungus)
and "Hymenomycetes" (white rot fungus)
evolve.
Genetic comparison shows the
Basidiomycota Fungi "Ustilaginomycetes"
(corn smut fungus) and "Hymenomycetes"
(white rot fungus) evolving now.
mybn).
evolve at this time. Protostomes
include the 3 infrakingdoms Ecdysozoa
(a variety of worms and the arthropods
{a huge group including all insects and
crustaceans}), Platyzoa (rotifers and
flatworms), and Lophotrochozoa
(brachiopods {clams}, molluscs
{snails}, and a variety of worms).
Doushantuo formation in China.
Vernanimalcula, 178 um in length, from
Doushantuo Formation, China. First
fossil of organism with bilateral
symmetry, mouth, digestive track, gut
and anus.
[1] Fig. 2. Close-up images of
prominent anatomical features of
Vernanimalcula guizhouena. The scale
bar represents 18 µm in (A), 32 µm in
(B), 24 µm in (C), and 28 µm in (D).
SO, sensory organ, i.e., external pit;
LU, lumen; PH, pharynx; MO, mouth; CO,
coelomic lumen; CW, mesodermal coelomic
wall; GU, gut. (A) Detail of collared
mouth, multilayered pharynx, and one
anterior surface pit. In this image,
which is from the holotype specimen
(Fig. 1A), the floor of the pit can be
seen to be composed of a specialized
concave layer. Note the coelomic wall,
which here as elsewhere in these
specimens has a thickness of about 5 to
6 µm. (B) Mouth of a fourth specimen,
Q3105, displaying collared mouth and
pharynx, ventral view. (C) Lumen of
pharynx from a fifth specimen, X10419,
secondarily encrusted but revealing
morphology of opening of pharynx into
gut similar to that seen in the
specimens shown in Fig. 1. (D) Close-up
of spaced external pits, interpreted as
possible sensory organs, from the same
specimen as shown in Fig. 1B [compare
(A)].
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/sci;305/5681/218
[2] Fig. 1. Images of three
different, fairly well preserved
specimens of the bilaterally organized
fossil animal Vernanimalcula
guizhouena. Left panels show digitally
recorded, transmitted light images of
sections about 50 µm thick, which had
been ground from larger rock samples,
mounted on slides, and viewed through a
light microscope. Right panels show
color-coded representations of the
images on the left. These were prepared
by digital image overlay. Yellow,
external ectodermal layer; ochre,
coelomic mesodermal layer; red, surface
pits; mauve, pharynx; light tan,
endodermal wall of gut; gray-green,
lumen of mouth; dark gray, paired
coelomic cavities; lighter gray, lumen
of gut; brown, ''gland-like''
structures, with central lumen (B);
light green, mineral inclusions (C).
The scale bar represents 40 µm in (A),
55 µm in (B), and 46 µm in (C). (A)
Holotype specimen, X00305, slightly
tilted, almost complete ventral level
coronal section, passing through the
ventrally located mouth. (B) Coronal
section of second specimen, X08981,
passing through dorsal wall of pharynx
and displaying complete A-P length of
digestive tract, including posterior
end [not visible in (A)]. (C) Tilted
coronal section of third specimen,
X10475, possibly slightly squashed,
passing through dorsal wall of pharynx
and through the dorsal wall of the gut.
For dimensions, see Table 1.
source:
evolves. Ecdysozoa are animals that
molt (lose their outer skins) as they
grow.
Ecdysozoa include:
the Phylum "Chaetognatha"
(Arrow Worms),
the Superphylum
"Aschelminthes", containing the 5
Phlya:
"Kinorhyncha" (kinorhynchs)
"Loricifera"
(loriciferans)
"Nematoda" (round worms)
"Nematomorpha"
(horsehair worms),
"Priapulida" (priapulids)
the
Superphlyum "Panarthropoda" containing
the 3 Phyla:
"Arthropoda" (arthropods:
insects, shell fish)
"Onychophora"
(onychophorans)
"Tardigrada" (tardigrades)
evolve on Jellyfish(?).
fauna near Adelaide, Australia.
nervous system evolves in bilaterians.
in early bilaterians.
beginning of the Subkingdom
Deuterostomia and Infrakingdom
"Coelomopora" (Ambulacraria) with the
two Phyla "Hemichordata" (acorn worms)
and "Echinodermata" (sea cucumbers, sea
urchins, starfish).
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
PHYLUM †Vetulicolia Shu et
al., 2001
INFRAKINGDOM Coelomopora
(Marcus, 1958) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia (Haeckel, 1874)
Cavalier-Smith, 1998
(Arrow Worms) evolves.
Hemichordonia (acorn worms) evolves.
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
PHYLUM †Vetulicolia Shu et
al., 2001
INFRAKINGDOM Coelomopora
(Marcus, 1958) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
PHYLUM Echinodermata Klein, 1734 ex
De Brugière, 1789 - echinoderms
PHYLUM
Hemichordata (Bateson, 1885) auct. -
hemichordates
Echinodermata (sea cucumbers, sea
urchins, sand dollars, star fish)
evolves.
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
PHYLUM †Vetulicolia Shu et
al., 2001
INFRAKINGDOM Coelomopora
(Marcus, 1958) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
PHYLUM Echinodermata Klein, 1734 ex
De Brugière, 1789 - echinoderms
PHYLUM
Hemichordata (Bateson, 1885) auct. -
hemichordates
blood cells evolve in bilaterian worms.
Superphylum Gnathifera {gnathiferans},
Phylum Gastrotricha {gastrotrichs}, and
Phylum Platyhelminthes {flatworms})
evolve.
evolves. Chordata is a very large
group that contains all fish,
amphibians, reptiles and mammals.
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
SUBPHYLUM Tunicata Lamarck,
1816 - tunicates
SUBPHYLUM
Cephalochordata - lancelets
SUBPHYLUM
Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates
Tunicata (tunicates {sea squirts})
evolves.
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
SUBPHYLUM Tunicata Lamarck,
1816 - tunicates
SUBPHYLUM
Cephalochordata - lancelets
SUBPHYLUM
Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates
oxygen from water through a digestive
system, evolves in segmented worms.
Ediacaran fossil.
[1] from adelaide, australia
source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/t
ech/3208583.stm
Ashelminthes (round worms, horsehair
worms, priapulids) and Pananthropoda
(arthropods, onychophorans,
tardigrades) separate.
Cephalochordata (lancelets) evolves.
This is the first fish.
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
SUBPHYLUM Tunicata Lamarck,
1816 - tunicates
SUBPHYLUM
Cephalochordata - lancelets
SUBPHYLUM
Vertebrata Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates
shows the chordate line separating from
echinoderm line here at 550 mybn (first
chordates).
"Ashelminthes" evolves. This includes
the 5 Phyla:
Kinorhyncha (kinorhynchs),
Loricifera (loriciferans),
Nematoda (round worms),
Nematomorpha
(horsehair worms),
Priapulida (priapulids).
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Protostomia Grobben, 1908 -
protostomes
INFRAKINGDOM Ecdysozoa
Aguinaldo et al., 1997 ex
Cavalier-Smith, 1998 - ecdysozoans
SUPERPHYLUM Aschelminthes
PHYLUM Priapulida Théel, 1906 -
priapulids
PHYLUM Kinorhyncha
Reinhard, 1887 - kinorhynchs
PHYLUM
Loricifera Kristensen, 1983 -
loriciferans
PHYLUM Nematoda (Rudolphi,
1808) Lankester, 1877 - round worms
PHYLUM Nematomorpha Vejdovsky, 1886 -
horsehair worms
evolves. This includes the 5 Phyla:
Gna
thostomulida (gnathostomulids),
Cycliophora
(cycliophorans),
Micrognathozoa,
Rotifera (rotifers),
Acanthocephala
(acanthocephalans).
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Protostomia Grobben, 1908 -
protostomes
INFRAKINGDOM Platyzoa
Cavalier-Smith, 1998
SUPERPHYLUM
Gnathifera - gnathiferans
PHYLUM
Gnathostomulida (Ax, 1956) Riedl, 1969
- gnathostomulids
PHYLUM Cycliophora Funch
& Kristensen, 1995 - cycliophorans
PHYLUM
Micrognathozoa (Kristensen & Funch,
2000)
PHYLUM Rotifera Cuvier,
1798 - rotifers
PHYLUM
Acanthocephala Kohlreuther, 1771 -
acanthocephalans
Lophotrochozoa evolves. This includes
brachiopods, bryozoans, clams, squids
and octopuses (cephalopods), and
snails.
This infrakingdom is made of:
Superphylum
Lophophorata,
Phylum Bryozoa (bryozoans),
Phylum Entoprocta
(entoprocts),
Superphylum Eutrochozoa.
DOMAIN Eukaryota -
eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 -
animals
SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek,
1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 -
bilaterians
BRANCH Protostomia Grobben, 1908
(protostomes)
INFRAKINGDOM "Lophotrochozoa"
(lophotrochozoans)
SUPERPHYLUM Lophophorata
PHYLUM
Bryozoa Ehrenberg, 1831 (bryozoans)
PHYLUM Entoprocta (Nitsche, 1869)
(entoprocts)
SUPERPHYLUM Eutrochozoa
Lophophorata evolves. This includes
the two Phyla Phoronida (phoronids) and
Brachiopoda (brachiopods {clams,
oysters, muscles}).
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Protostomia Grobben, 1908
(protostomes)
INFRAKINGDOM "Lophotrochozoa"
(lophotrochozoans)
SUPERPHYLUM Lophophorata
PHYLUM Phoronida (phoronids)
PHYLUM
Brachiopoda (brachiopods)
(phoronids) evolves.
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Protostomia Grobben, 1908
(protostomes)
INFRAKINGDOM "Lophotrochozoa"
(lophotrochozoans)
SUPERPHYLUM Lophophorata
PHYLUM Phoronida (phoronids)
PHYLUM
Brachiopoda (brachiopods)
Brachiopoda (brachiopods {clams,
oysters, muscles}) evolves.
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Protostomia Grobben, 1908
(protostomes)
INFRAKINGDOM "Lophotrochozoa"
(lophotrochozoans)
SUPERPHYLUM Lophophorata
PHYLUM Phoronida (phoronids)
PHYLUM
Brachiopoda (brachiopods)
Entoprocta (entoprocts) evolves.
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Protostomia Grobben, 1908
(protostomes)
INFRAKINGDOM "Lophotrochozoa"
(lophotrochozoans)
PHYLUM Entoprocta (Nitsche,
1869) - entoprocts
Phanerozoic Eon. End Proterozoic Era,
start Paleozoic Era.
(flatworms) and Gastrotricha
(gastrotrichs) evolve.
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Protostomia Grobben, 1908
(protostomes)
INFRAKINGDOM Platyzoa
Cavalier-Smith, 1998
SUPERPHYLUM
Gnathifera - gnathiferans
PHYLUM
Gastrotricha Metschnikoff, 1864 -
gastrotrichs
PHYLUM Platyhelminthes
Gegenbaur, 1859 - flatworms
mybn).
(Bryozoans or moss animals) evolves.
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Protostomia Grobben, 1908
(protostomes)
INFRAKINGDOM "Lophotrochozoa"
(lophotrochozoans)
PHYLUM Bryozoa Ehrenberg,
1831 - bryozoans
Panarthropoda (Arthropods, Onychophora,
Tardigrada) evolves.
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Protostomia Grobben, 1908
(protostomes)
INFRAKINGDOM Ecdysozoa
Aguinaldo et al., 1997 ex
Cavalier-Smith, 1998 - ecdysozoans
SUPERPHYLUM Panarthropoda
PHYLUM
Tardigrada (Spallanzani, 1777)
Ramazzotti, 1962 - tardigrades
PHYLUM
Onychophora - onychophorans
PHYLUM
Arthropoda Latreille, 1829 - arthropods
(insects, crustaceans) evolve.
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Protostomia Grobben, 1908
(protostomes)
INFRAKINGDOM Ecdysozoa
Aguinaldo et al., 1997 ex
Cavalier-Smith, 1998 - ecdysozoans
SUPERPHYLUM Panarthropoda
PHYLUM
Tardigrada (Spallanzani, 1777)
Ramazzotti, 1962 - tardigrades
PHYLUM
Onychophora - onychophorans
PHYLUM
Arthropoda Latreille, 1829 - arthropods
(onychophorans) evolves.
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Protostomia Grobben, 1908
(protostomes)
INFRAKINGDOM Ecdysozoa
Aguinaldo et al., 1997 ex
Cavalier-Smith, 1998 - ecdysozoans
SUPERPHYLUM Panarthropoda
PHYLUM
Tardigrada (Spallanzani, 1777)
Ramazzotti, 1962 - tardigrades
PHYLUM
Onychophora - onychophorans
PHYLUM
Arthropoda Latreille, 1829 - arthropods
(tardigrades) evolves.
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Protostomia Grobben, 1908
(protostomes)
INFRAKINGDOM Ecdysozoa
Aguinaldo et al., 1997 ex
Cavalier-Smith, 1998 - ecdysozoans
SUPERPHYLUM Panarthropoda
PHYLUM
Tardigrada (Spallanzani, 1777)
Ramazzotti, 1962 - tardigrades
PHYLUM
Onychophora - onychophorans
PHYLUM
Arthropoda Latreille, 1829 - arthropods
[1] Aldanella may be mollusc, if
mollusc may be first known snail.
shell is 1.5 mm in diameter.
source: http://www.geology.ucdavis.edu/~
cowen/HistoryofLife/CH05images.html
Eutrochozoa (molluscs, ribbon, peanut,
spoon, and segmented worms) evolves.
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Protostomia Grobben, 1908
(protostomes)
INFRAKINGDOM "Lophotrochozoa"
(lophotrochozoans)
SUPERPHYLUM Eutrochozoa
PHYLUM Nemertea Schultze - ribbon
worms
PHYLUM Sipuncula
(Raffinesque, 1814) Sedgwick, 1898 -
peanut worms
PHYLUM Mollusca
(Linnaeus, 1758) Cuvier, 1795 -
molluscs
PHYLUM †Hyolitha
PHYLUM
Echiura Sedgwick, 1898 - spoon worms,
echiurans
PHYLUM Annelida Lamarck,
1809 - segmented worms
evolve.
[1]
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/porifera/ar
chaeo.html
source: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/por
ifera/archaeo.html
[2]
http://www.geology.ucdavis.edu/~cowen/Hi
storyofLife/CH05images.html
source: http://www.geology.ucdavis.edu/~
cowen/HistoryofLife/CH05images.html
(ribbon worms) evolves.
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Protostomia Grobben, 1908
(protostomes)
INFRAKINGDOM "Lophotrochozoa"
(lophotrochozoans)
SUPERPHYLUM Eutrochozoa
PHYLUM Nemertea Schultze - ribbon
worms
PHYLUM Sipuncula
(Raffinesque, 1814) Sedgwick, 1898 -
peanut worms
PHYLUM Mollusca
(Linnaeus, 1758) Cuvier, 1795 -
molluscs
PHYLUM †Hyolitha
PHYLUM
Echiura Sedgwick, 1898 - spoon worms,
echiurans
PHYLUM Annelida Lamarck,
1809 - segmented worms
(brachiopods, bryozoans, clams,
mussels, squids and octopuses
{cephalopods}, and snails) evolves.
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Protostomia Grobben, 1908
(protostomes)
INFRAKINGDOM "Lophotrochozoa"
(lophotrochozoans)
SUPERPHYLUM Eutrochozoa
PHYLUM Nemertea Schultze - ribbon
worms
PHYLUM Sipuncula
(Raffinesque, 1814) Sedgwick, 1898 -
peanut worms
PHYLUM Mollusca
(Linnaeus, 1758) Cuvier, 1795 -
molluscs
PHYLUM †Hyolitha
PHYLUM
Echiura Sedgwick, 1898 - spoon worms,
echiurans
PHYLUM Annelida Lamarck,
1809 - segmented worms
(segmented worms) evolve.
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Protostomia Grobben, 1908
(protostomes)
INFRAKINGDOM "Lophotrochozoa"
(lophotrochozoans)
SUPERPHYLUM Eutrochozoa
PHYLUM Nemertea Schultze - ribbon
worms
PHYLUM Sipuncula
(Raffinesque, 1814) Sedgwick, 1898 -
peanut worms
PHYLUM Mollusca
(Linnaeus, 1758) Cuvier, 1795 -
molluscs
PHYLUM †Hyolitha
PHYLUM
Echiura Sedgwick, 1898 - spoon worms,
echiurans
PHYLUM Annelida Lamarck,
1809 - segmented worms
Sipuncula (peanut worms) evolve.
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Protostomia Grobben, 1908
(protostomes)
INFRAKINGDOM "Lophotrochozoa"
(lophotrochozoans)
SUPERPHYLUM Eutrochozoa
PHYLUM Nemertea Schultze - ribbon
worms
PHYLUM Sipuncula
(Raffinesque, 1814) Sedgwick, 1898 -
peanut worms
PHYLUM Mollusca
(Linnaeus, 1758) Cuvier, 1795 -
molluscs
PHYLUM †Hyolitha
PHYLUM
Echiura Sedgwick, 1898 - spoon worms,
echiurans
PHYLUM Annelida Lamarck,
1809 - segmented worms
Vertebrata evolves. This Subphylum
contains most fish, all amphibians,
reptiles, and mammals.
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates
CLASS
Agnatha
INTRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata
auct. - jawed vertebrates
(agnatha) evolve.
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates
CLASS
Agnatha
INTRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata
auct. - jawed vertebrates
Haiko
uichthys ercaicunensis: About 25 mm in
length.
[1] Figure 4 The Lower Cambrian
agnathan vertebrate Haikouichthys
ercaicunensis Luo, Hu & Shu gen. et sp.
nov. from Haikou, Yunnan. Specimen
HZ-f-12-127. a, Entire specimen,
anterior to the left; more posterior
region appears to fade out into
sediment, possibly representing decay
of body; attempts to excavate this area
were not successful. Scale bar
equivalent to 5 mm. b, Detail of
anterior to show putative gill bars,
possible elements of cranial
endoskeleton, and pericardic area;
scale bar equivalent to 5 mm. c,
Camera-lucida drawing of specimen to
show interpretation. Numbers 1-6
indicate units of the branchial basket
that are identified with some
confidence; ?A-?C refer to less secure
identifications. Two possible areas
representing the pericardic cavity are
indicated. To the anterior of ?C a
triangular area with patches of
diagenetic mineralization is one
possibility; a fainter region to the
posterior is the alternative location.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v402/n6757/fig_tab/402042a0_F4.html
Hetang Formation, Southern China.
[1] A hexactinellid sponge from the
Hetang Formation. Reconstruction on the
left (scale bar = 5 cm). Photos
courtesy of Xunlai Yuan.
source: http://www.geol.vt.edu/paleo/Xia
o/
measured in Kopli quarry, Tallinn,
Estonia.
described as lobopod) fossil, from
Burgess shale.
source: 1 & 2
http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/shale/paysh
ia.htm
source: 3
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/onychoph/on
ychophorafr.html
shale.
[1]
source: http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/sha
le/pchoia.htm
[2]
source:
Shale.
[1] Ottoia, showing muscle bands and
gut. Ottoia is a priapulid worm found
commonly in the Burgess Shale. It was
carnivorous, and probably lived in a
burrow like modern priapulids. This
specimen has been wetted and oriented
to reflect the light, in order to show
a delicate irridescent film which
preserves details of muscle bands, the
gut, and even the small hooks at one
end of the worm (on the right --
unfortunately out of focus). Walcott
quarry.
source: http://www.geo.ucalgary.ca/~macr
ae/Burgess_Shale/Ottoia_muscle.gif
[2] Phylum
Priapulida Ottoia Priapulid worm.
Note the anterior proboscis (on the
left) and the dark trace of the
interior digestive tract. Ottoia was
carnivorous.
source: http://www.gpc.edu/~pgore/geolog
y/geo102/burgess/burgess.htm
source: http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/sha
le/popabin.htm
source: http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/sha
le/popabin.htm
Shale.
[1] diagram
source: http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/sha
le/panomal.htm
[2] jaws
source: http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/sha
le/panomal.htm
Burgess Shale.
[1] diagram
source: http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/sha
le/pmarella.htm
[2] fossil
source: http://www.nmnh.si.edu/paleo/sha
le/pmarella.htm
moulting.
[1] a, Specimen of M. splendens (ROM
56781) emerging and pulling out the
flexible lateral spines from the old
exoskeleton (exuvia). b, Camera lucida
drawing of the same specimen. Scale bar
for a and b, 5 mm. c, Reconstruction of
Marrella (modified from ref.
8). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v429/n6987/fig_tab/429040a_F1.html
(head scab fungus, orange bread mold,
rice blast fungus) and "Plectomycetes"
(aspergillus, penicilin fungus,
coccidiodomycosis fungus) evolve.
Genetic
comparison shows the Ascomycota Fungi
"Pyrenomycetes" (head scab fungus,
orange bread mold, rice blast fungus)
and "Plectomycetes" (aspergillus,
penicilin fungus, coccidiodomycosis
fungus) evolving now.
end Cambrian period (543-490 mybn).
ancestor of all plants (Kingdom
Plantae) evolving at this time (in the
view that algae are protists and not
plants).
Genetic comparison shows the ancestor
of all plants (Kingdom Plantae)
evolving at this time (in the view that
algae are single and multicellular
protists and not plants).
source: http://protist.i.hosei.ac.jp/PDB
3/PCD3711/htmls/86.html
source: http://protist.i.hosei.ac.jp/PDB
/Images/Others/Glaucocystis/
non-vascular plant and vascular plant
lines splitting now.
Liverworts (Plant Division
Marchantiophyta) evolving now.
[1] A thallose liverwort, Lunularia
cruciata public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liv
erworts
[2] Arachniopsis diacantha is an
algae-like leafy liverwort of the
family Lepidoziaceae. Arachniopsis
diacantha, a liverwort from brazilian
rain forest by J. Z. Berger public
domain
source: same
non-vascular plants (Bryophytes)
(Liverworts, Hornworts, Mosses)
evolving now.
Many people view these plants
and the beginning of the Plant kingdom
and algae as being in the Protista
kingdom.
These plants lack vascular tissue that
circulates liquids. They neither flower
nor produce seeds, reproducing via
spores.
The order these three divisions evolved
in is not fully known.
Liverworts 9,000
Hornworts
100 species
Mosses 15,000
[1] Phaeoceros laevis (L.) Prosk. gnu
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Anthoceros_levis.jpg
[2] Image of Phaeoceros (hornwort)
spores taken by J. Ziffer. public
domain
source: wiki
lampreys and hagfish lines separate.
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates
CLASS
Agnatha
INTRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata
auct. - jawed vertebrates
(division Anthocerotophyta) evolving
now.
[1] Phaeoceros laevis (L.) Prosk. gnu
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Anthoceros_levis.jpg
[2] Image of Phaeoceros (hornwort)
spores taken by J. Ziffer. public
domain
source: wiki
land plants.
These spores look like
the spores of living liverworts.
[1] Figure 1. (A to C and E to G)
Fossil hyphae and spores from the
Ordovician and (D and H) spores formed
by extant glomalean fungi. (A and B)
Overviews of the fossilized material.
(C, E, F, and G) Fossil spore details.
(C) Detail of (B). (D) A spore of
present-day Glomus sp. S328 with
layered wall structure. In (G), the
arrow shows walls of a subtending hypha
in connection with the spore wall. (H)
A spore of present-day Glomus
leptotichum, a member of the deeply
divergent glomalean lineages. Images
were obtained by light microscopy (28)
of the specimens in air (A, C, F, and
G), differential interference contrast
microscopy of the specimens in
polyvinylalcohol-lactoglycerol (D, E,
and H), and confocal laser scanning
microscopy with the autofluorescence of
the material (B). All scale bars are 50
µm.
source:
(division Bryophyta) evolving now.
15,000
species.
[1] A moss covered log. Photo by sannse
at Mistley, England. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mos
s
[2] life cycle of
moss ladyofhats public domain
source: same
Gnathostomata) evolve. This large group
includes all jawed fish, all
amphibians, reptiles, and mammals.
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates
INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
CLASS †Placodermi
McCoy, 1848
CLASS
Chondrichthyes - cartilaginous fishes
CLASS †Acanthodii
CLASS
Osteichthyes Huxley, 1880
SUPERCLASS Tetrapoda Goodrich, 1930 -
tetrapods
Gnathostomata) Class Chondrichthyes
(cartilaginous fishes) evolve.
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates
INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
CLASS †Placodermi
McCoy, 1848
CLASS
Chondrichthyes - cartilaginous fishes
CLASS †Acanthodii
CLASS
Osteichthyes Huxley, 1880
SUPERCLASS Tetrapoda Goodrich, 1930 -
tetrapods
phylum includes all tunicates, fishes,
amphibians, reptiles, birds, and
mammals. The living chordate with the
oldest DNA design are tunicates.
shows the gnathostome (vertebrates with
a jaw bone) line separating from
lamprey line here at 450 mybn (first
gnathostome).
end Ordovician period (490-443 mybn).
Ray-finned fishes (Subclass
Actinopterygii) evolve.
Ray-finned fishes
(Subclass Actinopterygii) are in Class
Osteichthyes.
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates
INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
CLASS Osteichthyes
Huxley, 1880
SUBCLASS
Actinopterygii - ray-finned fishes
INFRACLASS Cladistia
INFRACLASS Actinopteri
plants, Cooksonia.
Oldest fossil of
vascular land plants, Cooksonia
pertoni.
They have been found in an area
stretching from Siberia to the Eastern
USA, and in Brazil. They are found
mostly in the area of Euramerica, and
most of the type specimens are from
Britain.
Cooksonia were very small plants, only
a few centimetres tall, and had a
simple structure: They didn't have
leaves, flowers or seeds. They had a
simple stalk, that branched a few
times. Each branch ended in a
sporangium, a rounded structure that
contained the spores. No specimen has
been found attached to roots. Either it
connected to the ground with very fine
root hairs, the fossils are of
fragments, or something entirely
unanticipated. Some specimens have a
dark stripe in the centre of their
stalks which is interpreted as being
the remains of water carrying tissue.
Not all specimens have this stripe,
either some Cooksonia lacked vasular
tissue, or it was destroyed in the
fossilization process.
Oldest fossil
of vascular land plants, Cooksonia
pertoni, from England, UK.
They have been found in an area
stretching from Siberia to the Eastern
USA, and in Brazil. They are found
mostly in the area of Euramerica, and
most of the type specimens are from
Britain.
Cooksonia were small, a few centimetres
tall, and had a simple structure: They
didn't have leaves, flowers, or seeds.
They had a simple stalk, that branched
a few times. Each branch ended in a
sporangium, a rounded structure that
contained the spores. No specimen has
been found attached to roots. Either it
connected to the ground with very fine
root hairs, the fossils are of
fragments, or something entirely
unanticipated. Some specimens have a
dark stripe in the centre of their
stalks which is interpreted as being
the remains of water carrying tissue.
Not all specimens have this stripe,
either some Cooksonia lacked vasular
tissue, or it was destroyed in the
fossilization process.
The relationships between the known
species of Cooksonia and modern plants
remain unclear. They appear to
represent plants that are near to the
branching between Rhyniophyta and to
the club mosses. It is considered
likely that Cooksonia is not a clade
but rather represents an evolutionary
grade.
Five species of Cooksonia have been
clearly identified. C. pertoni, C.
hemisphaerica, C. cambrensis, C.
caledonica and C. paranensis. They are
distiguished primarily by the shape of
the sporangia.
The first Cooksonia were discovered by
W.H. Lang in 1937 and named in honour
of Isabel Cookson, with whom he had
collaborated.
Cooksonia branches dichotomously (from
1 into 2 branches only).
[1] Cooksonia pertoni with three
sporangia. Height of the plant 2.5
cm Pridolian (Upper
Silurian) Shropshire, England.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.xs4all.nl/~steurh/eng
cook/ecookwal.html
[2] Cooksonia pertoni, fossilised
plant COPYRIGHTED UK
source: http://owen.nhm.ac.uk/piclib/web
images/0/0/900/936_sml.jpg
millipede Pneumodesmus.
2 living species
known.
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates
INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
CLASS Osteichthyes
Huxley, 1880
SUBCLASS
Sarcopterygii
INFRACLASS
Crossopterygii
ORDER Actinistia
- coelacanths
mybn), end Silurian period (443-417
mybn).
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates
INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
CLASS Osteichthyes
Huxley, 1880
SUBCLASS
Sarcopterygii
ORDER Dipnoi -
lungfishes
shows the tetrapod (4 leg) line
separating from the fish line here at
400 mybn (first tetrapod).
oldest line of living vascular plants
from the Division "Lycophyta" evolving
now.
Genetic comparison shows the oldest
line of living vascular plants
(Tracheophytes) from the Division
"Lycophyta" evolving now.
1,200 species.
[1] Lycopodiella cernua (L.) Pic. Serm.
plant from windward O'ahu (Hawai'i)
taken in December 2003 by Eric Guinther
and released under the GNU Free
Documentation License. gnu
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyc
ophyte
[2] Fossil trunk of Lepidodendron
aculeatum showing leaf scars gnu
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lep
idodendron
This
fossil also could have been winged.
[1] Rhyniognatha hirsti. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-onli
ne/earth/fossils/article-oldest-insect-f
ossil/the-oldest-fossil-insect-in-the-wo
rld.html
Chondrichthyes) Subclass
Subterbranchialia and Subclass
Elasmobranchii (shark-like fishes)
separate.
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates
INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
CLASS Chondrichthyes -
cartilaginous fishes
SUBCLASS Elasmobranchii - shark-like
fishes
SUBCLASS
Subterbranchialia
Superorder Holocephali (chimaeras: eg.
elephant fish) evolves.
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates
INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
CLASS Chondrichthyes -
cartilaginous fishes
SUBCLASS Elasmobranchii - shark-like
fishes
SUBCLASS
Subterbranchialia
SUPERORDER
Holocephali
line and the line that leads to Seed
Plants (Gymnosperms and Angiosperms)
separating now.
producing and Seed producing plant
lines separating now.
Genetic comparison
shows the Spore producing (ferns and
all earlier plants) and Seed producing
(Spermatophyta, Gymnosperms and
Angiosperms) plant lines separating
now.
forests.
vertebrate.
Oldest fossil amphibian,
Acanthostega , from Greenland Also, the
oldest evidence of land vertebrates.
shows the amniote () line separating
from the amphibian line here at 365
mybn (first amniote).
(Plant Division "Pteridophyta")
evolving now.
Genetic comparison shows the
Plant Division "Pteridophyta" (Ferns)
evolving now.
Whisk and Ophioglossiod
ferns, Marattiod ferns, Horsetails,
Lepto. ferns.
Lepto. ferns 11,000
Horsetails 15
Marattio
id ferns 240
Ophioglossoid ferns 110
Whisk 15
[1] Ferns, Melbourne Botanical
Gardens gnu
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fer
n
[2] An Australian tree fern growing
on O'ahu, Hawai'i. Photographed by Eric
Guinther. A tree fern unrolling a new
frond GNU
source: same
ice age.
(354-290 mybn), end Devonian period
(417-354 mybn).
Superdivision Chondrostei (sturgeons
and paddlefish) evolves.
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates
INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
CLASS Osteichthyes
Huxley, 1880
SUBCLASS
Actinopterygii - ray-finned fishes
INFRACLASS Cladistia
INFRACLASS Actinopteri
Infradivsion Cladistia (Bichirs)
evolves.
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates
INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
CLASS Osteichthyes
Huxley, 1880
SUBCLASS
Actinopterygii - ray-finned fishes
INFRACLASS Cladistia
INFRACLASS Actinopteri
(Superclass Tetrapoda)
DOMAIN
Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates
INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
SUPERCLASS Tetrapoda
Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods
toads, Salamanders) evolve.
(Superclass
Tetrapoda, Class Amphibia)
DOMAIN Eukaryota -
eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 -
animals
SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek,
1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 -
bilaterians
BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben,
1908 - deuterostomes
INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates
INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
SUPERCLASS Tetrapoda
Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods
CLASS Amphibia Linnaeus, 1758 -
amphibians
(Superc
lass Tetrapoda, Class Amphibia)
DOMAIN Eukaryota
- eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 -
animals
SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek,
1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 -
bilaterians
BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben,
1908 - deuterostomes
INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates
INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
SUPERCLASS Tetrapoda
Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods
CLASS Amphibia Linnaeus, 1758 -
amphibians
SUBCLASS
Lissamphibia Haeckel, 1866
ORDER Gymnophiona
Rafinesque-Schmaltz, 1814
oldest living Gymnosperms from the
Plant Kingdom evolving now.
Genetic
comparison shows the oldest living
Gymnosperms (Greek for "Naked Seed"),
Cycads, from the Plant Kingdom evolving
now. These are the first seed bearing
plants.
Gymnosperm Plant Divisions are:
Pinophyta -
Conifers "Pinaceae" 220 "Other
conifers" 400 species
Ginkgophyta - Ginkgo 1
species
Cycadophyta - Cycads 130 species
Gnetophyta -
Gnetum, Ephedra, Welwitschia 80 species
[1] Leaves and female cone of Cycas
revoluta GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyc
ad
[2] Leaves and male cone of Cycas
revoluta Photo of Cycas (sago cycad)
inflorescence, taken July 2001 by
User:Stan Shebs Cycas revoluta - male
plant GNU
source: same
Gymnosperms and Angiosperms lines
separating now.
Hylonomus
was a small lizard-like reptile that
was trapped in the trunk of a swamp
tree in what is now Nova Scotia ,
Canada.
(mayfly?).
Oldest fossil of flying
insects (unless Devonian Rhyniognatha
had wings). Fossil wings on giant
mayflies, dragonflys, and
dragonfly-like arthropods.
result of the collision of Europe and
eastern North America.
This group, the Amniota, will
branch into the 3 major Classes:
Reptiles (Sauropsida), Birds (Aves),
and Mammals (Synapsida).
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates
INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
SUPERCLASS Tetrapoda
Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods
SERIES Amniota
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates
INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
SUPERCLASS Tetrapoda
Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods
SERIES Amniota
CLASS
Sauropsida
evolve.
(Superclass Tetrapoda, Class Amphibia)
DOMAIN
Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates
INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
SUPERCLASS Tetrapoda
Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods
CLASS Amphibia Linnaeus, 1758 -
amphibians
SUBCLASS
Lissamphibia Haeckel, 1866
ORDER Anura (Rafinesque, 1815)
Hogg, 1839:152
(Superclass
Tetrapoda, Class Amphibia)
DOMAIN Eukaryota -
eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 -
animals
SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek,
1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 -
bilaterians
BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben,
1908 - deuterostomes
INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates
INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
SUPERCLASS Tetrapoda
Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods
CLASS Amphibia Linnaeus, 1758 -
amphibians
SUBCLASS
Lissamphibia Haeckel, 1866
ORDER Caudata Scopoli, 1777
shows that the common ancestor of all
mammals, birds, and reptiles dates to
here at 300 mybn.
evolve.
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates
INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
SUPERCLASS Tetrapoda
Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods
SERIES Amniota
CLASS
Sauropsida
SUBCLASS
Anapsida
ORDER Testudines
- turtles
mybn), end Carboniferous period
(354-290 mybn).
second oldest living Gymnosperm, Ginkgo
from the Plant Kingdom evolving now.
Ginkgop
hyta - Ginkgo 1 species
[1] * Description: Leaves of Ginkgo
biloba. * Source: picure taken by
Reinhard Kraasch in his own garden in
August 2003 (from German wikipedia)
* Licence: released per the GNU Free
Documentation License by the
photographer
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gin
kgo
[2] Name Ginkgo biloba Family
Ginkgoaceae Image no. 1 Permission
granted to use under GFDL by Kurt
Stueber GNU Ginkgo fruit and leaves
source: same
diapsids (crocodiles) separate.
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates
INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
SUPERCLASS Tetrapoda
Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods
SERIES Amniota
CLASS
Sauropsida
SUBCLASS
Diapsida
INFRACLASS
Lepidosauromorpha
SUPERORDER
Lepidosauria™
ORDER Sphenodontida
FAMILY Sphenodontidae™ - tuataras
oldest living Gymnosperms, Conifers
(Plant division "Pinophyta") evolving
now.
Pinophyta - Conifers "Pinaceae" 220
"Other conifers" 400 species
Kingdom: Plantae
Division: Pinophyta
Class: Pinopsida
Order:
Pinales
Families:
Pinaceae - Pine family
Araucariaceae -
Araucaria family
Podocarpaceae - Yellow-wood
family
ciadopityaceae - Umbrella-pine family
Cupressac
eae - Cypress family (includes Sequoia,
Redwoods, Cypress, Alerce {Second
oldest})
Cephalotaxaceae - Plum-yew family
Taxaceae -
Yew family
[1] Closeup shot of a stem of needles
(perhaps Norway spruce?) by USFWS and
obtained from the GIMP photo
library. United States Federal
Government This work is in the
public domain because it is a work of
the United States Federal Government.
This applies worldwide. See
Copyright Close-up of pinophyte leaves
(needles): Norway Spruce (Picea abies)
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pin
ophyta
[2] Native Pinus sylvestris forest,
Scotland: Deeside, Mar Lodge, April
2005 GNU 1.2
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pin
aceae
Infradivision Actinopteri evolves.
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates
INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
CLASS Osteichthyes
Huxley, 1880
SUBCLASS
Actinopterygii - ray-finned fishes
INFRACLASS Cladistia
INFRACLASS Actinopteri
Infradivision Actinopteri, Gars evolve.
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates
INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
CLASS Osteichthyes
Huxley, 1880
SUBCLASS
Actinopterygii - ray-finned fishes
INFRACLASS Cladistia
INFRACLASS Actinopteri
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates
INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
SUPERCLASS Tetrapoda
Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods
SERIES Amniota
CLASS
Sauropsida
SUBCLASS
Diapsida
INFRACLASS
Lepidosauromorpha
SUPERORDER
Lepidosauria™
ORDER Sphenodontida
FAMILY Sphenodontidae™ - tuataras
fourth oldest living Plant Division
"Gnetales" evolving now.
Gnetophyta -
Gnetum, Ephedra, Welwitschia 80
species.
[1] Photo of a Welwitschia mirabilis,
taken in the Ugab River valley in
Namibia in October 2004 by Muriel
Gottrop. The photo shows a female
plant, recognizable by the oval shaped
seed pods. Creative Commons
License Creative Commons Attribution
iconCreative Commons Share Alike icon
This image is licensed under the
Creative Commons Attribution
ShareAlike License v.
1.0: http://creativecommons.org/license
s/by-sa/1.0/
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wel
witschia
[2] Wikimedia Commons logo This is a
file from the Wikimedia Commons. The
description on its description page
there is shown below. Genus
Welwitschia Gnetopsida Oroginally
uploaded by User:Roger_Zenner at the
German Wikipedia on 24 Sept. 2004.
Caption says it was photographed by
Freddy Weber for User:Robert_Zenner in
Auhust 2004 in Namibia. Info from
German Wikipedia: Lizenz: Gemeinfrei
(Public Domain), fotografiert von
Freddy Weber (für
Benutzer:Roger_Zenner) im August 2004
in Namibia. public domain
source: same
happens. This is the most devastating
mass extinction event in the history of
earth.
Trilobites become extinct.
[1] Timeloine of mass extinctions.
COPYRIGHTED Benjamin Cummings.
source: http://io.uwinnipeg.ca/~simmons/
16cm05/1116/16macro.htm
Era.
mybn), end Permian period (290-248
mybn).
evolve.
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates
INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
SUPERCLASS Tetrapoda
Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods
SERIES Amniota
CLASS
Sauropsida
SUBCLASS
Diapsida
INFRACLASS
Archosauromorpha
DIVISION
Archosauria
SUBDIVISION
Crurotarsi - crurotarsans
SUPERORDER Crocodylomorpha
ORDER Crocodylia™ - crocodiles
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates
INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
SUPERCLASS Tetrapoda
Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods
SERIES Amniota
CLASS Aves
Linnaeus, 1758 - birds
Neopterygii evolves.
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates
INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
CLASS Osteichthyes
Huxley, 1880
SUBCLASS
Actinopterygii - ray-finned fishes
INFRACLASS Cladistia
INFRACLASS Actinopteri
SUPERDIVISION Neopterygii
Subdivision Halecomorphi, Bow fish
(Amiiformes) evolve.
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates
INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
CLASS Osteichthyes
Huxley, 1880
SUBCLASS
Actinopterygii - ray-finned fishes
INFRACLASS Cladistia
INFRACLASS Actinopteri
SUPERDIVISION Neopterygii
In Superdivision
Neopterygii, Division Halecostomi,
Subdivision Halecomorphi, Bow fish
(Amiiformes) evolve.
DOMAIN Eukaryota -
eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 -
animals
SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek,
1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 -
bilaterians
BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben,
1908 - deuterostomes
INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates
INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
CLASS Osteichthyes
Huxley, 1880
SUBCLASS
Actinopterygii - ray-finned fishes
INFRACLASS Cladistia
INFRACLASS Actinopteri
SUPERDIVISION Neopterygii
was found in South America.
Oldest
dinosaur fossil. Eoraptor was found in
South America . This little dinosaur
was a cat-sized meat eater.
This is a
fingernail-sized skull found in Texas.
herrings, anchovies, carp, minnows,
piranha, salmon, trout, pike, perch,
seahorse, cod) evolves.
In Superdivision
Neopterygii, Division Halecostomi,
Subdivision Halecomorphi, Bow fish
(Amiiformes) evolve.
DOMAIN Eukaryota -
eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 -
animals
SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek,
1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 -
bilaterians
BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben,
1908 - deuterostomes
INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates
INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
CLASS Osteichthyes
Huxley, 1880
SUBCLASS
Actinopterygii - ray-finned fishes
INFRACLASS Cladistia
INFRACLASS Actinopteri
SUPERDIVISION Neopterygii
In Subdivision
Teleostei Bonytongues evolve.
DOMAIN Eukaryota
- eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 -
animals
SUBKINGDOM Bilateria (Hatschek,
1888) Cavalier-Smith, 1983 -
bilaterians
BRANCH Deuterostomia Grobben,
1908 - deuterostomes
INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates
INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
CLASS Osteichthyes
Huxley, 1880
SUBCLASS
Actinopterygii - ray-finned fishes
INFRACLASS Cladistia
INFRACLASS Actinopteri
SUPERDIVISION Neopterygii
DIVISION Halecostomi
SUBDIVISION Teleostei
lizards evolve.
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates
INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
SUPERCLASS Tetrapoda
Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods
SERIES Amniota
CLASS
Sauropsida
SUBCLASS
Diapsida
INFRACLASS
Lepidosauromorpha
SUPERORDER
Lepidosauria™
ORDER Squamata
SUBORDER Lacertilia
INFRAORDER Iguania
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates
INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
SUPERCLASS Tetrapoda
Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods
SERIES Amniota
CLASS
Sauropsida
SUBCLASS
Diapsida
INFRACLASS
Lepidosauromorpha
SUPERORDER
Lepidosauria™
ORDER Squamata
SUBORDER Serpentes (Linnaeus, 1758) -
snakes
Oldest
turtle fossil, Proganochelys.
evolve.
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order:
Triconodonta
mybn), end Triassic period (248-206
mybn).
evolve.
In Subdivision Teleostei Eels and
tarpons (Elopocephala) evolve.
DOMAIN
Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates
INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
CLASS Osteichthyes
Huxley, 1880
SUBCLASS
Actinopterygii - ray-finned fishes
INFRACLASS Cladistia
INFRACLASS Actinopteri
SUPERDIVISION Neopterygii
DIVISION Halecostomi
SUBDIVISION Teleostei
because of climate (temperature?,
weather?) changes. Large outpourings
of lava from break-up of Pangea may
have caused climate change.
50% of
life went extinct, including thecodonts
and synapsids.
(shark-like fishes) divides into 2
divisions Squalea (rays, skates) and
Galeomorphii (great white, hammerhead,
nurse, sand tiger sharks).
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates
INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
CLASS Chondrichthyes -
cartilaginous fishes
SUBCLASS Elasmobranchii - shark-like
fishes
INFRACLASS
Euselachii
COHORT
Neoselachii
DIVISION
Galeomorphii
DIVISION
Squalea
evolve.
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates
INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
CLASS Chondrichthyes -
cartilaginous fishes
SUBCLASS Elasmobranchii - shark-like
fishes
INFRACLASS
Euselachii
COHORT
Neoselachii
DIVISION
Galeomorphii
DIVISION
Squalea
ORDER
Hexanchiformes - cowsharks and frilled
sharks
ORDER
Echinorhiniformes
ORDER
Squaliformes - dogfish sharks and
relatives
SUPERORDER
Hypnosqualea
SUPERORDER
Batoidea - rays
white, hammerhead, nurse, sand tiger
sharks) evolve.
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates
INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
CLASS Chondrichthyes -
cartilaginous fishes
SUBCLASS Elasmobranchii - shark-like
fishes
INFRACLASS
Euselachii
COHORT
Neoselachii
DIVISION
Galeomorphii
ORDER
Carcharhiniformes - ground sharks
ORDER Heterodontiformes -
bullhead sharks
ORDER Lamniformes - mackerel sharks and
relatives
ORDER
Orectolobiformes - carpet sharks
DIVISION Squalea
Herrings
and anchovies (Division Clupeomorpha)
evolve.
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates
INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
CLASS Osteichthyes
Huxley, 1880
SUBCLASS
Actinopterygii - ray-finned fishes
INFRACLASS Cladistia
INFRACLASS Actinopteri
SUPERDIVISION Neopterygii
DIVISION Halecostomi
SUBDIVISION Teleostei
Chromalveolates) fossils.
source: http://www.nature.com/news/2003/
030217/images/diatom_180.jpg
source: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/chr
omista/diatoms/diatomdiverse.jpg
Monotremes lay eggs and are the
oldest warm blooded species of record.
Order:
Monotremata (C.L. Bonaparte, 1837)
or
Subclass Prototheria (Gill, 1872:vi)
Bi
ota
Domain Eukaryota - eukaryotes
Kingdom
Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
Subkingdom Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
Branch
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
Infrakingdom Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
Phylum Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
Subphylum Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates
Infraphylum Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
Superclass Tetrapoda
Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods
Series Amniota
Mammaliaformes Rowe, 1988
Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758 -
mammals
Subclass
Prototheria Gill, 1872:vi
Order Platypoda (Gill, 1872)
McKenna in Stucky & McKenna in Benton,
ed., 1993:740
Order
Tachyglossa (Gill, 1872) McKenna in
Stucky & McKenna in Benton, ed.,
1993:740
ancient flowering plant (Angiosperm)
still alive, "Amborella" evolving now.
This
begins the "broad-leaf" plants.
There is only 1
species of Amborella still living.
Angiosperms
(flowering plants) are the first plant
to produce fruits. A fruit is the
ripened ovary, together with seeds, of
a flowering plant. In many species, the
fruit incorporates the ripened ovary
and surrounding tissues. Fruits are the
means by which flowering plants
disseminate seeds.
Class is "Palaeodicots"?
[1] Photo of Amborella trichopoda
(Amborellaceae; photo © Sangtae Kim).
source: http://tolweb.org/tree?group=ang
iosperms
[2] none
source: http://www.ucsc.edu/currents/99-
00/08-30/amborella.photo2.htm
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates
INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
CLASS Osteichthyes
Huxley, 1880
SUBCLASS
Actinopterygii - ray-finned fishes
INFRACLASS Cladistia
INFRACLASS Actinopteri
SUPERDIVISION Neopterygii
DIVISION Halecostomi
SUBDIVISION Teleostei
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates
INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
CLASS Osteichthyes
Huxley, 1880
SUBCLASS
Actinopterygii - ray-finned fishes
INFRACLASS Cladistia
INFRACLASS Actinopteri
SUPERDIVISION Neopterygii
DIVISION Halecostomi
SUBDIVISION Teleostei
second oldest line of Angiosperms, the
Water Lilies ("Nymphaeales") evolving
now.
70 species.
[1] Nymphaea alba Nymphaea alba -
image taken on 29 August 2004 in the
outdoor botanical garden of Technion -
Haifa, Israel public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nym
phaeaceae
[2] Nymphaea colorata from
Africa presume is gnu or pd
source: same
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates
INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
CLASS Osteichthyes
Huxley, 1880
SUBCLASS
Actinopterygii - ray-finned fishes
INFRACLASS Cladistia
INFRACLASS Actinopteri
SUPERDIVISION Neopterygii
DIVISION Halecostomi
SUBDIVISION Teleostei
The
Archaeopteryx fossil is from the
Solnhofen Limestone of the Upper
Jurassic of Germany.
Archaeopteryx is a member of the
extinct Subclass Archaeornithes.
There are many unsolved questions about
birds. Did birds evolve flight from
trees or from the ground? From what
part of the body did feathers evolve?
What colors were the first birds? Was
Archaeopteryx warm blooded?
Biota
Domain Eukaryota - eukaryotes
Kingdom
Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
Subkingdom Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
Branch
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
Infrakingdom Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
Phylum Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
Subphylum Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates
Infraphylum Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
Superclass Tetrapoda
Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods
Series Amniota
Class
Aves Linnaeus, 1758 - birds
{Subclass †Archaeornithes}
[1] Archaeopteryx siemensii HMN
1880/81 (Berlin) COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.oucom.ohiou.edu/dbms-
witmer/dinoskulls02.htm
[2] Archaeopteryx sp. JM 2257
(Eichstätt) COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.oucom.ohiou.edu/dbms-
witmer/dinoskulls02.htm
Unlike Archaeopteryx, Confuciusornis
had no teeth.
Biota
Domain Eukaryota - eukaryotes
Kingdom
Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
Subkingdom Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
Branch
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
Infrakingdom Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
Phylum Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
Subphylum Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates
Infraphylum Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
Superclass Tetrapoda
Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods
Series Amniota
Class
Aves Linnaeus, 1758 - birds
{Subclass †Archaeornithes}
[1] Confuciusornis
source: http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/dia
psids/birds/confuciusornislg.jpg
branch of mammals) evolve.
Kingdom: Animalia
Class: Mammaliformes
Order:
Multituberculata
Cope, 1884
Oldest
flower fossil, Archaefructus, in China,
a submerged wetland plant.
[1] Archaefructus liaoningensis. The
leaf-like structures on the stem of
this 140 million year old fossil are
pods containing the seeds, a
characteristic unique to flowering
plants. Credit: University of Florida.
PD?
source: http://science.nasa.gov/headline
s/y2001/ast17apr_1.htm?list118443
[2] Archaefructus liaoningensis Sun,
Dilcher, Zheng et Zhou (Sun et al.,
1998). Fruiting axes and remains of two
subtending leaves (Photo courtesy of
David Dilcher). COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/deeptim
e/virtualfossilcollection/Archaeofructus
.html
mybn), end Jurassic period (206-144
mybn).
Biota
Domain Eukaryota - eukaryotes
Kingdom
Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
Subkingdom Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
Branch
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
Infrakingdom Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
Phylum Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
Subphylum Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates
Infraphylum Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
Superclass Tetrapoda
Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods
Series Amniota
Mammaliaformes Rowe, 1988
Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758 -
mammals
Subclass
Theriiformes (Rowe, 1988) McKenna &
Bell, 1997:vii,36
Infraclass Holotheria (Wible et al.,
1995) McKenna & Bell, 1997:vii,43
Superlegion Trechnotheria
McKenna, 1975
Legion Cladotheria McKenna, 1975
Sublegion
Zatheria McKenna, 1975
Infralegion
Tribosphenida (McKenna, 1975) McKenna &
Bell, 1997:vii,48
Supercohort Theria (Parker &
Haswell, 1897) McKenna & Bell,
1997:viii,49
Cohort Marsupialia (Illiger, 1811)
McKenna & Bell, 1997:viii,51 -
marsupials
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Subclass:
Marsupialia
Illiger, 1811
Orders
* Didelphimorphia
* Paucituberculata
* Microbiotheria
* Dasyuromorphia
*
Peramelemorphia
* Notoryctemorphia
* Diprotodontia
[1] Alvarezsaurid. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.palaeos.com/Vertebrat
es/Units/350Aves/350.200.html
evolve.
[1] Iberomesornis
COPYRIGHTED, Iberomesornis
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.dinosauromorpha.de/th
eropoda/iberomesornis.JPG
source: http://www.lemanlake.com/photos/
biotope/biodiversite/iberomesornis.gif
evolve.
[1] Sinornis santensis Artist: James
Reece COPYRIGHTED AUSTRALIA
source: http://www.amonline.net.au/chine
se_dinosaurs/feathered_dinosaurs/photo07
.htm
[1] fossil specimen of Chaoyangornis
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sino-collector.com/en
g/_private/cjyd/zjlt/hjs-hs/pic-l/hs0016
.jpg
[2] Chaoyangia, modified from Hou et
al. (1996) COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://rainbow.ldeo.columbia.edu
/courses/v1001/clover16.html
evolve.
[1] Hesperornis. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.savageancientseas.com
/images/labels/hesperornis.jpg
[2] Detail of a painting by Ely Kish,
Copyright © Ely Kish; used with
permission of Ely Kish (EMAIL)
Hesperornis regalis Hesperornis
(pronounced HES-per-OR-nis) means
''western bird''. Toothed marine birds
of the Late Cretaceous
seas COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.oceansofkansas.com/He
sperornis/kish-01.jpg
shows the eutheria (placental mammals)
line separating from the marsupial line
here at 130 mybn (first placental
mammals).
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates
INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
CLASS Osteichthyes
Huxley, 1880
SUBCLASS
Actinopterygii - ray-finned fishes
INFRACLASS Cladistia
INFRACLASS Actinopteri
SUPERDIVISION Neopterygii
DIVISION Halecostomi
SUBDIVISION Teleostei
DOMAIN Eukaryota - eukaryotes
KINGDOM Animalia
Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
SUBKINGDOM
Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
BRANCH
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
INFRAKINGDOM Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
PHYLUM Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
SUBPHYLUM Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates
INFRAPHYLUM Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
CLASS Osteichthyes
Huxley, 1880
SUBCLASS
Actinopterygii - ray-finned fishes
INFRACLASS Cladistia
INFRACLASS Actinopteri
SUPERDIVISION Neopterygii
DIVISION Halecostomi
SUBDIVISION Teleostei
Angiosperm "Austrobaileyales" evolving
now.
100 species living.
A. scandens contains
fruit, growing from its vines. The
fruit is apricot-coloured and contain
tightly packed seeds in the shape of
chestnuts. The fruit is shaped in a
similar fashion to that of a pear or
eggplant. Fruit from Austrobaileya has
been known to grow to sizes of 7 cm in
length by 5 cm.
[1] Austrobaileya scandens
(Austrobaileyaceae) mature
fruit Lamins Hill via Malanda,
Queensland date uncertain Larger
image (81K) Robust vine in rainforest
canopy. It is a single species in an
Australian endemic family. Its pollen
is the oldest recorded flowering plant
pollen in Australia. See reference
under Image 7-93. Mesophyll/notophyll
vine forest.
source: http://www.gu.edu.au/ins/collect
ions/webb/html/6-15.html
[2] Austrobaileya scandens C.T.
White * Query NCU-3e or IPNI
* Common Name: * Family:
Austrobaileyaceae (Croiz.) Croiz.
* Country of Origin: Australia -
Queensland * Habitat: Mesophyll /
notophyll vine forest *
Eco-region(s): o AA0117 -
Queensland tropical rain forests
* Description: Evergreen, woody vines
with loosely twining main stem and
straight, leafy lateral branches
endemic to the rainforests of northeast
Queensland, Australia. This species is
the only member of the genus and the
genus is the only member of the family,
Austrobaileyaceae. It is a very
primitive angiosperm family although it
is sometimes placed in the Magnoliales
(Cronquist) or Laurales. Cronquist
considers it an ''isolated small group,
not wholly compatible with the bulk of
either the Laurales or Magnoliales, but
not sufficiently distinctive to
constitute a family of its own.''
The flowers are rather large,
solitary in the axils of the leaves,
with a putrescent odor, probably
pollinated by flies. Its
pollen is the oldest recorded flowering
plant pollen in Australia.
source: http://florawww.eeb.uconn.edu/im
ages/byspecies/AUSTROBAILEYA_SCANDENS_01
.JPG
Angiosperm "Chloranthaceae" evolving
now.
70 living species.
[1] Hedyosmum scaberrimum AB201a is
from arizona.edu
source: http://eebweb.arizona.edu/grads/
alice/Chloranthaceae/Hedyosmum%20scaberr
imum%20AB201a.html
[2] Scientific Name Chloranthus
japonicus Location Vityaz inlet,
Gamov Peninsula, Khasansky distr.,
Primorsky Territory (Russian
Federation) Acknowledgements courtesy
CalPhotos Copyright © 2001 Nick
Kurzenko
source: http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Chl
oranthaceae
Angiosperm group "Magnoliids" evolving
now.
9,000 living species.
Includes magnolias,
nutmeg, avocado, sassafras, cinnamin,
black and white pepper, camphor, bay
(laurel) leaves.
[1] Magnolia This photo is a part of
the Wikipedia:Plant photo collection
I. Downloaded URL:
http://tencent.homestead.com/files/magno
lia.jpg Warning sign This image has
no source information. Source
information must be provided so that
the copyright status can be verified by
others. Unless the copyright status is
provided and a source is given, the
image will be deleted seven days after
this template was added (see page
history). If you just added this
template, please use {{no source
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mag
noliales
[2] ~~~~~}} (to include the date
here). Please consider using {{no
source notified
source: same
Angiosperm "Ceratophyllaceae" evolving
now.
6 living species.
The oldest relative of all
the eudicots.
[1] Ceratophyllum
submersum Description: Ceratophyllum
submersum; an aquatic plant. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cer
atophyllaceae
[2] Ceratophyllum
demersum Ceratophyllum_demersum3.jpg
(78KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Common
Hornwort (Ceratophyllum
demersum) usgs
source: same
Angiosperm group "Monocotyledons"
(Monocots) evolving now. Monocots are
the second largest lineage of flowers
after the Eudicots, and include lilies,
palms, orchids, and grasses.
Monocots are the
second largest lineage of flowers after
the Eudicots (formally Dicotyledons)
with
70,000 living species (20,000
species of orchids, and 15,000 species
of grasses).
The two main orders of Monocots are
"Base Monocots" and "Commelinids".
All the grasses on
earth come from this line of flowers
(check).
Base Monocots
(Family Petrosaviaceae)
Acorales
Alismatales
Asparagales
(asparagus, onion, garlic, chives,
agave, yucca, aloe, hyacinth, orchids,
iris, saffron)
Dioscoreales (yam)
Liliales
(lillies)
Pandanales
Commelinids
(Family Dasypogonaceae)
Arecales (palms,date palm,
rattan, coconut)
Commelinales
Poales (grasses: maize
{corn}, rice, barley, oat, millet,
wheat, rye, sorghum, sugarcane, bamboo,
grass, pineapple, water chestnut,
papyrus {many alcohols, breads})
Zingiberales
(cardamom, tumeric, myoga, banana,
ginger, arrowroot)
[1] Sweet Flag (Acorus calamus) -
spadix Spadix of Sweet Flag. usgs
public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aco
rus
[2] Ivy Duckweed (Lemna
trisulca) Name Lemna
trisulca Family Lemnaceae
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali
smatales
Angiosperm group Eudicots (includes
most former dicotyledons) evolving now.
Eudicots are the largest lineage of
flowers.
eudicots are also called "tricolpates"
which refers to the structure of the
pollen.
The two main groups are the "rosids"
and "asterids".
* Basal eudicots
o Ranunculales
o
Buxales
o Trochodendrales
o Proteales
o
Gunnerales
o Berberidopsidales
o Dilleniales
o
Caryophyllales
o Saxifragales
o Santalales
o
Vitales
* Basal rosids
o
Crossosomatales
o Geraniales
o Myrtales
* Eurosids
I
o Zygophyllales
o Celastrales
o
Malpighiales
o Oxalidales
o Fabales
o
Rosales
o Cucurbitales
o Fagales
* Eurosids
II
o Brassicales
o Malvales
o
Sapindales
* Basal asterids
o Cornales
o
Ericales
* Euasterids I
o Garryales
o Solanales
o Gentianales
o Lamiales
o
Unplaced: Boraginaceae
* Euasterids II
o
Aquifoliales
o Apiales
o Dipsacales
o
Asterales
Angiosperm "Basal Eudicots" evolving
now.
Includes buttercup, clematis, poppies
(opium and morphine), macadamia, lotus,
sycamore.
[1] Creeping butercup (Ranunculus
repens). GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Creeping_butercup_close_800.jpg
[2] Clematis hybrid from
http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/graphics/phot
os/ public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cle
matis
Angiosperm groups "Asterids" and
"Rosids" evolving and separating now.
Angiosperm "Basal Rosids" evolving now.
Incl
udes Geranium, Pomegranate, myrtle,
clove, guava, feijoa, allspice,
eucalyptus.
# Basal rosids
* Crossosomatales
* Geraniales
* Myrtales
[1] A photo of the tree Staphylea
colchica taken by me in Ã…rhus, Denmark
GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cro
ssosomatales
[2] Blossom of Geranium sylvaticum,
closeup, GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cra
nesbill
Angiosperm "Eurosids I" evolving now.
includ
es coca, flax, willow, violet,
mangosteen, coca (cocaine), poinsettia,
rubber tree, casava (manioc, yuca)
{tapioca}, castor oil plant, Acerola
("Barbados cherry"), willow, poplar,
aspen, violet {pansy}, beans (green,
lima, fava {falafel}, kidney, pinto,
navy, black, mung {sprouts}, popping),
pea, peanut, soybean, lentil, chick pea
(garbonzo) {falafel}, lupin, clover,
alfalfa {sprouts}, cassia, jicama,
tamarind, acacia, mesquite.
[1] Oriental Staff Vine Celastrus
orbiculatus US NPS public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sta
ff_vine
[2] Northern Grass of Parnassus
(Parnassia palustris) GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Par
nassiaceae
Angiosperm "Eurosids I" Order
"Celastrales" evolving now.
includes coca,
flax, willow, violet, mangosteen, coca
(cocaine), poinsettia, rubber tree,
casava (manioc, yuca) {tapioca}, castor
oil plant, Acerola ("Barbados cherry"),
willow, poplar, aspen, violet {pansy},
beans (green, lima, fava {falafel},
kidney, pinto, navy, black, mung
{sprouts}, popping), pea, peanut,
soybean, lentil, chick pea (garbonzo)
{falafel}, lupin, clover, alfalfa
{sprouts}, cassia, jicama, tamarind,
acacia, mesquite.
[1] Oriental Staff Vine Celastrus
orbiculatus US NPS public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sta
ff_vine
[2] Northern Grass of Parnassus
(Parnassia palustris) GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Par
nassiaceae
Angiosperm "Eurosids I" Order
"Malpighiales" evolving now.
includes
gambooge, mangosteen, coca {cocaine,
drink}, rubber tree, cassava (manioc)
{used like potato, tapioca}, castol
oil, poinsettia, flax, acerola
(barbados cherry), willow, poplar,
aspen, violet (pansy).
[1] mangosteen public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gar
cinia
[2] Mangosteen fruit public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Man
gosteen
Angiosperm, "Eurosids I" Order
"Oxalidales" evolving now.
includes
Cephalotus Follicularis (fly-cather
plant), wood sorrel family (leaves show
"sleep movements"), oca (edible tuber)
[1] Oxalis regnellii atropurpurea
(Regnell's Sorrel) GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxa
lidaceae
.jpg)
[2] Common wood sorrel GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Com
mon_wood_sorrel
Angiosperm, "Eurosids I" Order
"Fabales" evolving now.
includes beans
(green, lima, kidney, pinto, navy,
black, mung {sprouts}, fava {falafel},
cow (black-eyed), popping), pea,
peanut, soy {tofu, miso, tempeh, milk},
lentil, chick pea (garbonzo) {falafel},
lupin, clover, alfalfa {sprouts},
cassia, jicama, Judas tree, tamarind,
acacia, mesquite, Judas tree
[1] Abrus precatorius (Black-eyed
Susan) USGS public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abr
us
[2] Desert false indigo (Amorpha
fruticosa) public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amo
rpha
Angiosperm, "Eurosids I" Order
"Rosales" evolving now.
includes hemp
(cannibis, marijuana) {rope, oil,
recreational drug}, hackberry, hop
{beer}, breadfruit, cempedak,
jackfruit, marang, paper mulberry, fig,
banyan, strawberry, rose, red
raspberry, black raspberry, blackberry,
cloudberry, loganberry, salmonberry,
thimbleberry, serviceberry, chokeberry,
quince, loquat, apple, crabapple, pair,
plums, cherries, peaches, apricots,
almonds, jujube, elm
[1] U.S. 'Marihuana' production permit,
from the film Hemp for Victory. In the
U.S.A., hemp is legally prohibited, but
during World War II, farmers were
encouraged to grow hemp for cordage, to
replace manila hemp from
Japanese-controlled areas. public
domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hem
p
[2] Cannabis sativa, US Fish and
wildlife service public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Can
nabis_sativa
Angiosperm, "Eurosids I" Order
"Cucurbitales" evolving now.
includes
watermelon, musk, cantaloupe, honeydew,
casaba, cucumbers, gourds, pumpkins,
squashes (acorn, buttercup, butternut,
cushaw, hubbard, pattypan, spaghetti),
zucchini, begonia
[1] White bryony (Bryonia dioica). GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:White_bryony_male_800.jpg
[2] watermelon public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vampire_watermelon.jpg
Angiosperm, "Eurosids I" Order
"Fagales" evolving now.
includes Birch,
Hazel {nut}, Filbert {nut}, Chestnut,
Beech {nut}, Oak {nut, cork}, walnut,
pecan, hickory, bayberry
[1] Alnus serrulata (Tag Alder) Male
catkins on right, mature female catkins
left Johnsonville, South Carolina GFDL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Tagalder8139.jpg
[2] Speckled Alder (Alnus incana
subsp. rugosa) - leaves GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Alnus_incana_rugosa_leaves.jpg
Angiosperm "Monocotyledon" (Monocot)
group "Base Monocots" evolving now.
ORDER
Acorales
ORDER Alismatales
ORDER Asparagales (asparagus,
onion, garlic, chives, agave, yucca,
aloe, hyacinth, orchids, iris)
ORDER
Dioscoreales (yam)
ORDER Liliales (lily)
ORDER
Pandanales
* Family Petrosaviaceae
[1] Sweet Flag (Acorus calamus) -
spadix Spadix of Sweet Flag. usgs
public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aco
rus
[2] Ivy Duckweed (Lemna
trisulca) Name Lemna
trisulca Family Lemnaceae
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali
smatales
Angiosperm "Monocotyledon" (Monocot)
group "Commelinids" evolving now.
Commelinid
s
Arecales (palms,date palm, rattan,
coconut)
Commelinales
Poales (grasses: maize {corn}, rice,
barley, oat, millet, wheat, rye,
sorghum, sugarcane, bamboo, grass,
pineapple, water chestnut, papyrus
{many alcohols, breads})
Zingiberales
(cardamom, tumeric, myoga, banana,
ginger, arrowroot)
(Family Dasypogonaceae) (new
order?)
[1] Manila dwarf coconut palm from
http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/graphics/phot
os/ Manila dwarf coconut palm
thumbnail A Manila dwarf coconut palm
on the grounds of the Tropical
Agriculture Research Station in
Mayaguez, Puerto Rico. dept of
ag public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Are
cales
[2] coconut GOV public domain
source: http://www.nps.gov/kaho/KAHOckLs
/KAHOplnt/images/IMG_03957.jpg
Angiosperm "Core Eudicots" evolving
now.
Includes carnation, cactus, caper,
buckwheat, rhubarb, sundew, venus
flytrap, pitcher plants {old world},
beet, quinoa, spinach, currant, sweet
gum, peony, with-hazel, mistletoe,
grape.
ORDER Gunnerales
ORDER Berberidopsidales
ORDER
Aextoxicaceae
ORDER Dilleniales
ORDER Caryophyllales (carnation,
beet, spinach, quinoa, cactus {prickly
pear, peyote/mescaline}, caper,
buckwheat, rhubarb, sundew, venus
flytrap, pitcher plants {old world})
ORD
ER Saxifragales (gooseberry, sweet gum,
currants, peony, witch-hazel)
ORDER Santalales
(sandalwood, mistletoe)
ORDER Vitales (grape
{wine, juice, jelly, raisen, oil,
dolma})
[1] Carnation in flower Beschreibung:
Gartennelke (Dianthus caryophyllus)
creative commons
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Car
nation
[2] Beets GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bee
t
Angiosperm "Eurosids I" Order
"Zygophyllales" evolving now.
includes
[1] Bulnesia sarmientoi is a South
American tree species that inhabits the
north of Argentina as well as southern
Brazil and Paraguay. It is one of
several species known as palo santoin
Spanish. [1] Source: Libro del Ãrbol,
Tome II, edited by Celulosa Argentina
S. A., Buenos Aires, Argentina, October
1975. The visual material is not
explicitly copyrighted, but the editors
thank Mr. Jorge Vallmitjana for his
''photographic
contribution''. Argentina copyright
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Bulnesia_sarmientoi.jpg
[2] Fagonia, US NPS public domain
source: http://www.nps.gov/jotr/activiti
es/blooms/flwrpix/fagonia.jpg
Angiosperm "Eurosids II" evolving now.
inclu
des
Angiosperm "Eurosids II" Order
"Brassicales" evolving now.
includes
horseradish, rapeseed, mustard {plain,
brown, black, indian, sarepta, asian},
rutabaga, kale, Chinese broccoli
(kai-lan), cauliflower, collard greens,
cabbage (white and red {coleslaw,
sauerkraut}), kohlrabi, broccoli,
watercress, radish, wasabi, mignonette,
papaya
mignonette, mallows, soapberry, citris,
mahogany, cashew, frankincense, cacao
(chocolate), cola {kola nuts, caffeine}
[1] Aethionema grandiflora, GFDL by
Kurt Stueber
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aethionema_grandiflora0.jpg
[2] Arabidopsis thaliana, GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Arabidopsis_thaliana.jpg
Angiosperm "Eurosids II" Order
"Malvales" evolving now.
includes okra,
marsh mallow, kola nut, cotton,
hibiscus, balsa, cacao {chocolate},
soapberry, citris, mahogany, cashew,
frankincense
[1] Bixa orellana L., floro en Lavras,
Minas Gerais, Brazilo, GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Bixa.jpg
[2] Cistus incanus - image taken on
30 March 2004, on the slopes of Mount
Carmel, Israel. public domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cistus_incanus.jpg
Angiosperm "Eurosids II" Order
"Sapindales" evolving now.
includes maple,
buckeye, horse chestnut, longan,
lychee, rambutan, guarana, bael,
orange, lemon, grapefruit, lime,
tangerine, pomelo, kumquat, langsat,
duku, mahogany, cashew, mango,
pistachio, sumac, peppertree,
poison-ivy, frankincense
[1] Field Maple foliage and flowers,
Acer campestre. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Acer-campestre.JPG
[2] Sugar Maple from
www.dnr.cornell.edu NOT GNU
source: http://www.dnr.cornell.edu/ext/f
orestrypage/sfda/graphics/crop%20tree%20
sugar%20maple.jpg
Angiosperm "Basal Asterids" evolving
now.
Angiosperm "Basal Asterids" Order
"Cornales" evolving now.
Includes dogwoods,
tupelos, dove tree
[1] European Cornel (Cornus mas) Paris,
France, cc
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cornus_mas_flowers.jpg
[2] Common Dogwood flowering (Cornus
sanguinea) non commercial
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cornussanguinea1web.jpg
Angiosperm "Basal Asterids" Order
"Ericales" evolving now.
Includes kiwifruit
(kiwi), Impatiens, ebony, persimmon,
heather, crowberry, rhododendrons,
azalias, cranberries, blueberries,
lingonberry, bilberry, huckleberry,
brazil nut, primrose, sapodilla, mamey
sapote (sapota), chicle, balatá,
canistel, pitcher plants {carniverous},
tea {Camellia sinensis}
[1] Actinidia fruit. kiwifruit. public
domain
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Actinidia_fruit.jpg
[2] Actinidia deliciosa. kiwifruit,
cc
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kiwi_aka.jpg
Angiosperm "Euasterids I" evolving now.
Angiosperm "Euasterids I" order
"Garryales" evolving now.
includes
[1] Garrya elliptica foliage and
catkins. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Garrya_elliptica.jpg
[2] Aucuba japonica. GFDL by Kurt
Stueber
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aucuba_japonica1.jpg
Angiosperm "Euasterids I" order
"Solanales" evolving now.
includes deadly
nightshade or belladonna, capsicum
(bell pepper, paprika, Jalapeño,
Pimento), cayenne pepper, datura,
tomatos, mandrake, tobacco, petunia,
tomatillo, potato, eggplant, morning
glory, sweet potato, water spinach
[1] Atropa belladonna. Deadly
nightshade. GFDL by Kurt Stueber
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Atropa_bella-donna1.jpg
[2] Berries of the belladonna. Atropa
bella-donna. Deadly nightshade. GFDL by
Kurt Stueber
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Atropa_bella-donna0.jpg
Angiosperm "Euasterids I" order
"Gentianales" evolving now.
includes
gentian, dogbane, carissa (Natal plum),
oleander, logania, coffee
[1] Anthocleista grandiflora. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Anthocleista_grandiflora.jpg
[2] bartonia virginica. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Bartonia_virginica.jpg
Angiosperm "Euasterids I" order
"Lamiales" evolving now.
includes lavender,
mint, peppermint, basil, marjoram,
oregano, perilla, rosemary, sage,
savory, thyme, teak, sesame, corkscrew
plants, bladderwort, snapdragon, olive,
ash, lilac, jasmine
[1] Common Bugle (Ajuga reptans) GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ajuga-reptans01.jpg
[2] Calamintha grandiflora. GFDL by
Kurt Stueber
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Calamintha_grandiflora2.jpg
Angiosperm "Euasterids I" (unplaced)
family "Boraginaceae" evolving now.
includes
forget-me-not
[1] Fiddleneck, species not determined.
in Claremont Canyon Regional Preserve,
Alameda County, California. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fiddleneck.jpg
[2] Italian Bugloss (Anchusa azurea).
GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Anchusa_azurea_flores.jpg
Angiosperm "Euasterids II" order
"Aquifoliales" evolving now.
includes holly
[1] English holly (female), GNU FDL.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:English_holly.jpg
[2] Ilex aquifolium (L.) GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Acebo.jpg
Angiosperm "Euasterids II" order
"Apiales" evolving now.
includes dill,
angelica, chervil, celery, caraway,
cumin, sea holly, poison hemlock,
coriander (cilantro), carrot, lovage,
parsnip, anise, fennel, cicely,
parsley, ivy, ginseng
[1] Variegated Ground-elder (Aegopodium
podagraria L.) in flower. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ground-elder_bloom.jpg
[2] An established spread of
variegated Ground-elder (Aegopodium
podagraria L.). GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ground-elder.jpg
Angiosperm "Euasterids II" order
"Dipsacales" evolving now.
includes
Elderberry, Honeysuckle, Teasel, Corn
Salad
[1] Adoxa moschatellina (L.). 2005
Vellefrey et Vellefrange (France). GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Adoxa_moschatellina01.jpg
[2] Danewort inflorescence. Sambucus
ebulus (L.). European Dwarf Elder. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sambucus_nigra_flori_bgiu.jpg
Angiosperm "Euasterids II" order
"Asterales" evolving now.
includes burdock,
tarragon, daisy, marigold, Safflower,
chrysanthemum (mum), chickory, endive,
artichoke, Sunflower, sunroot
(Jerusalem artichoke), lettuce,
chamomile, black-eyed susan, black
salsify, dandelion, zinnia
[1] Ray floret, typical for flowers of
the family Asteraceae. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ray.floret01.jpg
[2] disc floret, typical part of a
flower of the family Asteraceae. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Disc_floret01.jpg
More
important anatomical characteristics
include horn beak; teeth absent; fused
limb bones. In addition Neornithes have
a fully-separated four-chambered heart
and typically exhibit complex social
behaviors.
monotreme, the earliest platypus-like
species, lives.
brachiosaur (sauropod) fossil.
Sauropos
iedon fossil, a long-neck (sauropod)
brachiosaur from Oklahoma, possibly the
tallest animal of all time, at an
estimated height of 60 feet.
titanosaur (sauropod) fossil.
Argentino
saurus, a long-neck (sauropod)
titanosaur from South America, possibly
the longest animal of all time, at an
estimated 130 to 140 feet length.
aardvarks) evolve.
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Subclass:
Theria
Infraclass: Eutheria (Huxley, 1880)
Superorde
r Afrotheria:
shows the mammal line separating from
the primate line here at 100 mybn
(first primates).
meat-eating (theropod) dinosaur from
South America.
Carnotaurus fossil, a
horned, meat-eating (theropod) dinosaur
from South America. The fossil
includes skin impressions of its face.
evolve.
More important anatomical
characteristics include horn beak;
teeth absent; fused limb bones. In
addition Neornithes have a
fully-separated four-chambered heart
and typically exhibit complex social
behaviors.
[1] Phylum : Chordata - Class : Aves -
Order : Tinamiformes - Family :
Tinamidae - Species : Crypturellus
tataupa (Tataupa tinamou) Given to the
wikipedia by the owner, Marcos
Massarioli. Status GNU
source: http://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
gem:Crypturellus_tataupa.JPG
kiwis) evolve.
monotreme lives.
largest meat-eating dinosaur, estimated
to have been 45 to 50 feet long.
Spinos
aurus fossil, perhaps the largest
meat-eating dinosaur, estimated to have
been 45 to 50 feet long. The only
skeleton ever found was destroyed
during World War 2.
Armadillos) evolve.
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Subclass:
Theria
Infraclass Edentata:
Superorder Xenarthra:
Turkey, Pheasants, Peacocks, Quail)
evolve.
major line of mammals that include:
bats, camels, pigs, deer, sheep,
hippos, whales, horses, rhinos, cats,
dogs, bears, seals, walrus).
Kingdom: Animalia
Class: Mammalia
Subclass: Eutheria
Superorder:
Euarchontoglires
are common.
Duck-billed dinosaurs
(hadrosaurs) were common like
Corythyosaurus , Edmontosaurus ,
Lambeosaurus , Maiasaurus , and
Parasaurolophus . Maiasaurs are
examples of dinosaurs from which fossil
nests, eggs, and baby dinosaurs have
been found.
(Laurasuatheres) evolve.
Kingdom: Animalia
Class: Mammalia
Subclass: Eutheria
Superorder
Laurasiatheria
shield-headed (ceratopsian) dinosaur
fossil.
Protoceratops, an early
shield-headed (ceratopsian) dinosaur
fossil. It was the first dinosaur
discovered with fossil eggs. These eggs
and nests were found in Mongolia in the
1920's.
Rapt
ors (dromaeosaurs) are Cretaceous
dinosaurs, which had large, hook claws
on their feet. Velociraptor is one
example. The most famous Velociraptor
is a skeleton preserved in combat with
a Protoceratops from Mongolia, China .
(American Marsupials) evolve.
This is
the Marsupial Order Didelphimorphia.
Kingdom:
Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Subclass: Marsupialia
Order:
Didelphimorphia
Gill, 1872
Family: Didelphidae
Gray, 1821
Kingdom: Animalia
Class: Mammalia
Subclass: Eutheria
Superorder
Laurasiatheria
Whales (Laurasuatheres) evolve.
Kingdom: Animalia
Class: Mammalia
Subclass: Eutheria
Superorder
Laurasiatheria
Marsupials) evolve.
This is the
Marsupial Order Paucituberculata. 6
surviving species confined to Andes
mountains in South America.
Kingdom:
Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Subclass: Marsupialia
Order:
Paucituberculata
Ameghino, 1894
Family: Caenolestidae
Trouessart, 1898
(Laurasuatheres) evolve.
Kingdom: Animalia
Class: Mammalia
Subclass: Eutheria
Superorder
Laurasiatheria
from Grand Canyon, USA.
source: Life on a Young Planet
dinosaurs are common.
Ceratopsian
(shield-headed) dinosaurs were common
in the late Cretaceous. Examples are
Monoclonius , and Styrakosaurus .
Triceratops, which lived at the end of
Cretaceous, was the largest of its
kind, reaching 30 feet in length.
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Subclass:
Theria
Infraclass: Eutheria (Huxley, 1880)
Superorde
r Afrotheria:
Hyenas, Seals, Walruses
(Laurasuatheres) evolve.
Kingdom: Animalia
Class: Mammalia
Subclass: Eutheria
Superorder
Laurasiatheria
Kingdom: Animalia
Class: Mammalia
Subclass: Eutheria
Superorder
Laurasiatheria
a major line of mammals that includes
rats, squirrels, rabbits, lemurs,
monkeys, apes, and humans.
Kingdom: Animalia
Class: Mammalia
Subclass: Eutheria
Superorder
Euarchontoglires
Marsupials) evolve.
This is the
Marsupial Order Peramelemorphia.
Kingdo
m: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Subclass:
Marsupialia
Order: Peramelemorphia
Ameghino, 1889
dinosaurs of all time exist.
Tyrannosaurus rex is the top predator
in North America and Giganotosaurus is
in South America.
club tails) evolve.
The armored
ankylosaurs (had a shield back or
clubbed tail) was the most heavily
armored land-animals in the history of
earth. These plant-eating were low to
the ground for optimal protection.
Many had spikes that stuck out from
their bone-covered back. Ankylosaurus
even had bony plates on its eyelids.
(Afrotheres) evolve.
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Subclass:
Theria
Infraclass: Eutheria (Huxley, 1880)
Superorde
r Afrotheria:
evolve.
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Subclass:
Theria
Infraclass: Eutheria (Huxley, 1880)
Superorde
r Afrotheria:
and pikas evolve.
Kingdom: Animalia
Class: Mammalia
Subclass: Eutheria
Superorder
Euarchontoglires
Colugos evolves.
Kingdom: Animalia
Class: Mammalia
Subclass: Eutheria
Superorder
Euarchontoglires
Order: Dermoptera (Illiger, 1811)
Family:
Cynocephalidae (Simpson, 1945)
event happens.
Dinosaurs become
extinct.
Also called the K-T
(Kretaceous-Tertiary) extinction.
Huge
amounts of lava erupted from India, and
a comet or meteor collided with the
Earth in what is now the Yucatan
Peninsula of Mexico. No large animals
survived on land, in the air, or in the
sea.
[1] Timeline of mass extinctions.
COPYRIGHTED Benjamin Cummings.
source: http://io.uwinnipeg.ca/~simmons/
16cm05/1116/16macro.htm
[2] Cretaceous meteor impact.
COPYRIGHTED Benjamin Cummings.
source: http://io.uwinnipeg.ca/~simmons/
16cm05/1116/16macro.htm
Era.
mybn), end Cretaceous period (144-65
mybn).
evolve.
Pterasaurs, the flying
reptiles of the Mesozoic reached their
largest size with Quetzalcoatlus, which
had a wing span of 40 ft. This was the
largest flying animal of all time.
fossil mammals after the extinction of
the dinosaurs.
Most early Cenozoic
mammal fossils are small.
evolve.
marsupials) evolve.
This is the
Marsupial Order Peramelemorphia.
Kingdo
m: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Subclass:
Marsupialia
Order: Notoryctemorphia
Kirsch, in Hunsaker, 1977
Family:
Notoryctidae
Ogilby, 1892
Genus: Notoryctes
Stirling, 1891
(Australian marsupials) evolve.
This
is the Marsupial Order Dasyuromorphia.
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Subclass:
Marsupialia
Order: Dasyuromorphia
Gill, 1872
marsupial) evolves.
This is the
Marsupial Order Microbiotheria.
Kingdom
: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Subclass:
Marsupialia
Order: Microbiotheria
Ameghino, 1889
Family:
Microbiotheriidae
Ameghino, 1887
Genus: Dromiciops
Thomas, 1894
Species: D.
gliroides
Koalas (Australian marsupials) evolve.
Genetic comparison show Wombats,
Kangeroos, Possums, Loalas (Australian
marsupials) evolve.
This is the
Marsupial Order Diprotodontia.
Kingdom:
Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Subclass: Marsupialia
Order:
Diprotodontia
Owen, 1866
gerbils, voloes, lemmings, and hamsters
evolves.
Kingdom: Animalia
Class: Mammalia
Subclass: Eutheria
Superorder
Euarchontoglires
Pocket gophers, Pocket mice and
kangaroo rats evolves.
Kingdom: Animalia
Class: Mammalia
Subclass: Eutheria
Superorder
Euarchontoglires
ancestor of camels and llamas splits
with the ancestor of the rest of the
Even-Toed Ungulates
(Cetardiodactyla/Artiodactyla: pigs,
ruminants, hippos, dolphins and
whales).
This is just after death of
dinosaurs. Both these ancestors are
still small and probably look like
shrews.
formerly Artiodactyla
[1] Fig. 2. Molecular time scale for
the orders of placental mammals based
on the 16,397-bp data set and maximum
likelihood tree of ref. 14 with an
opossum outgroup (data not shown), 13
fossil constraints (Materials and
Methods), and a mean prior of 105 mya
for the placental root. Ordinal
designations are listed above the
branches. Orange and green lines denote
orders with basal diversification
before or after the K/T boundary,
respectively. Black lines depict orders
for which only one taxon was available.
Asterisks denote placental taxa
included in the ''K/T body size'' taxon
set. The composition of chimeric taxa,
including caniform, caviomorph,
strepsirrhine, and sirenian, is
indicated elsewhere (14). Numbers for
internal nodes are cross-referenced in
the supporting information.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/vol1
00/issue3/images/large/pq0334222002.jpeg
and Scaly-tailed Squirrels evolves.
Kingdom: Animalia
Class: Mammalia
Subclass: Eutheria
Superorder
Euarchontoglires
Kingdom: Animalia
Class: Mammalia
Subclass: Eutheria
Superorder:
Euarchontoglires
Order: Primates
Suborder:
Strepsirrhini
Infraorder: Lemuriformes (Gray, 1821)
Most likely in
Africa or the Indian subcontinent.
King
dom: Animalia
Class: Mammalia
Subclass: Eutheria
Superorder:
Euarchontoglires
Order: Primates
starts at base of Eocene.
Cantius and
Teilhardina are the earliest euprimates
in North America, followed quickly by
Steinius and others. Cantius an
dTeilhardina also appear in Europe with
Donrussellia.
[1] Smilodectes (lemur-like family
Adapidae from the Eocene Epoch)
COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://anthro.palomar.edu/earlyp
rimates/first_primates.htm
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Subclass:
Theria
Infraclass: Eutheria (Huxley, 1880)
Superorde
r Afrotheria:
begin to form.
Oxyaena are common.
Morocco.
Genus Altialasius , known
only from several isolated teeth.
Kingd
om: Animalia
Class: Mammalia
Subclass: Eutheria
Superorder:
Euarchontoglires
Order: Primates
mammal yet found, Andrewsarchus skull
dates from now {verify}.
Andrewsarchus
lived 60-32 mybn.
the line that leads to the Ruminants
(cattle, goats, sheep, giraffes, bison,
buffalo, deer, wildebeast, antelope),
hippos, dolphins, and whales.
[1] Fig. 2. Molecular time scale for
the orders of placental mammals based
on the 16,397-bp data set and maximum
likelihood tree of ref. 14 with an
opossum outgroup (data not shown), 13
fossil constraints (Materials and
Methods), and a mean prior of 105 mya
for the placental root. Ordinal
designations are listed above the
branches. Orange and green lines denote
orders with basal diversification
before or after the K/T boundary,
respectively. Black lines depict orders
for which only one taxon was available.
Asterisks denote placental taxa
included in the ''K/T body size'' taxon
set. The composition of chimeric taxa,
including caniform, caviomorph,
strepsirrhine, and sirenian, is
indicated elsewhere (14). Numbers for
internal nodes are cross-referenced in
the supporting information.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/vol1
00/issue3/images/large/pq0334222002.jpeg
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Subclass:
Theria
Infraclass: Eutheria (Huxley, 1880)
Superorde
r Afrotheria:
evolve.
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Subclass:
Theria
Infraclass: Eutheria (Huxley, 1880)
Superorde
r Afrotheria:
Mountain Beaver, Squirrels and Marmots
evolves.
Kingdom: Animalia
Class: Mammalia
Subclass: Eutheria
Superorder
Euarchontoglires
Kingdom: Animalia
Class: Mammalia
Subclass: Eutheria
Superorder:
Euarchontoglires
Order: Primates
Suborder:
Haplorrhini
Infraorder: Tarsiiformes
Gregory, 1915
Family: Tarsiidae
(Gray, 1825)
Genus: Tarsius (Storr, 1780)
This
is the ancestor of all hooved mammals,
including cows, deer, horses and pigs.
animals.
Oldest
fossil horse, Hyractotherium , the
oldest horse was tiny, about the size
of a dog).
Kingdom: Animalia
Class: Mammalia
Subclass: Eutheria
Superorder
Euarchontoglires
Hippos split.
[1] Fig. 2. Molecular time scale for
the orders of placental mammals based
on the 16,397-bp data set and maximum
likelihood tree of ref. 14 with an
opossum outgroup (data not shown), 13
fossil constraints (Materials and
Methods), and a mean prior of 105 mya
for the placental root. Ordinal
designations are listed above the
branches. Orange and green lines denote
orders with basal diversification
before or after the K/T boundary,
respectively. Black lines depict orders
for which only one taxon was available.
Asterisks denote placental taxa
included in the ''K/T body size'' taxon
set. The composition of chimeric taxa,
including caniform, caviomorph,
strepsirrhine, and sirenian, is
indicated elsewhere (14). Numbers for
internal nodes are cross-referenced in
the supporting information.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/vol1
00/issue3/images/large/pq0334222002.jpeg
From the
Hunan Province, China. Other fossils
from the same genus are found in
Europe.
the earliest euprimates can be
distinguished as Cantius, Donrussellia
and Teilhardina.
[1] Figure 3: Strict consensus of 33
equally parsimonious trees with the
optimization of activity patterns.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v427/n6969/fig_tab/nature02126_F3.h
tml
[2] FIGURE 1. The skull of Teilhardina
asiatica sp. nov. (IVPP V12357). a,
Dorsal view of the skull. b,
Reconstruction of the skull based on
IVPP V12357, with grey shadow
indicating the missing parts. Scale
bar, 5 mm. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v427/n6969/fig_tab/nature02126_F1.h
tml
the line to dolphins and whales split.
[1] Fig. 2. Molecular time scale for
the orders of placental mammals based
on the 16,397-bp data set and maximum
likelihood tree of ref. 14 with an
opossum outgroup (data not shown), 13
fossil constraints (Materials and
Methods), and a mean prior of 105 mya
for the placental root. Ordinal
designations are listed above the
branches. Orange and green lines denote
orders with basal diversification
before or after the K/T boundary,
respectively. Black lines depict orders
for which only one taxon was available.
Asterisks denote placental taxa
included in the ''K/T body size'' taxon
set. The composition of chimeric taxa,
including caniform, caviomorph,
strepsirrhine, and sirenian, is
indicated elsewhere (14). Numbers for
internal nodes are cross-referenced in
the supporting information.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/vol1
00/issue3/images/large/pq0334222002.jpeg
whales semiaquatic "Pakicetus".
[1] Fig. 2. Molecular time scale for
the orders of placental mammals based
on the 16,397-bp data set and maximum
likelihood tree of ref. 14 with an
opossum outgroup (data not shown), 13
fossil constraints (Materials and
Methods), and a mean prior of 105 mya
for the placental root. Ordinal
designations are listed above the
branches. Orange and green lines denote
orders with basal diversification
before or after the K/T boundary,
respectively. Black lines depict orders
for which only one taxon was available.
Asterisks denote placental taxa
included in the ''K/T body size'' taxon
set. The composition of chimeric taxa,
including caniform, caviomorph,
strepsirrhine, and sirenian, is
indicated elsewhere (14). Numbers for
internal nodes are cross-referenced in
the supporting information.
. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/vol1
00/issue3/images/large/pq0334222002.jpeg
[2] Illustration by Carl Buell, and
taken from
http://www.neoucom.edu/DEPTS/ANAT/Pakice
tid.html This image is copyrighted.
The copyright holder allows anyone to
use it for any purpose, provided that
this statement is added to its caption:
''Illustration by Carl Buell, and taken
from
http://www.neoucom.edu/Depts/Anat/Pakice
tid.html ''
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pakicetus.jpg
Kingdom: Animalia
Class: Mammalia
Subclass: Eutheria
Superorder
Euarchontoglires
Oldest
elephant fossil, an unnamed fossil from
Algeria.
as India collides with Eurasia.
This
will continue for millions of years.
Pottos evolve.
Kingdom: Animalia
Class: Mammalia
Subclass: Eutheria
Superorder:
Euarchontoglires
Order: Primates
Suborder:
Strepsirrhini
Infraorder: Lemuriformes (Gray, 1821)
fossil.
animals of the Paleocene and Eocene
epochs were flightless birds, like
Diatryma from America , and Gastornis
from Europe.
hawks, potoos, oilbirds) evolve.
eagles, Old World vultures) evolve.
dassle rats evolve.
Kingdom: Animalia
Class: Mammalia
Subclass: Eutheria
Superorder
Euarchontoglires
agoutis, capybara evolve.
Kingdom: Animalia
Class: Mammalia
Subclass: Eutheria
Superorder
Euarchontoglires
fossil.
Kingdom: Animalia
Class: Mammalia
Subclass: Eutheria
Superorder:
Euarchontoglires
Order: Primates
Suborder:
Strepsirrhini
Infraorder: Lemuriformes (Gray, 1821)
form.
weasel-like ancestor of bears and dogs.
Monkeys evolves.
Kingdom: Animalia
Class: Mammalia
Subclass: Eutheria
Superorder:
Euarchontoglires
Order: Primates
Suborder:
Haplorrhini
Infraorder: Simiiformes
Parvorder: Platyrrhini (E.
Geoffroy, 1812)
fossil.
Renamed by "Zeuglodon" by
Richard Owen because is mammal not
reptile (saurus=lizard).
Oldest fossil of dog, similar to a
weasel, Hesperocyon.
evolve.
roadrunners, possibly hoatzin) evolve.
evolve.
whale, killer whale) and Baleen whales
(blue, humpback, gray whale) lines
split.
[1] Fig. 2. Molecular time scale for
the orders of placental mammals based
on the 16,397-bp data set and maximum
likelihood tree of ref. 14 with an
opossum outgroup (data not shown), 13
fossil constraints (Materials and
Methods), and a mean prior of 105 mya
for the placental root. Ordinal
designations are listed above the
branches. Orange and green lines denote
orders with basal diversification
before or after the K/T boundary,
respectively. Black lines depict orders
for which only one taxon was available.
Asterisks denote placental taxa
included in the ''K/T body size'' taxon
set. The composition of chimeric taxa,
including caniform, caviomorph,
strepsirrhine, and sirenian, is
indicated elsewhere (14). Numbers for
internal nodes are cross-referenced in
the supporting information.
. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/vol1
00/issue3/images/large/pq0334222002.jpeg
and is the largest land mammal in the
history of earth.
Kingdom: Animalia
Class: Mammalia
Subclass: Eutheria
Superorder:
Euarchontoglires
Order: Primates
Suborder:
Strepsirrhini
Infraorder: Lemuriformes (Gray, 1821)
evolve. This Order includes many
common birds: crow, jay, sparrow,
warbler, mockingbird, robin, orioles,
bluebirds, vireos, larks, finches.
More than
half of all species of bird are
passerines. Sometimes known as perching
birds or, less accurately, as
songbirds, the passerines are one of
the most spectacularly successful
vertebrate orders: with around 5,400
species, they are roughly twice as
diverse as the largest of the mammal
orders, the Rodentia.
Small to moderately large modern land
birds; aegithognathous palate; large
brain size and intelligence; unique
syringeal anatomy; unique insertion of
forearm muscles; tarsi covered with
small scales; large, reversed incumbent
hallux; anisodactyl foot; hallux
independently moveable; plantar
tendons; bundled sperm with coiled
head; metabolic rates up to 50% higher
than comparable non-passarines of same
size; complex nest-building behaviors;
altricial young; vocal plasticity.
*see Toothed and baleen split.
[1] Fig. 2. Molecular time scale for
the orders of placental mammals based
on the 16,397-bp data set and maximum
likelihood tree of ref. 14 with an
opossum outgroup (data not shown), 13
fossil constraints (Materials and
Methods), and a mean prior of 105 mya
for the placental root. Ordinal
designations are listed above the
branches. Orange and green lines denote
orders with basal diversification
before or after the K/T boundary,
respectively. Black lines depict orders
for which only one taxon was available.
Asterisks denote placental taxa
included in the ''K/T body size'' taxon
set. The composition of chimeric taxa,
including caniform, caviomorph,
strepsirrhine, and sirenian, is
indicated elsewhere (14). Numbers for
internal nodes are cross-referenced in
the supporting information.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/vol1
00/issue3/images/large/pq0334222002.jpeg
evolve.
Kingdom: Animalia
Class: Mammalia
Subclass: Eutheria
Superorder:
Euarchontoglires
Order: Primates
Suborder:
Strepsirrhini
Infraorder: Lemuriformes (Gray, 1821)
Su
perfamily: Lemuroidea
Family: Indridae (Burnett,
1828)
Oldest cat
fossil, Proailurus.
Kingdom: Animalia
Class: Mammalia
Subclass: Eutheria
Superorder:
Euarchontoglires
Order: Primates
Suborder:
Strepsirrhini
Infraorder: Lemuriformes (Gray, 1821)
Su
perfamily: Lemuroidea
Family: Lepilemuridae
(Gray, 1870)
Genus: Lepilemur (I. Geoffroy,
1851)
evolve.
Kingdom: Animalia
Class: Mammalia
Subclass: Eutheria
Superorder:
Euarchontoglires
Order: Primates
Suborder:
Strepsirrhini
Infraorder: Lemuriformes (Gray, 1821)
Su
perfamily: Cheirogaleoidea (Gray,
1873)
Family: Cheirogaleidae (Gray, 1873)
Old World Monkeys and hominids (lesser
and great apes) split.
There are 20 surviving
genera and around 100 species of Old
World Monkey.
Kingdom: Animalia
Class: Mammalia
Subclass:
Eutheria
Superorder: Euarchontoglires
Order:
Primates
Suborder: Haplorrhini
Parvorder: Catarrhini
Superfamily:
Cercopithecoidea (Gray, 1821)
Family:
Cercopithecidae (Gray, 1821)
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
loses tail.
This may be a genetic
mutation or because a tail might be an
obstacle for species like gibbons that
swing from branch to branch as opposed
to more ancient primates that leap from
branches.
Based on 22my Egyptopithecus fossils
which is thought to not have had a tail
{check}.
Biota
Domain Eukaryota - eukaryotes
Kingdom
Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
Subkingdom Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
Branch
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
Infrakingdom Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
Phylum Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
Subphylum Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates
Infraphylum Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
Superclass Tetrapoda
Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods
Series Amniota
Mammaliaformes Rowe, 1988
Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758 -
mammals
Subclass
Prototheria Gill, 1872:vi
Order Platypoda (Gill, 1872)
McKenna in Stucky & McKenna in Benton,
ed., 1993:740
Order
Tachyglossa (Gill, 1872) McKenna in
Stucky & McKenna in Benton, ed.,
1993:740
Family Tachyglossidae Gill, 1872 -
spiny anteaters
Genus Zaglossus Gill, 1877 - long-nosed
echidna
Genus
Tachyglossus™ Illiger, 1811 -
short-nosed echidna
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order:
Monotremata
Family: Tachyglossidae Gill, 1872
evolve.
Biota
Domain Eukaryota - eukaryotes
Kingdom
Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
Subkingdom Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
Branch
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
Infrakingdom Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
Phylum Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
Subphylum Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates
Infraphylum Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
Superclass Tetrapoda
Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods
Series Amniota
Mammaliaformes Rowe, 1988
Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758 -
mammals
Subclass
Prototheria Gill, 1872:vi
Order Platypoda (Gill, 1872)
McKenna in Stucky & McKenna in Benton,
ed., 1993:740
Family Ornithorhynchidae (Gray, 1825)
Burnett, 1830
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order:
Monotremata
Family: Ornithorhynchidae
Genus: Ornithorhynchus
Blumenbach, 1800
Species: O.
anatinus
World Monkeys) evolve.
Kingdom: Animalia
Class: Mammalia
Subclass: Eutheria
Superorder:
Euarchontoglires
Order: Primates
Suborder:
Haplorrhini
Infraorder: Simiiformes
Parvorder: Platyrrhini (E.
Geoffroy, 1812)
Family: Pitheciidae
(Mivart, 1865)
(New World Monkeys) evolve.
Kingdom: Animalia
Class: Mammalia
Subclass: Eutheria
Superorder:
Euarchontoglires
Order: Primates
Suborder:
Haplorrhini
Infraorder: Simiiformes
Parvorder: Platyrrhini (E.
Geoffroy, 1812)
Family: Atelidae
(Gray, 1825)
World Monkeys) evolve.
Kingdom: Animalia
Class: Mammalia
Subclass: Eutheria
Superorder:
Euarchontoglires
Order: Primates
Suborder:
Haplorrhini
Infraorder: Simiiformes
Parvorder: Platyrrhini (E.
Geoffroy, 1812)
Family: Cebidae
(Bonaparte, 1831)
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
[2] Afropithecus turkanensis cranium,
KNM-WK 16999 (type specimen) a:
Occlusal aspect b: Superior aspect c:''
Right lateral aspect d: Frontal aspect
e: Detail of glabella and frontal
region taken at right
angles. COPYRIGHTED
source: afropithecus.pdf
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
[2] Proconsul COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.andromeda.rutgers.edu
/~biosci/RutgersHumanEcology/Proconsul.j
pg
Africa.
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
[2] i draw it on macromedia flash 26
oct 2005 Mateus Zica 14:30, 26 October
2005 (UTC) GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:AegpPte.png
Monkeys) evolve.
Kingdom: Animalia
Class: Mammalia
Subclass: Eutheria
Superorder:
Euarchontoglires
Order: Primates
Suborder:
Haplorrhini
Infraorder: Simiiformes
Parvorder: Platyrrhini (E.
Geoffroy, 1812)
Family: Aotidae
(Poche, 1908 (1865))
Genus: Aotus (Illiger,
1811)
Monkeys) evolve.
Kingdom: Animalia
Class: Mammalia
Subclass: Eutheria
Superorder:
Euarchontoglires
Order: Primates
Family:
Cebidae
Subfamily: Callitrichinae
Gray, 1821
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
[2] Ape Evolution Branching
Diagram COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.ablongman.com/html/an
thro/phys/databank/fig5.24.html
(Lesser and Great Apes), moves over
land from Africa into Europe and Asia.
An
alternative theory has this ancestor in
Africa, with a large number of Africa
to Eurasia migrations by later species.
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
[2] Figure 1. Potential contacts
between Africa and Eurasia during the
past 40 million years, based upon
geological and faunal evidence (after
[28 and 29]). (a) Late Eocene,
approximately 40 million years ago. The
Tethys seaway prevents migration
between Africa and Eurasia. Uplifting
in the western region of the Arabian
peninsula coincides with the rifting of
the future Red Sea. (b) Early Miocene,
approximately 20 million years ago. The
Red Sea begins to form, while potential
land bridges exist between Africa and
Eurasia. (c) Late Miocene,
approximately 10 million years ago. The
Red Sea continues to grow, and
potential connections between Africa
and Eurasia exist along the Indian
Ocean margin. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
human language (with perhaps 5 or more
sounds) evolves in early Homo species.
Perhaps
first the use of simple sounds
themselves, later combining sounds to
form multisound words will evolve.
These simple sounds will evolve into
the less than 50 basic sounds that make
up all human language now.
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
Ape Hominids) evolves in Eurasia.
12
species of Gibbons.
Kingdom: Animalia
Class:
Mammalia
Subclass: Eutheria
Superorder: Euarchontoglires
Order: Primates
Superfamily: Hominoidea
Family:
Hylobatidae (Gray, 1870)
Gibbons are very sexual, and
polygamous.
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
[2] Figure 1. Potential contacts
between Africa and Eurasia during the
past 40 million years, based upon
geological and faunal evidence (after
[28 and 29]). (a) Late Eocene,
approximately 40 million years ago. The
Tethys seaway prevents migration
between Africa and Eurasia. Uplifting
in the western region of the Arabian
peninsula coincides with the rifting of
the future Red Sea. (b) Early Miocene,
approximately 20 million years ago. The
Red Sea begins to form, while potential
land bridges exist between Africa and
Eurasia. (c) Late Miocene,
approximately 10 million years ago. The
Red Sea continues to grow, and
potential connections between Africa
and Eurasia exist along the Indian
Ocean margin. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
(or Africa?).
Fossils found in Italy (and
possibly East Africa).
May have been (earliest)
bipedal walker.
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
[2] Oreopithecus
bambolii COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.gurche.com/content_re
cent_apes_504.htm
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
[2] Lufengpithecus Skull The
original Lufengpithecus relic was
thought to be a variant of Sivapithecus
but was later classified on its own.
This fossil is described as having a
'characteristically broad, low face and
large interorbital distance.' However
the last feature in particular makes me
wonder about the reconstruction of the
skull. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.lamma.net/lufeng.htm
divides into Cercopithecinae (Macaques
and Baboons) and Colobinae (Colobus and
Proboscis monkies).
There are 20
surviving genera and around 100 species
of Old World Monkey.
Kingdom:
Animalia
Class: Mammalia
Subclass: Eutheria
Superorder:
Euarchontoglires
Order: Primates
Suborder:
Haplorrhini
Parvorder: Catarrhini
Superfamily:
Cercopithecoidea (Gray, 1821)
Family:
Cercopithecidae (Gray, 1821)
Kingdom: Animalia
Class: Mammalia
Subclass: Eutheria
Superorder:
Euarchontoglires
Order: Primates
Superfamily:
Hominoidea
Family: Hominidea
Subfamily: Ponginae (Elliot,
1912)
Genus: Pongo (Lacépède, 1799)
(or East Africa?) This is the oldest
fossil of the family Hominidae.
[1] Image: John Gurche Dryopithecus
stage 1 reconstruction COPYRIGHTED
source: http://sciam.com/gallery.cfm?art
icleID=0006FD89-5BA7-1F18-B4FD80A84189EE
DF&seq_no=1
[2] Image: John Gurche Dryopithecus
final reconstruction COPYRIGHTED
source: http://sciam.com/gallery.cfm?art
icleID=0006FD89-5BA7-1F18-B4FD80A84189EE
DF&seq_no=3
evolves in India and Pakistan.
Sivapith
ecus indicus is an extinct primate and
a possible ancestor to the modern
orangutan.
Specimens of Sivapithecus indicus,
roughly 12.5 million to 10.5 million
years old (Miocene), have been found at
the Petwar plateau in Pakistan as well
as in parts of India.
The animal was about the size of a
chimpanzee but had the facial
morphology of an orangutan; it ate soft
fruit (detected in the toothwear
pattern) and was probably mainly
arboreal.
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
[2] Image #506 - Sivapithecus
indicus COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.gurche.com/content_re
cent_apes_506.htm
Kingdom: Animalia
Class: Mammalia
Subclass: Eutheria
Superorder:
Euarchontoglires
Order: Primates
Superfamily:
Hominoidea
Family: Hylobatidae (Gray, 1870)
evolve.
Kingdom: Animalia
Class: Mammalia
Subclass: Eutheria
Superorder:
Euarchontoglires
Order: Primates
Suborder:
Haplorrhini
Parvorder: Catarrhini
Superfamily:
Cercopithecoidea (Gray, 1821)
Family:
Cercopithecidae (Gray, 1821)
World Monkey) evolve.
Kingdom: Animalia
Class: Mammalia
Subclass: Eutheria
Superorder:
Euarchontoglires
Order: Primates
Suborder:
Haplorrhini
Parvorder: Catarrhini
Superfamily:
Cercopithecoidea (Gray, 1821)
Family:
Cercopithecidae (Gray, 1821)
Subfamily:
Colobinae (Jerdon, 1867)
Kingdom: Animalia
Class: Mammalia
Subclass: Eutheria
Superorder:
Euarchontoglires
Order: Primates
Suborder:
Haplorrhini
Parvorder: Catarrhini
Superfamily:
Cercopithecoidea (Gray, 1821)
Family:
Cercopithecidae (Gray, 1821)
Subfamily:
Cercopithecinae (Gray, 1821)
World Monkey) evolve.
Kingdom: Animalia
Class: Mammalia
Subclass: Eutheria
Superorder:
Euarchontoglires
Order: Primates
Suborder:
Haplorrhini
Parvorder: Catarrhini
Superfamily:
Cercopithecoidea (Gray, 1821)
Family:
Cercopithecidae (Gray, 1821)
Subfamily:
Cercopithecinae (Gray, 1821)
Chimpanzee, and archaic humans moves
over land from Eurasia back into
Africa.
Alternatively, this ancestor could
have evolved in Africa if many earlier
ancestors frequently migrated to
Eurasia.
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
[2] Figure 1. Potential contacts
between Africa and Eurasia during the
past 40 million years, based upon
geological and faunal evidence (after
[28 and 29]). (a) Late Eocene,
approximately 40 million years ago. The
Tethys seaway prevents migration
between Africa and Eurasia. Uplifting
in the western region of the Arabian
peninsula coincides with the rifting of
the future Red Sea. (b) Early Miocene,
approximately 20 million years ago. The
Red Sea begins to form, while potential
land bridges exist between Africa and
Eurasia. (c) Late Miocene,
approximately 10 million years ago. The
Red Sea continues to grow, and
potential connections between Africa
and Eurasia exist along the Indian
Ocean margin. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
human lives in Africa.
This is when the line
that leads to chimpanzees and the line
that leads to humans separates.
This date
conflicts with genetic comparison which
puts this at 6my.
There are very few
chimpanzee fossils found.
Kingdom:
Animalia
Class: Mammalia
Subclass: Eutheria
Superorder:
Euarchontoglires
Order: Primates
Superfamily:
Hominoidea
Family: Hominidea
Subfamily: Homininae
Tribe: Hominini
Subtribe:
Paninina
Genus: Pan (Oken, 1816)
Some argue that interbreeding between a
chimp ancestor and human ancestor may
have resulted in a more recent genetic
relationship.
[1] evolution of the first
hominids COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.portalciencia.net/ant
roevoerga.html
[2] Drzewo rodowe
człowiekowatych
(hominidów). hominid
evolution COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.wiw.pl/Biologia/Ewolu
cjonizm/EwolucjaCzlowieka/BigImage.asp?c
p=1&ce=2
Kingdom: Animalia
Class: Mammalia
Subclass: Eutheria
Superorder:
Euarchontoglires
Order: Primates
Superfamily:
Hominoidea
Family: Hylobatidae (Gray, 1870)
Genus:
Symphalangus (Gloger, 1841)
Species: S.
syndactylus
in Africa.
King
dom: Animalia
Class: Mammalia
Subclass: Eutheria
Superorder:
Euarchontoglires
Order: Primates
Superfamily:
Hominoidea
Family: Hominidea
Subfamily: Ponginae (Elliot,
1912)
Genus: Gorilla (I. Geoffroy, 1852)
fossils, possibly the earliest bipedal
homonid, found in Chad, central Africa
date to this time.
There is a conflict between the genetic
date of 6 million for the
chimpanzee-hominid split, and this and
other fossils that indicate that this
split was earlier.
The fossil name is "Toumai",
found in Chad, central Africa.
This fossil poses a problem in that
being 7 million years old, this puts it
past the genetic distance between a
common human and chimpanzee ancestor.
Richard Dawkins explains 4
possibilities:
1) this species walked on all fours
2)
bipedalism evolved quicky after the
chimp/hominid split
3) bipedalism may have
evolved more than once
4) chimps and
gorillas evolved from a bipedal
ancestor
Other possibilities include,
1) inaccurate genetic estimate, 2)
inaccurate fossil dating, 3) inaccurate
fossil reconstruction (the skull was
disfigured and had to be reconstructed
in 3D on a computer), 4) inaccurate
identification of bones as hominid
(some people claim it is a female
monkey or female gorilla ).
[1] evolution of the first
hominids COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.portalciencia.net/ant
roevoerga.html
[2] Drzewo rodowe człowiekowatych
(hominidów). hominid
evolution COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.wiw.pl/Biologia/Ewolu
cjonizm/EwolucjaCzlowieka/BigImage.asp?c
p=1&ce=2
second oldest hominid ancestor date
from this time.
in Kenya, east Africa.
about the size of a modern chimpanzee.
Brigitte Senut and Martin Pickford, the
finders of Orrorin, argue that Orrorin
is on the direct line leading to modern
humans, whereas most of the members of
the genus Australopithecus are not.
(see image)
[1] evolution of the first
hominids COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.portalciencia.net/ant
roevoerga.html
[2] Drzewo rodowe człowiekowatych
(hominidów). hominid
evolution COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.wiw.pl/Biologia/Ewolu
cjonizm/EwolucjaCzlowieka/BigImage.asp?c
p=1&ce=2
Kingdom: Animalia
Class: Mammalia
Subclass: Eutheria
Superorder:
Euarchontoglires
Order: Primates
Superfamily:
Hominoidea
Family: Hylobatidae (Gray, 1870)
Genus:
Hylobates (Illiger, 1811)
Kingdom: Animalia
Class: Mammalia
Subclass: Eutheria
Superorder:
Euarchontoglires
Order: Primates
Superfamily:
Hominoidea
Family: Hylobatidae (Gray, 1870)
Genus:
Hoolock (Mootnick & Groves, 2005)
("Magnificent Argentine Bird") the
largest flying bird ever known lives in
Argentina.
[1] Argentavis magnificens COPYRIGHTED
source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/scien
ce/nature/6262740.stm#map
[2] This handout illustration recieved
courtesy of Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences (PNAS) shows
Argentavis magnificens, the world's
largest known flying bird with a
wingspan of 7 meters, (7.6 yds) about
the size of a Cessna 152 aircraft,
soaring across the Miocene skies of the
Argentinean Pampas six million years
ago. Like today’s condors,
Argentavis was a lazy glider that
relied either on updrafts, in the rocky
Andes, or thermals, on the grassy
pampas, to provide lifting
power.(AFP/PNAS-HO/Jeff
Martz) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20070
703/ap_on_sc/biggest_bird;_ylt=An2dhz0Fn
wfN7LIRXnKg7VfMWM0F
early hominins, dates from this time.
T
wo species
†Ardipithecus kadabba, 5.8
to 5.2 mybn
†Ardipithecus ramidus, 5.4 to
4.2 mybn
size of modern chimpanzee.
[1] evolution of the first
hominids COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.portalciencia.net/ant
roevoerga.html
[2] Drzewo rodowe człowiekowatych
(hominidów). hominid
evolution COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.wiw.pl/Biologia/Ewolu
cjonizm/EwolucjaCzlowieka/BigImage.asp?c
p=1&ce=2
evolves in early hominids.
Richard Dawkins
describes the major theories of why two
leg walking evolved from four leg
walking:
1) to carry food home, for later use or
for others (leopard uses jaw)
2) as an
adaption to squat feeding (turning over
stones to look for insects)
3) for males to show
their penises, and for females to hide
their vaginas.
I am adding:
4) that walking was
a sign of dominance or superiority,
perhaps made the body look larger, and
a female more sophisticated(?).
5) easier to use hand
held weapons (and tools?).
Don Johanson hypothesized that as
Africa changed from jungle to savannah,
hominids had to travel farther for
food, thus making two-leg walking more
efficient , but this claim is disputed
by one experiment by Taylor and
Rowntree which indicates that there is
no energy gain from 4-leg to 2-leg
movement.
[1] evolution of the first
hominids COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.portalciencia.net/ant
roevoerga.html
[2] Drzewo rodowe człowiekowatych
(hominidów). hominid
evolution COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.wiw.pl/Biologia/Ewolu
cjonizm/EwolucjaCzlowieka/BigImage.asp?c
p=1&ce=2
[1] Figure 2. A synthetic hypothesis of
catarrhine primate evolution. The
branching order shown for the living
species is well-supported by numerous
molecular phylogenetic studies (for
example [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 24
and 25]). We present the dates of
divergence calculated by Goodman and
colleagues [11], on the understanding
that these are still rough estimates
and more precise measurements are
needed, especially for the Old World
monkeys. The fossil species (genus
names in italics) were placed on this
tree by parsimony analyses of
relatively large morphological datasets
[4, 11, 14 and 15]. Known dates for
fossils [1, 2 and 21] are indicated by
the thicker lines; these lines are
attached to the tree as determined by
the parsimony analyses, although the
dates of the attachment points are our
best guesses. Species found in Africa
are in red and species found in Eurasia
are in black. The continental locations
of the ancestral lineages were inferred
by parsimony using the computer program
MacClade [30]. The intercontinental
dispersal events required, at a
minimum, to explain the distribution of
the living and fossil species are
indicated by the arrows. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6VRT-4C4DVM4-D
&_user=4422&_handle=V-WA-A-W-WC-MsSAYVW-
UUW-U-AAVECYCCBC-AAVDAZZBBC-YCACYAZCV-WC
-U&_fmt=full&_coverDate=07%2F30%2F1998&_
rdoc=12&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%236243
%231998%23999919983%23494082!&_cdi=6243&
view=c&_acct=C000059600&_version=1&_urlV
ersion=0&_userid=4422&md5=5558415c4ccd34
6c64e2e6be03c3865e
[2] Bill Munns stands next to his
model of a Gigantopithecus male, a
quadrupedal, fist-walking creature that
also could have stood erect, as bears
do. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.uiowa.edu/~bioanth/gi
ganto.html
in
Africa. Australopithecus afarensis?.
Ki
ngdom: Animalia
Class: Mammalia
Subclass: Eutheria
Superorder:
Euarchontoglires
Order: Primates
Superfamily:
Hominoidea
Family: Hominidea
Genus: Australopithecus (R.A.
Dart, 1925)
detail:
Note that australopithecus is one of 9
Genera (which includes Pan {chimps},
and Homo {humans}) all in subtribe
Himinina. So one of these 8 other
Genera must be the closest ancestor to
Homo.
Biota
Domain Eukaryota - eukaryotes
Kingdom
Animalia Linnaeus, 1758 - animals
Subkingdom Bilateria (Hatschek, 1888)
Cavalier-Smith, 1983 - bilaterians
Branch
Deuterostomia Grobben, 1908 -
deuterostomes
Infrakingdom Chordonia
(Haeckel, 1874) Cavalier-Smith, 1998
Phylum Chordata Bateson, 1885 -
chordates
Subphylum Vertebrata
Cuvier, 1812 - vertebrates
Infraphylum Gnathostomata auct. - jawed
vertebrates
Superclass Tetrapoda
Goodrich, 1930 - tetrapods
Series Amniota
Mammaliaformes Rowe, 1988
Class Mammalia Linnaeus, 1758 -
mammals
Subclass
Theriiformes (Rowe, 1988) McKenna &
Bell, 1997:vii,36
Infraclass Holotheria (Wible et al.,
1995) McKenna & Bell, 1997:vii,43
Superlegion Trechnotheria
McKenna, 1975
Legion Cladotheria McKenna, 1975
Sublegion
Zatheria McKenna, 1975
Infralegion
Tribosphenida (McKenna, 1975) McKenna &
Bell, 1997:vii,48
Supercohort Theria (Parker &
Haswell, 1897) McKenna & Bell,
1997:viii,49
Cohort Placentalia (Owen, 1837)
McKenna & Bell, 1997:viii,80
Magnorder Epitheria
(McKenna, 1975) McKenna & Bell,
1997:viii, 102
Superorder Preptotheria
(McKenna, 1975) McKenna in Stucky &
McKenna in Benton, ed., 1993:747
Grandorder Archonta (Gregory, 1910)
McKenna, 1975:41
Order Primates
Linnaeus, 1758 - primates
Suborder
Euprimates (Hoffstetter, 1978) McKenna
& Bell, 1997:viii,328
Infraorder
Haplorhini (Pocock, 1918) McKenna &
Bell, 1997:336
Parvorder
Anthropoidea (Mivart, 1864) McKenna &
Bell, 1997:340
Superfamily
Cercopithecoidea (Gray, 1821) Gregory &
Hellman, 1923:14
Family
Hominidae Gray, 1825
Subfamily Homininae™ (Gray, 1825)
Delson & Andrews in Luckett & Szalay,
eds., 1975:441
Tribe
Hominini™ (Gray, 1825) Delson & P.
Andrews in Luckett & Szalay, eds.,
1975:441
Subtribe
Hominina™ (Gray, 1825) Delson & P.
Andrews in Luckett & Szalay, eds.,
1975:441
Genus Pan
Oken, 1816:xi - chimpanzees
Genus †Sahelanthropus Brunet et
al., 2002
Genus
†Orrorin Senut et al., 2001
Genus †Ardipithecus White
et al., 1995
Genus †Praeanthropus
Genus
†Australopithecus R.A. Dart, 1925
Genus †Kenyanthropus
(M.G. Leakey et al., 2001)
Genus †Paranthropus Broom,
1938
Genus Homo™
Linnaeus, 1758 - people
[1] Australopithecus squinted at the
blue African sky. He had never seen a
star in broad daylight before, but he
could see one today. White. Piercing.
Not as bright as the Sun, yet much more
than a full moon. Was it dangerous? He
stared for a long time, puzzled, but
nothing happened, and after a while he
strode across the savanna
unconcerned. Millions of years
later, we know better. ''That star
was a supernova, one of many that
exploded in our part of the galaxy
during the past 10 million years,''
says astronomer Mark Hurwitz of the
University of
California-Berkeley. Right: Human
ancestors, unconcerned by odd lights in
the daytime sky. This image is based on
a painting featured in The
Economist. PD
source: http://science.nasa.gov/headline
s/y2003/06jan_bubble.htm?list847478
[2] Image Source *
http://www.familie-rebmann.de/photo11.ht
m COPYRIGHTED CLAIMED FAIR USE
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Laetoliafar.jpg.jpg
Africa.
time.
Thought to be made by
australopithicus afarensis.
Some
analysts have noted that the smaller of
the two clearest trails bears telltale
signs that suggest whoever left the
prints was burdened on one side --
perhaps a female carrying an infant on
her hip.
[1] In 1976 during a fossil hunt lead
by Mary Leakey at a site called Laetoli
in Tanzania a palaeontologist called
Andrew Hill happened to look down and
notice some unusual dents in the
hardened ash that formed a dry stream
bed. Looking more closely these dents
appeared to be mammal
footprints. COPYRIGHTED UK
source: http://www.liv.ac.uk/premog/imag
es/laetoli_1.jpg
[2] Laetoli Footprints COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.modernhumanorigins.ne
t/laetolifoot.html
this time.
in Kenya, east Africa.
Tim
White argues that this skull has 4,000
individual bone pieces which could be
easily deformed, and that in the
absence of other skulls Kenyanthropus
being a new genus needs to be verified.
may simply be a specimen of
Australopithecus afarensis.
[1] evolution of the first
hominids COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.portalciencia.net/ant
roevoerga.html
[2] Drzewo rodowe człowiekowatych
(hominidów). hominid
evolution COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.wiw.pl/Biologia/Ewolu
cjonizm/EwolucjaCzlowieka/BigImage.asp?c
p=1&ce=2
"Lucy", date to this time.
[1] Full replica of Lucy's
(Australopithecus afarensis) remains in
the Museo Nacional de AntropologÃa at
Mexico City. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lucy_Mexico.jpg
bipedal early homonids evolves in
Africa.
It is interesting to know that
Paranthropus shared the earth with some
early examples of the Homo genus, such
as H. habilis, H. ergaster, and
possibly even H. erectus.
Australopithecus afarensis and A.
anamenis had, for the most part,
disappeared by this time.
Kingdom:
Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Family:
Hominidae
Genus: Paranthropus
Broom, 1938
[1] Skull of Paranthropus boisei. From
Smithsonian Institute
website. COPYRIGHTED CLAIMED FAIR USE
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Zinj3.jpg
[2] evolution of the first
hominids COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.portalciencia.net/ant
roevoerga.html
This
is the earliest member of the genus
Homo.
This is when the human brain
begins to get bigger.
Homo habilis is
thought to be the ancestor of Homo
ergaster.
Homo Habilis evolved in
Africa.
As the habilis brain grows,
habilis gains a larger memory.
[1] KNM ER 1813 Homo habilis This
image is from the website of the
Smithsonian Institution [1] and may be
copyrighted. The Smithsonian
Institution explicitly considers the
use of its content for non-commercial
educational purposes to qualify as fair
use under United States copyright law,
if: 1. The author and source of the
content is clearly cited. 2. Any
additional copyright information about
the photograph from the Smithsonian
Institution website is included. 3.
None of the content is modified or
altered.
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:KNM_ER_1813.jpg
[2] red= Homo rudolfensis black=Homo
habilis COPYRIGHTED
source: http://sesha.net/eden/Eerste_men
sen.asp
thinner and less body hair.
except head
hair, facial hair, airpit, chest and
genitals.
This is thought to be driven
by male sexual selection of less haired
females, perhaps because less hair
meant less body lice aqnd so was more
desireable.
No other still living apes
have taken this direction.
SCIENCE
This
begins the "Stone Age", the Paleolithic
("Old Stone Age").
epoch, start of Holocene epoch. This
is the start of the Mesolithic part of
the Stone Age.
in
Africa.
Kingdom: Animalia
Class: Mammalia
Subclass: Eutheria
Superorder:
Euarchontoglires
Order: Primates
Superfamily:
Hominoidea
Family: Hominidea
Subfamily: Homininae
Tribe: Hominini
Subtribe:
Paninina
Genus: Pan (Oken, 1816)
in
Africa.
Kingdom: Animalia
Class: Mammalia
Subclass: Eutheria
Superorder:
Euarchontoglires
Order: Primates
Superfamily:
Hominoidea
Family: Hominidea
Subfamily: Homininae
Tribe: Hominini
Subtribe:
Paninina
Genus: Pan (Oken, 1816)
Europe and Asia. Ergaster is the first
hominid to leave Africa.
[1] Homo ergaster. Capacité
crânienne de 800 à 950
cm3 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://ma.prehistoire.free.fr/er
gaster.htm
[2] Turkana Boy COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.anthropology.at/virta
nth/evo_links/turkana%20boy.jpg
mybn-now), end Tertiary period (65-1.8
mybn).
of Africa. Homo Erectus evolves
from Homo Ergaster in Asia.
Homo
sapiens have been around for only some
200,000 years, but Homo erectus is
thought to have lived for 1 million
years from 1.5 million to 500,000 years
before now.
start Quaternary period (1.8 mybn-now).
This is also the start of the start of
Pleistocene (PlISTOSEN) epoch.
hominid skeleten (Turkana Boy) from
East Africa.
[1] Turkana Boy COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.anthropology.at/virta
nth/evo_links/turkana%20boy.jpg
[2] Turkana Boy next to
human COPYRIGHTED
source: http://mywebpages.comcast.net/mk
ent595/Hominids11.JPEG
from Swartkrans in South Africa.
These
were Australopithecus (or Paranthropus)
robustus and an early species of Homo,
possibly Homo erectus.
This skull shows that Homo habilis and
Homo erectus both were living at this
time.
tooth) in Western Europe.
[1] This picture released by Fundacion
Atapeurca shows a human tooth found in
the Atapuerca Sierra, near Burgos.
Spanish researchers on Friday said they
had unearthed a human tooth more than
one million years old, which they
estimated to be the oldest human fossil
remain ever discovered in western
Europe.(AFP/FA-HO) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://news.yahoo.com/photo/0706
29/photos_od_afp/815788affc9d457a9223e39
1c7eea36a;_ylt=AsmNyfUR9BdumtPpp6IQZZPQO
rgF
of fire, from Israel.
The presence of
burned seeds, wood, and flint at the
Acheulian site of Gesher Benot Ya`aqov
in Israel is suggestive of the control
of fire by humans nearly 790,000 years
ago. The distribution of the site's
small burned flint fragments suggests
that burning occurred in specific
spots, possibly indicating hearth
locations. Wood of six taxa was burned
at the site, at least three of which
are edible-olive, wild barley, and wild
grape.
[1] Fig. 2. Cross section of burned
Olea europaea subsp. oleaster (wild
olive) specimen. Wood is diffuse
porous; vessels are solitary and in
short radial multiples. Bar, 0.5
mm COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/304/5671/725/FIG2
[2] Fig. 3. Burned grain of Aegilops
cf. geniculata: dorsal view of a basal
fragment (this grain is also shown in
fig. S2). Parts of husk and embryo are
clearly seen. Bar, 1 mm. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/co
ntent/full/304/5671/725/FIG3
Africa.
Kingdom: Animalia
Class: Mammalia
Subclass: Eutheria
Superorder:
Euarchontoglires
Order: Primates
Superfamily:
Hominoidea
Family: Hominidae
Subfamily: Homininae
Tribe: Hominini
Genus: Homo
Species
: H. sapiens
Subspecies: H. s. sapiens
transition from the verbal language of
chimps and monkeys, that will result in
the short staccato language humans use
now.
Either the majority of the 50 basic
sounds were learned simulateneously for
all sapiens by word of mouth or those
50 basic sounds evolved before the
sapiens dispersed throughout eurasia.
Since sapiens spread out over Europe
and Asia did not develop one language
with the same sounds used for each
word, it seems unlikely that the 50
basic sounds that are found in all of
those languages would not be unified
for all sapiens, and that more likely
the majority of those sounds evolved in
a smaller group in Africa and were then
dispersed into Europe, Asia, and then
Australia and the Americas.
It is difficult to
determine when but perhaps Homo sapiens
in Africa evolved a larger vocabulary
of sounds used to label objects and
activities than more ancient primates.
These
sounds eventually become shortened and
more finely controlled, ultimately
evolving to become the 50 basic sounds
used to construct words in all human
languages. These first sounds are
probably vowels before any consonents
evolve. Perhaps these vowels are: U
(food), o (mama), O (no), E (eat) and
perhaps i (big), e (bed), u (cup).
(These sounds are in use by the first
Sumerian writing.) For centuries early
human language may have been vowels
only until consonents attached to
vowels were regularly used.
The first
consonents were probably (the so-called
"stop consonents") T and D, then K and
G, then perhaps B and P. But it may be
impossible to know the order, and the
number of years between the three sound
families.
Initially, this language is very
simple, one sound applying to many
objects and situations. Some time near
here, words made of more than one sound
(compound sounds/words) evolved (how
many species evolved the ability of
compound sound words?). Now objects and
situations might have compound sounds,
although still basically one word.
In addition, the skill of imitating
sounds becomes better.
Clearly many mammals and birds have a
vocabulary of remembered sounds, which
are used to label other species,
objects, and situations. Chimpanzees
use sounds that sound similar to sounds
humans make, for example the U (in
food), and perhaps "E", although not
succinctly enunciated in short duration
breaths.
Perhaps there were even other sounds
that were lost to the past.
If simultaneously learned, this had to
happen through inter-tribal trading and
interaction which required object name
translation. And then those new sounds
had to be remembered, accepted, and
included into both tribes native
language.
Because the same sounds exist in all
languages, but most languages use
different combinations of these 50
sounds to make words, one conclusion is
that the individual sounds evolved
before the dispersion, because clearly,
there was not enough sharing and
interaction to make one language for
all eurasia, a language where each
object is described with a word that
has the same sounds. That sapiens could
not form a single language, I think is
evidence that they probably cold not
share sounds easily either, which
supports a 50 sounds learned before
dispersal throughout Eurasia, and of
course clearly before dispersal to
Australia and the Americas, since those
native people appear to have used the
same sounds, although different
combinations of sounds for words.
Clearly some less common vowel sounds
evolved later based on these main
sounds, for example "i" (big), "u"
(cup), "v" (food), etc.
in Ethiopia, Africa.
dramatic increase in creative ability
which includes:
more diversity in stone tool
types, and regular stool tools for
specific uses,
artifacts carved from bone,
antler and ivory in addition to stone
burials
were accompanied by ritual or ceremony
and contained a rich diversity of grave
goods
living structures and
well-designed fireplaces were
constructed
hunting of dangerous animal species and
fishing occurred regularly
higher
population densities
abundant and
elaborate art as well as items of
personal adornment were widespread
raw
materials such as flint and shells were
traded over large distances
This transformation
did not occur in Neanderthals.
s family of sounds evolves in early
sapien language.
Perhaps this was an imitation
of snakes. This family of sounds may
be the original of the J, j, t, and w
(as in "the") sounds.
but at some point the "L", "M", "N",
and "R" family of sounds were invented
by early Homo sapiens presumably in
Africa.
Sapien language has not yet taken on
the present "staccato" form of combined
short duration sounds, although objects
are probably labeled with multi sound
words.
There is a clear difference between
these sounds when a word is started
with one of these sounds, and these
sounds form clearly distinct and new
sound inventions (l,m,n,r).
skull, like the oldest in Ethiopia,
Africa.
[1] The oldest known fossil of modern
humans, dating back 160,000
years. Photo © 2000 David L. Brill,
Brill Atlanta) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.berkeley.edu/news/med
ia/releases/2003/06/11_idaltu.shtml
[2] Visualization of what sapien
looked like [t: notice hair is not
curly, but straight] Image © J.
Matternes
source: http://www.berkeley.edu/news/med
ia/releases/2003/06/11_idaltu.shtml
sounds (B,D,G,K,P,T) evolves in early
sapien language. Initially, these
sounds may have formed (naturally)
before the long vowel sound (for
example a "B" sound when opening the
mouth to howl a vowel sound). This
begins the "short duration" language,
where each sound, including vowels, and
open consonents (l,m,n,r) are shortened
to short durations. This is basically
the form of language all humans use
today, short duration (50 ms each)
sounds from a family of only 50 sounds,
combined together to form words used to
describe objects and activities
(nouns), movements and actions (verbs),
and later a second word added to
further describe objects, adjectives.
Since these
sounds (B,D,G,K,P,T) are so easily
spoken, some people probably think that
these sounds may have evolved first,
but listening to chimpanzees and other
primates, it is clear that vowels are
more easily spoken, and the muscle
control to make short duration sounds
(to quickly close the windpipe),
necessary for this family of sounds,
evolved later. This is still a large
amount of speculation, but clearly the
50 major sounds can be grouped into at
least 4 major groups, which must have
originated at different times (and
ofcourse, developed into new sounds at
some later time).
ergaster in Europe and Western Asia.
Oldest Neanderthal fossil in Croatia.
N
eanderthal mitochondrial DNA has been
compared to sapiens and a common
ancestor of the two is estimated to be
500,000, long before the oldest sapien
fossils in Africa, which supports the
idea that sapiens did not evolve or
interbreed with Neanderthals.
By
130,000 years ago, after a long period
of independent evolution in Europe,
Neanderthals were so anatomically
different from homo ergaster that they
are best classified as a separate
species, Homo neanderthalensis. This is
a classical example of geographic
isolation leading to a speciation
event.
Neanderthals and early sapiens living
at this time both are characterized
by:
# a virtual lack of tools fashioned out
of bone, antler or ivory
# burials
lacked grave goods and signs of ritual
or ceremony
# hunting was usually
limited to less dangerous species and
evidence for fishing is absent
#
population densities were apparently
low
# no evidence of living structures
exist and fireplaces are rudimentary
# evidence for
art or decoration is also lacking
lasts
from 120,000 to 20,000 ybn.
Connects
land bridge between Asia and Americas.
[93000 BCE]
Africa.
It is not clear if this is the
primary dispersal. Some people think
the main sapiens dispersal did not
happen until 45,000 ybn. .
[1] The northern route (along the
Danube) is represented by the 'classic'
Aurignacian technologies, while the
southern (Mediterranean) route is
represented by the 'proto-Aurignacian'
bladelet technologies (Fig. 3)-with
their inferred origins in the preceding
early Upper Palaeolithic technologies
in the Near East and southeastern
Europe. Dates (in thousands of years
bp) indicate the earliest radiocarbon
dates for these technologies in
different areas, expressed in thousands
of radiocarbon years before present
(bp). (These are likely to
underestimate the true (calendar) ages
of the sites by between 2,000 and 4,000
yr; see ref. 32). Dashed lines indicate
uncertain routes. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v432/n7016/fig_tab/nature03103_F1.h
tml
[2] The figure shows the geographical
and temporal distribution of hominid
populations, based on fossil finds,
using different taxonomic schemes. The
new finds from Herto4, 5 (H) represent
early Homo sapiens. a, This reflects
the view that both Neanderthals and
modern humans derived from a widespread
ancestral species called H.
heidelbergensis2. b, However, evidence
is growing that Neanderthal features
have deep roots in Europe2, 8, so H.
neanderthalensis might extend back over
400,000 years. The roots of H. sapiens
might be similarly deep in Africa, but
this figure represents the alternative
view that the ancestor was a separate
African species called H. rhodesiensis.
Different views of early human
evolution are also shown. Some workers
prefer to lump the earlier records
together and recognize only one
widespread species, H. erectus2 (shown
in a). Others recognize several
species, with H. ergaster and H.
antecessor (or H. mauritanicus) in the
West, and H. erectus only in the Far
East8 (shown in b). Adapted with
permission from refs 8, 11. 8.
Hublin, J.-J in Human Roots: Africa
and Asia in the Middle Pleistocene (eds
Barham, L. & Robson-Brown, K.) 99-121
(Western Academic & Specialist Press,
Bristol, 2001). 11. Rightmire, G. P.
in Human Roots: Africa and Asia in the
Middle Pleistocene (eds Barham, L. &
Robson-Brown, K.) 123-133 (Western
Academic & Specialist Press, Bristol,
2001). COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v423/n6941/fig_tab/423692a_F1.html
[90000 BCE]
outside Africa, in Israel.
The Jebel Qafzeh
skull.
This may represent an early and
presumably short lived movement of
early sapiens.
[1] Figure 2: Three-quarter view of the
Mousterian cranium Qafzeh 9 from Jebel
Qafzeh in Israel, about 92,000 years
old. Photo: Tsila
Sagiv/IDAM. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.metmuseum.org/special
/Genesis/tattersall_lecture.asp?printFla
g=1&refPage=1
[2] Qafzeh Cave COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.hf.uio.no/iakh/forskn
ing/sarc/iakh/lithic/AmudNet/Asites2.htm
l
[58000 BCE]
Americas, from a rock shelter in Pedra
Furada, Brazil.
is controversial.
Some people argue that the chipped
stones are geoartifacts, but the
artifact finders argue that the chips
are too regular to be made from falling
rocks.
[58000 BCE]
Asia reach Australia.
[51300 BCE]
Java.
Shows that Homo erectus lived at the
same time as Homo sapiens.
These ages are 20,000
to 400,000 years younger than previous
age estimates for these hominids and
indicate that H. erectus may have
survived on Java at least 250,000 years
longer than on the Asian mainland, and
perhaps 1 million years longer than in
Africa.
[41000 BCE]
Cave" in Swaziland, Africa is in use.
At
this site, which by radiocarbon dating
is 43,000 years old, paleolithic humans
mined for the iron-containing mineral
hematite, which they ground to produce
the red pigment ochre. Sites of a
similar age where Neanderthals may have
mined flint for weapons and tools have
been found in Hungary.
[40000 BCE]
Australia.
"Mungo Man"
[38000 BCE]
Europe.
from the Cro-Magnon site in France
40,000
also marks the decline of Neaderthal
populations until their extinction
10,000 years later.
[36000 BCE]
in Americas, from Orogrande cave, in
New Mexico.
At Old Crow Basin, in the
Yukon, broken mammoth bones date at
25,000 to 40,000 years.
[1] Pendejo Cave from approximately
north. Several human figures near the
mouth give the scale. A. H. Harris
photo, 2 Feb 1991. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.utep.edu/leb/paleo/si
te62.htm
[33000 BCE]
[01/01/30000 BCE]
Southern France are created and are the
oldest known human made paintings.
[1] Drawings of horses from Chauvet
Cave GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Chauvethorses.jpg
[28000 BCE]
migration to the Americas here.
[28000 BCE]
China.
from the Zhoukoudian Cave in
China
[18000 BCE]
migration to the Americas here.
[18000 BCE]
Σπήλαι_
9;ν
Φράγχθ_
1;) in the Peloponnese, is occupied by
paleolithic people. This cave will be
occupied until 3000 BCE.
Argolid, is a cave overlooking the
Argolic Gulf opposite the Greek village
of Koilada.
[11000 BCE]
the Americas, from the California
Channel Islands date to now.
The three
bones were discovered on the Channel
Islands, on a ridge called Arlington,
just off the California coastline.
[1] The bones were found 40 years ago
on an island off the coast of
California. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://edition.cnn.com/NATURE/99
06/08/ancient.woman/
[2] Map of Southern California with
the Channel Islands
identified Underlying map is an aerial
map obtained from NASA
(original: http://earthobservatory.nasa
.gov/NaturalHazards/Archive/Nov2004/Cali
fornia_TMO_2004304_lrg.jpeg The
labeling is by me PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Channelislandsca.jpg
[11000 BCE]
Nevada, dates to now.
[1] The bones were found 40 years ago
on an island off the coast of
California. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://edition.cnn.com/NATURE/99
06/08/ancient.woman/
[2] Skull wars:' Facial reconstruction
of the 'Spirit Cave Man,' based on
bones found in Spirit Cave, Churchill
County, Nevada (David Barry--Courtesy
Nevada State Museum; facial
reconstruction by Sharon Long)
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.abotech.com/Articles/
firstamericans.htm
[10500 BCE]
southern Chile.
This date puts the
possibility of walking over the Being
Straight in doubt.
[1] Mastodon tusk fragment with
polished and probably worked edge (Tom
Dillehay) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.archaeology.org/onlin
e/features/clovis/
[2] Two lanceolate basalt points and a
slate perforator (Tom
Dillehay) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.archaeology.org/onlin
e/features/clovis/
[9500 BCE]
Mexico.
[1] Fluted projectile points unearthed
in Clovis, New Mexico, provide the
earliest reliably dated evidence of
human habitation in North America. The
11,500-year-old artifacts have been
associated with small groups of people
believed to have descended from
Siberian ancestors who crossed an
ancient land mass that spanned Siberia
and Alaska. Some scientists are now
pondering whether other early peoples
arrived in the Americas by
boat. Photograph copyright David L.
Arnold, National Geographic Society
source: http://news.nationalgeographic.c
om/news/2003/11/1106_031106_firstamerica
ns.html
[9130 BCE]
Neolithic people in Southwestern
Turkey. The oldest stone buildings are
located in Göbekli Tepe, and are
evidence that hunter gatherer people
built structures before learning
agriculture.
[1] Göbekli Tepe may hold first human
writings Prehistory specialist of
the German Archeological Institute in
Berlin announced the findings of a
South Eastern Turkish Excavation site
near Sanliurfa called Göbekli Tepe
(''Nabelberg'') . Klaus Schmidt claims
the 11 600 old stone markings of this
temple are the worlds earliest known
form of writing. ''The geometrical
forms and small animal reliefs are
surely more than just ornamentations.
Humans somewhat wanted to communicate
with future humans here '' he says in a
February 14, 2006 Berliner Morgenpost
article. Excavator Schmidt interprets
Goebekli Tepe as a center for a
complicated dead cult and adds, ''This
was monumental architecture, 6000 years
before the pyramids.'' The monoliths
were lower than the surrounding walls
indicating that the intention was not
architectural in erecting
them. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.lahana.org/blog/Gobek
litepe.htm
[2] None COPYRIGHTED
source: http://terraeantiqvae.blogia.com
/2006/061203-gobekli-tepe-turquia-.-en-b
usca-del-paraiso-de-adan-y-eva.php
[9000 BCE]
ถ้ำผีŬ
9;มน) is occupied by
Hoabinhian hunter gatherer people.
This cave is
occupied by the Hoabinhian people from
about 9000 until 5500 BCE.
Province, northwest Thailand
[8700 BCE]
artifact, from Northern Iraq.
This
starts the "Copper Age" (Chalcolithic).
This is a copper ear ring.
Copper is
the first metal shaped by humans.
[8350 BCE]
("New Stone Age") start to appear.
[01/01/8000 BCE]
geometrical shapes are used for
counting in Sumer.
Neolithic (clay) tokens of
various geometrical shapes replace
Palaeolithic notched tallies. These
geometrical tokens probably represent
different quantities, and probably do
not represent the type of commodity
because clay objects have been found
which are presumed to represent the
various commodities. These geometrical
tokens will be used without disruption
for 5000 years, when the use of
abstract numbers occurs, which in turn
will lead to writing around 5300 YBN,
and then to mathematics around 4600
YBN. These tokens are the first clay
objects of the Near East, and they are
the first to use most of the basic
geometric forms, such as spheres,
triangles, discs, cylinders, cones,
tetrahedrons, rhombuses, quadrangles,
etc.
[1] Pre-literate counting and
accounting MS 5067/1-8 NEOLITHIC
PLAIN COUNTING TOKENS POSSIBLY
REPRESENTING 1 MEASURE OF GRAIN, 1
ANIMAL AND 1 MAN OR 1 DAY'S LABOUR,
RESPECTIVELY ms5067/1-8Counting tokens
in clay, Syria/Sumer/Highland Iran, ca.
8000-3500 BC, 3 spheres: diam. 1,6, 1,7
and 1,9 cm , (D.S.-B 2:1); 3 discs:
diam. 1,0x0,4 cm, 1,1x0,4 cm and
1,0x0,5 cm (D.S.-B 3:1); 2
tetrahedrons: sides 1,4 cm and 1,7 cm
(D.S.-B 5:1). Exhibited: The
Norwegian Intitute of Palaeography and
Historical Philology (PHI), Oslo,
13.10.2003- COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im
ages/ms5067.jpg
[2] MS 4631 BULLA-ENVELOPE WITH 11
PLAIN AND COMPLEX TOKENS INSIDE,
REPRESENTING AN ACCOUNT OR AGREEMENT,
TENTATIVELY OF WAGES FOR 4 DAYS' WORK,
4 MEASURES OF METAL, 1 LARGE MEASURE OF
BARLEY AND 2 SMALL MEASURES OF SOME
OTHER COMMODITY ms4631Bulla in clay,
Syria/Sumer/Highland Iran, ca.
3700-3200 BC, 1 spherical
bulla-envelope (complete), diam. ca.
6,5 cm, cylinder seal impressions of a
row of men walking left; and of a
predator attacking a deer, inside a
complete set of plain and complex
tokens: 4 tetrahedrons 0,9x1,0 cm
(D.S.-B.5:1), 4 triangles with 2
incised lines 2,0x0,9 (D.S.-B.(:14), 1
sphere diam. 1,7 cm (D.S.-B.2:2), 1
cylinder with 1 grove 2,0x0,3 cm
(D.S.-B.4:13), 1 bent paraboloid
1,3xdiam. 0,5 cm
(D.S.-B.8:14). Context: MSS 4631-4646
and 5114-5127are from the same archive.
Total number of bulla-envelopes
worldwide is ca. 165 intact and 70
fragmentary. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im
ages/ms4631.jpg
[8000 BCE]
Americas. Squash in Peru and Mexico.
[7000 BCE]
neolithic city begins now.
Mehrgarh is one
of the most important Neolithic (7000
BCE to 3200 BCE) sites in archaeology.
Mehrgarh lies on the "Kachi plain of
Baluchistan, Pakistan, and is one of
the earliest sites with evidence of
farming (wheat and barley) and herding
(cattle, sheep and goats) in South
Asia.
[1] Early farming village in Mehrgarh,
c. 7000 BCE, with houses built with mud
bricks. (Musée Guimet, Paris). The
image was downloaded from the website
of the Indus and Mehrgarh
archaeological mission, Musée Guimet,
by Fowler&fowler«Talk» 22:56, 6 March
2007 (UTC) COPYRIGHTED FAIRUSE
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Neolithic_mehrgarh.jpg
[2] A relief map of Pakistan showing
Mehrgarh This is an annotated version
of a relief map of Pakistan in the
public domain([1]). The map was
annotated by Fowler&fowler«Talk»
08:07, 7 March 2007 (UTC) and
rereleased to the public domain. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mehrgarh_pakistan_rel96.JPG
[7000 BCE]
Iraq is founded.
[1] This map has been uploaded by
Electionworld from en.wikipedia.org to
enable the Wikimedia Atlas of the World
. Original uploader to en.wikipedia.org
was John D. Croft, known as John D.
Croft at en.wikipedia.org.
Electionworld is not the creator of
this map. Licensing information is
below. Self made map and text GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sumer1.jpg
[6600 BCE]
shell from a neolithic grave in China
may be ancestors of Chinese writing.
In 2003,
symbols carved into 8,600-year-old
tortoise shells were discovered in
China. The shells were found buried
with human remains in 24 Neolithic
graves unearthed at Jiahu in Henan
province, western China. According to
archaeologists, the writing on the
shells had similarities to written
characters used thousands of years
later during the Shang dynasty, which
lasted from 1700 BC-1100 BC.
This creates a space of about 5,000
years between these symbols and the
next oldest which may indicate that
they are not related.
Province
[1] First attempt at writing on a
tortoise shell. COPYRIGHTED but PD on
wiki
source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/scien
ce/nature/2956925.stm
[2] The character for ''eye'',
similar to inscriptions in the latest
find COPYRIGHTED
source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/scien
ce/nature/2956925.stm
[6410 BCE]
bones found in Washington State, dates
to now.
[1] t: might be newsweek
image COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.unl.edu/rhames/course
s/current/current2005.htm
[2] Kennewick reconstruction The face
of Kennewick Man, as reconstructed by
Jim Chatters and Thomas
McClelland. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/fir
st/kennewick.html
[6200 BCE]
on a wall of the Catal Huyuk settlement
in south-central Anatolia (now Turkey).
[1] City plan of Çatal Höyük. The
map is painted on a wall and measures
more than de 2,5 m long. Image courtesy
of Ali Turan in Turkey in maps
www.turkeyinmaps.com COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.infovis.net/printMag.
php?num=110&lang=2
[2] City plan of Çatal Höyük.
Recreation of the original plan, where
you can appreciates the structure of
the city. An erupting volcano also
appars. It's probably the Hasan Dag,
still visible from Çatal Höyük in
the present time. COPYRIGHTED
source: same
[6000 BCE]
[6000 BCE]
[6000 BCE]
[6000 BCE]
[6000 BCE]
jericho is located
in the West bank, near the Jordan river
(east of Mediterranean).
[6000 BCE]
[6000 BCE]
to grind grain into flour).
[6000 BCE]
Oldest evidence of
einkorn grown.
[6000 BCE]
Oldest evidence of flax
grown.
[6000 BCE]
Oldest evidence of wheat
grown.
[6000 BCE]
Oldest evidence of barley
grown.
[6000 BCE]
Oldest evidence of millet
grown.
[6000 BCE]
Oldest evidence of
bow and arrow.
[6000 BCE]
Oldest evidence of spear.
[6000 BCE]
[1] Excavations at the South Area of
Çatal Höyük Çatal Höyük,
Turkey GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CatalHoyukSouthArea.JPG
[2] On-site restoration of a typical
Çatal Höyük interior Inside a model
of a neolithic house at Catal
Hüyük GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Catal_H%C3%BCy%C3%BCk_Restauration_B.
JPG
[6000 BCE]
and killed for food. Goats (check: or
dogs?) are oldest domesticated animal.
[5300 BCE]
southern Iraq is founded.
[1] This map has been uploaded by
Electionworld from en.wikipedia.org to
enable the Wikimedia Atlas of the World
. Original uploader to en.wikipedia.org
was John D. Croft, known as John D.
Croft at en.wikipedia.org.
Electionworld is not the creator of
this map. Licensing information is
below. Self made map and text GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sumer1.jpg
[5000 BCE]
[5000 BCE]
[5000 BCE]
[5000 BCE]
and casted (where?).
[01/01/4500 BCE]
the Old European script, or Vinča
script, may represent a written
language.
(Serbia)
[1] Drawing of a clay vessel unearthed
near Vinca. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vinca_vessel.png
[2] Amulets from the Vinca culture in
Tartania Balkan ca 4500 BCE
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://freepages.history.rootswe
b.com/~catshaman/121Indus/0iconogrph.htm
[4500 BCE]
monument, an assembly of huge stones in
Nabta, Egypt.
[1] A stone circle at Nabta Playa in
Egypt's Western Desert is thought to
act as a calendar and was constructed
around 7000 BC [t error is 6,500 years
old so 4,500 BCE] COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.touregypt.net/feature
stories/prehistory.htm
[2] None COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://hej3.as.utexas.edu/~www/w
heel/africa/blueprint.htm
[4000 BCE]
iron from meteorites, in Egypt.
Some
might argue this is the beginning of
the Iron Age, but other would start the
Iron Age only at smelting and casting
of Iron.
[4000 BCE]
[3500 BCE]
[3500 BCE]
earth, in "middle east" (east of
Mediterranean).
[3500 BCE]
fire-heated oven.
[3500 BCE]
Mediterranean).
[3500 BCE]
transport (and for food?).
[3500 BCE]
mixed with tin) melted, and casted
(where?).
This begins the "Bronze Age".
The earliest
tin-alloy bronzes date to the late 4th
millennium BC in Susa (Iran) and some
ancient sites in Luristan (Iran) and
Mesopotamia.
The earliest evidence of
bronze metalworking dates to the mid
4th millennium BC Maykop culture in the
Caucasus.
The oldest use of Bronze is
from Anatolia, not Egypt from 6500
B.C.
("Bronze Age", Encyclopedia Britannica
II, 1982, p. 297.)
[3500 BCE]
signature.
[3500 BCE]
[3500 BCE]
of smelted iron, in Egypt.
This is the start
of the Iron Age, as iron becomes more
popular because iron is more abundant.
in
Mesopotamia, Anatolia, and Egypt
[3500 BCE]
pottery wheel, comes from Mesopotamia.
The earliest
known wheel, a pottery wheel, comes
from Mesopotamia.
[3500 BCE]
baked clay tablets is invented in Sumer
and replaces a clay token counting
system. These "numerical tablets"
represent the first recorded place
value number system (the position of
the number is multiplied by a base
number), a sexagesimal (base 60)
numbering system. This base 60
numbering system will be used
continuously to count time, for
astronomy, and geography, and is still
in use today.
The first writing begins
as numbers on clay tablets, some also
with stamped seals.
This system of
writing on clay tablets will evolve
into modern written language. Writing
was first used to solve simple
accounting problems; for example to
count large numbers of sheep or bales
of hay. Writing may have arisen out of
the need for arithmetic and storage of
information, but will grow to record
and perpetuate stories, myths, epics,
songs, and most of what we know about
human history.
Counting tablets replace the
token counting system in Sumer, and
represent the first recorded written
numbers with place value (the position
of the number is multiplied by another
number called the base or radix) and
the beginning of the sexagesimal (has a
base of 60) numbering system. This
sexagesimal system is a mixed radix
system with an alternating base 6 and
base 10. There are dots for number 1
through 9, is first place value
numbering system has no symbol for
zero. A base-60 numbering system is
still used to measure time (60 seconds,
60 minutes, etc), angles, and
geographic coordinates.
Initially, the commodity
counted is not indicated, but will be
gradually added to the number system,
for example with a seal or drawing
(pictograph) of the commodity. In 300
years this will be replaced by tablets
with a number to represent quantity and
a picture to represent the commodity.
This number and picture script will
evolve into written language.
In this writing,
each symbol represent a single object
(numeral, noun, pronoun, verb,
adjective, or adverb). Symbols sounds
are not yet added together to form a
single word (phonetic).
Clay tokens are gradually
replaced by number signs impressed with
a round stylus at different angles in
clay tablets (originally containers for
tokens) which are then baked.
There are only
about 260 numerical tablets known. Most
of them are found in Iran.
Iran)
[1] MS 3007 NUMBERS 10 AND 5 +4 + 4
+ 4 + 5 + 3 ms3007MS on clay,
Syria/Sumer/Highland Iran, ca.
3500-3200 BC, 1 elliptical tablet,
6,7x4,4x1,9 cm, 2+1 compartments, 2 of
which with 3 columns of single numbers
as small circular
depressions. Commentary:Numerical or
counting tablets with their more
complex combination of decimal and
sexagesimal numbers are a further step
from the tallies with the simplest form
of counting in one-to-one
correspondence. They were used parallel
with the bulla-envelopes with tokens.
The commodity counted was not indicated
in the beginning, but was gradually
imbedded in the numbers system or with
a seal or a pictograph of the commodity
added, i. e. development into
ideonumerographical tablets, the
forerunners to pictographic tablets.
There are only about 260 numerical
tablets known. Most of them are found
in Iran. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im
ages/ms3007.jpg
[2] MS 4647 NUMBERS 3+4, POSSIBLY
REPRESENTING 3 MEASURES OF BARLEY AND 4
MEASURES OF SOME OTHER COMMODITY, IN
SEXAGESIMAL NOTATION ms4647MS on clay,
Syria/Sumer/Highland Iran, ca.
3500-3200 BC, 1 tablet, 4,4x5,0x2,3 cm,
2 lines with 3 small circular
depressions and 4 short
wedges. Numerical or counting
tablets with their more complex
combination of decimal and sexagesimal
numbers are a further step from the
tallies with the simplest form of
counting in one-to-one correspondence.
They were used parallel with the
bulla-envelopes with tokens. The
commodity counted was not indicated in
the beginning, but was gradually
imbedded in the numbers system or with
a seal or a pictograph of the commodity
added, i. e. development into
ideonumerographical tablets, the
forerunners to pictographic tablets.
There are only about 260 numerical
tablets known. Most of them are found
in Iran. Exhibited: The Norwegian
Intitute of Palaeography and Historical
Philology (PHI), Oslo,
13.10.2003- COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im
ages/ms4647.jpg
[3500 BCE]
writing, symbols on pottery from
Harrapa an Indus Valley civilization.
The origin of
writing is not clear but centers on
Mesopotamia, Egypt and Harrapa who all
trade with each other.
[1] The fragments of pottery are about
5,500 years old COPYRIGHTED
source: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/scien
ce/nature/334517.stm
[3500 BCE]
to as "Erech" in the Hebrew Bible. Uruk
may be where the name Iraq originates.
Uruk
represents one of the world's first
cities, with a dense population. Uruk
will also see the rise of the state in
Mesopotamia with a full-time
bureaucracy, military, and stratified
society.
Uruk is one of the oldest and most
important cities of Sumer. According to
the Sumerian king list, Uruk was
founded by Enmerkar, who brought the
official kingship with him. In the epic
Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta, he is
also said to have constructed the
famous temple called E-anna, dedicated
to the worship of Inanna (the later
Ishtar).
Uruk is also the capital city of
Gilgamesh, hero of the famous Epic of
Gilgamesh. According to the Bible
(Genesis 10:10), Erech (Uruk) was the
second city founded by Nimrod in
Shinar. Historical kings of Uruk
include Lugalzagesi of Umma (who
conquered Uruk) and Utu-hegal.
[1] Excavated walls at the site of
Uruk. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd
/uruk/hd_uruk.htm
[2] Kish (Sumer) localisation GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Meso2mil.JPG
[3400 BCE]
[01/01/3300 BCE]
into the beginning of pictographic
writing. Now along with numbers on the
clay tablets are symbols that represent
the commodity (such as cows, sheep, and
cereals). These symbols represent the
earliest record of what will become the
modern alphabet. These tablets are all
economic records, used to keep a record
of objects owned or traded, and contain
no stories.
Writing begins as a method
for increasing the human memory to keep
track of the many transactions of a
city, and not for the purpose of
recording or remembering stories.
With the
beginning of writing, begins the first
systematic training and industry of
scribes and this will ultimately evolve
into the modern school system.
These symbols
are drawn with curved lines which will
later be replaced by the easier and
faster to draw straight lines and later
the wedges of cuneiform.
The symbol for ox ("gud" in Sumerian,
later "aleph" in Egyptian) will become
the letter "A" (alpha), the symbol for
house, (/e/ in Sumerian and /bitum/ in
Akkadian ) will become "B" (beta),
(list others: see photo), although this
writing is not yet phonetic, each
symbol still representing only one
word.
This writing, taken together with the
sounds of this spoken language, provide
the earliest evidence of what sounds of
the 50 or more basic sounds still in
use, were invented before writing. We
find that nearly all sounds were
invented by this time. In Sumerian are
the vowels |i| |e| |o| |v| (possibly
|u| |E| |U| and |O|) and the
consonents: |D||T|, |B||P|, |G||K|,
|Z||S||s|, |L||R| (and |l||m||n||r|),
and finally |h|(check), which leaves:
the vowels: |a| (cat), |A| (ate), |I|
(eye), |v| (umlow), |x| (awe) and the
consonents |H|, |C|, |F|, |J|, |t|
(three), |z| (the), curled r |q|, |V|,
|W|, and |Y| to be invented after this
time.(needs more checking)
Around 1200 symbols have been
identified in these ancient texts,
around 60 are numerals.
One text from this time
(Uruk IV) is a "titles and professions"
list, which is the most popular list,
copies of these lists spanning over a
thousand years. This list describes
titles and professions probably
arranged according to rank, starting
the symbol for king, and is evidence
that the social order is already well
defined in a strict hierarchy by the
time writing is invented.
With the beginning of writing, begins
the first systematic training and
industry of scribes. Many excavated
tablets are "scribal excersize"
tablets, where impressions are drawn
repeatedly in rows. Administrative
texts without personal designations or
summations are thought to be school
exercizes. Writing will be continuously
taught eventually in all major
civilizations (even through the Dark
Ages) until now.
At the scribal school trains people for
the administrative demands of the land
for the temple and palace, but
eventually the school will be the
center of learning in Sumer.
Although trades such as hunting,
planting and harvesting are taught, the
teaching of scribes, which happens in a
building called "the tablet house" is
the first formal school on earth. From
tablets dating to 2000 BCE, scibes who
identify themselves and parents all
appear to be males indicating that few
if any females are formally taught to
be scribes. In addition the parents of
the scribes are all high ranking
wealthy people with professions such as
governor, ambassador, temple
administrator, military officer, sea
captain, high tax official, priests,
managers, supervisors, foremen,
scribes, achivists and accountants.
This early writing shows that there is
a standardized system of measures in
place. Tablets describe quantities of
bread, jars of beer, silver, barley,
fish, cows, lambs, laborer-days, and
specific measures of land.
Among tablets found in the third
millenium BCE (2000-2999 BCE) are long
lists of names of trees, plants,
animals (including insects and birds),
countries, cities and villages, and of
stones and minerals. These lists
represent a familiarity with botany,
zoology, geography and mineralology.
Sumerian scholars also prepared
mathematical tables and detailed
mathematical problems with their
solutions.
[1] MS 4551 Account of grain products,
bread, beer, butter oil. Sumer 32nd
century COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im
ages/ms4551.jpg
[2] MS2963 Account of male and
female slaves Sumer
c3300-3200BCE COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im
ages/ms2963.jpg
[3250 BCE]
writing in rows, left to right (seeing
that writing was smudged when writing
in columns) Pictures are turned 90
degrees.
[3200 BCE]
writing, at Uruk which is a large city
at this time. These are clay and stone
tablets that have names of humans
(thought to be wage lists), lists of
objects, plus receipts and memos.
Pictures not drawn with pointed reed,
but drawn with (diagonally) cut
reed-stem pressed in to the wet clay to
make wedges. What were pictures (of
oxen, etc.) are changed to be made of
all single presses, not pictures drawn
freehand. This writing contains about
600 unique symbols. Each symbol
represents a single word, as a noun (an
object or name), verb, adjective?, or
adverb? Symbols are most likely not yet
combined to form a single word.
[3200 BCE]
Civilization are the first to have an
oven within each mud-brick house.
[3200 BCE]
found dates to now.
Günter Dreyer,
director of the German Institute of
Archaeology in Cairo, found writing on
a group of small bone or ivory labels
dating from 3,300 to 3,200 BC. The
labels were attached to bags of linen
and oil in the tomb of King Scorpion I
in Egypt. They apparently indicated the
origin of the commodities.
Some artifacts have
unique symbols that do not appear in
later writing, and so cannot be
deciphered. Some labels have symbols
also seen in later hieroglyphics, and
are deciphered.
Because of this find there is some
debate over whether writing started in
Sumer or Egypt, but most people have
the opinion that writing started in
Sumer since there is a continuity of
tokens to numerical clay tablets to
writing, where in Egypt there are few
artifacts that hint at the development
of written language. Writing
development in Sumer is much more
documented. Only time and more
excavating will help answer this
question.
[1] These insciptions show early
writing making the transition from
pictorial to phonetic
meaning. Courtesy Gunter Dreyer,
German Institute of Archaeology,
Cairo. Dreyer says the symbols for a
stork and a chair found on one label
''make no sense as symbols'' literally
interpreted. In subsequent
hieroglyphics, however, they would have
the phonetic significance of
''Ba-fet,'' a city on the Nile Delta.
Thus Dreyer concludes the symbols are
actually writing that inform us that
the commodity attached to the tag came
from Ba-fet. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://whyfiles.org/079writing/2
.html
[2]
source: same
[3100 BCE]
enter egypt. Skeletal remains show
larger than average bones and skulls
than the native humans. These humans
bring writing to Egpyt.
[3100 BCE]
ever found in Egpyt. This begins
writing in Egpyt. This writing is
descended from the first writing in
Sumeria.
[3100 BCE]
in pictures drawn in egypt, which
include winged griffins, serpent necked
felines, and pairs of entwined species.
A knife found at Gebel el Arak has a
handle with one side Mesopotamian style
ships, and the other side a human
standing over two lions dressed in
Mesopotamian clothes.
[3100 BCE]
(Narmer Palette).
Narmer palette (tablet) carved
with pictures showing unification of
egypt under king Narmer, who starts the
first Egyptian Dynasty of history
(Dynasty 1). The top of the palette has
two faces of the cow-headed goddess
Hathor. Between the Hathor heads is
name of Narmer, a "n'r" fish and a "mr"
chisel (this is the oldest egyptian
writing).
Is this the earliest clear record of a
god and of the theory of gods ruling
the universe?
[01/01/3000 BCE]
script becomes phonetic (the sounds of
symbols are combined to form words).
This is the beginning of phonetic
written language.
Evidence of this is the sign
/ti/, for "arrow" that is now also
defined as the Sumarian word for "life"
/til/ which starts with the same sound.
After this phonetic abstraction, the
introduction of syllabograms (symbols
that form syllables of multi-symble
words), names and words for which no
symbols had existed can be created. For
example, the symbol originally defined
as the Summerian verb "bal" (to dig)
can also be spelled with the syllabic
signs "ba" + "al", while the Akkadian
word for dig ("heru") sounds
differently.(show image if possible)
The vast
majority of Sumerian language is made
of one-syllable words. Perhaps all
earlier spoken languages contained
single-syllable words.
This process of
phonetic abstraction will be
accelerated when the Semitic language
Akkadian adopts the Sumerian script
around 4800 YBN (2800 BCE), 200 years
from now.
Sumerian contains syllabic symbols,
where a symbol represents a consonent
and a vowel together such as /Bo/
(ball), or /Bv/ (put), although some
vowel sounds have one symbol and are
true letters. This writing will later
be fully alphabetic when the consonents
are represented by one symbol and the
vowel at the end dropped.
[1] Pre-literate counting and
accounting MS 5067/1-8 NEOLITHIC
PLAIN COUNTING TOKENS POSSIBLY
REPRESENTING 1 MEASURE OF GRAIN, 1
ANIMAL AND 1 MAN OR 1 DAY'S LABOUR,
RESPECTIVELY ms5067/1-8Counting tokens
in clay, Syria/Sumer/Highland Iran, ca.
8000-3500 BC, 3 spheres: diam. 1,6, 1,7
and 1,9 cm , (D.S.-B 2:1); 3 discs:
diam. 1,0x0,4 cm, 1,1x0,4 cm and
1,0x0,5 cm (D.S.-B 3:1); 2
tetrahedrons: sides 1,4 cm and 1,7 cm
(D.S.-B 5:1). Exhibited: The
Norwegian Intitute of Palaeography and
Historical Philology (PHI), Oslo,
13.10.2003- COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im
ages/ms5067.jpg
[2] MS 4631 BULLA-ENVELOPE WITH 11
PLAIN AND COMPLEX TOKENS INSIDE,
REPRESENTING AN ACCOUNT OR AGREEMENT,
TENTATIVELY OF WAGES FOR 4 DAYS' WORK,
4 MEASURES OF METAL, 1 LARGE MEASURE OF
BARLEY AND 2 SMALL MEASURES OF SOME
OTHER COMMODITY ms4631Bulla in clay,
Syria/Sumer/Highland Iran, ca.
3700-3200 BC, 1 spherical
bulla-envelope (complete), diam. ca.
6,5 cm, cylinder seal impressions of a
row of men walking left; and of a
predator attacking a deer, inside a
complete set of plain and complex
tokens: 4 tetrahedrons 0,9x1,0 cm
(D.S.-B.5:1), 4 triangles with 2
incised lines 2,0x0,9 (D.S.-B.(:14), 1
sphere diam. 1,7 cm (D.S.-B.2:2), 1
cylinder with 1 grove 2,0x0,3 cm
(D.S.-B.4:13), 1 bent paraboloid
1,3xdiam. 0,5 cm
(D.S.-B.8:14). Context: MSS 4631-4646
and 5114-5127are from the same archive.
Total number of bulla-envelopes
worldwide is ca. 165 intact and 70
fragmentary. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.earth-history.com/_im
ages/ms4631.jpg
[3000 BCE]
Egypt.
[3000 BCE]
Nile.
[3000 BCE]
[3000 BCE]
ships were used in the Medeterranean.
[3000 BCE]
languages all use cuneiform writing.
[3000 BCE]
in Egypt.
[3000 BCE]
and ramps used to move heavy objects.
[3000 BCE]
welding.
[3000 BCE]
Egpyt.
[3000 BCE]
China.
[3000 BCE]
Egypt.
[3000 BCE]
China.
[3000 BCE]
[3000 BCE]
[3000 BCE]
[3000 BCE]
Gerrawi.
[3000 BCE]
and bow drill in Egypt.
[3000 BCE]
Sumer .
[3000 BCE]
[3000 BCE]
clay casting (cire-perdu).
[2925 BCE]
of traditional Egyptian hieroglyphs
replaces traditional hieroglyphs.
Hieratic script was almost always
written in ink with a reed pen on
papyrus. The word 'hieratikos' means
'priestly' because by the Greco-Roman
period this writing was used only by
priest humans.
[2800 BCE]
the earliest recorded semitic language
is first seen in proper names recorded
on clay tablets in Sumer. This language
will eventually replace the non-semitic
Sumerian language but Sumerian will
last for another 1000 years before
going extinct in 1800 BCE. Bilingual
lexical lists with both Akkadian and
Sumerian are created around this time
and are the first dictionaries ever
created on earth. These will help later
people to understand Sumerian. The
Akkadian language has no written form
and so Akkadian speaking people adopt
the Sumerian script for their own
language and this accelerates the
process of phonetic abstraction. This
phonetic abstraction of Sumerian will
allow the development of cuneiform
which uses phonetic symbols, which are
direct ancestors of the modern letters
of the alphabet.
Akkadian words sound different
from Sumerian words and so Akkadian
speaking people may apply the Sumerian
phonetic symbols to represent Akkadian
words (or Akkadian speaking people may
have been the first to make Sumerian
symbols as phonetic letters). Akkadian
has two different forms for verbs
depending on tense and mode, and so
verbs cannot be expressed with a single
symbol as they can in Sumerian.
[2800 BCE]
assembly occurs in Sumer. Gilgamesh,
the king of Erech (Uruk), Gilgamesh,
goes before an assembly of elders to
ask for permission to fight against the
city of Kish instead of being ruled by
Agga, the king of Kish. Gilgamesh
supports the idea of fighting against
Kish, and he goes before an assembly of
elders, who vote not to fight but
instead to submit to Kish in the
interest of peace, however a second
assembly, which consists of men with
weapons votes to fight against Kish.
Agga attacks Erech, and the text is not
yet fully understood, but somehow
Gilgamesh gains the friendship of Agga
and has the siege stopped without a
fight.
[2630 BCE]
doctor of recorded history designs the
first pyramid in Egypt.
Imhotep was one of
the officials of the Pharaoh Djosèr
(3rd Dynasty), designed the Pyramid of
Djzosèr (Step Pyramid) at Saqqara in
Egypt around 2630-2611 BC. He may also
have been responsible for the first
known use of columns in architecture.
His name means the one who comes in
peace.
Imhotep is the first name of history,
if correctly pronounced that uses the
"i" and "e" sounds. At least clear
proof that these sounds were in use by
this time.
[01/01/2600 BCE]
their invention of cuneiform, the
practice of writing expands beyond
debt/payment certificates and inventory
lists and is applied for the first time
to written messages, mail delivery,
history, legend, mathematics,
astronomical records and other
pursuits. Following this, the first
formal schools are established, usually
under the guidance of a city-state's
primary temple.
[2600 BCE]
king, Enmebaragesi, ruler of Kish.
Enmebarage
si is the earliest ruler on the
Sumerian king list whose name is
attested directly from archaeological
remains, two alabaster vase fragments
with inscriptions about him found at
Nippur - where he is said to have built
the first temple according to the
Sumerian Tummal chronicle.
modern Bagdad
[2600 BCE]
the Sumerian flood story.
The oldest known
written story (or literature), the
Sumerian flood story, the "Ziusudra
epic" is known from a single
fragmentary tablet, writing in Sumerian
from Nippur. The first part tells the
story of the creation of man, animals
and the first cities. In this story the
gods send a flood to destroy mankind.
The god Enki warns Ziusudra of
Shuruppak to build a large boat. A
terrible storm rages for seven days and
then (the god) Utu (the sun) appears
and Ziusudra sacrifices an ox and a
sheep. After the flood An, the sky god,
and Enlil, the chief of the gods give
Ziusudra "breath eternal" and take him
to live in Dilmun. The rest of the poem
is lost.
There are many similarities
between the stories of Ziusudra,
Atrahasis, Utnapishtim and Noah.
The oldest
known written story (or literature),
the Sumerian flood story, the "Ziusudra
epic" is known from a single
fragmentary tablet, writing in
Sumerian. The name Ziusudra means
"found long life" or "life of long
days". The first part tells the story
of the creation of man, animals and the
first cities, Eridu, Badtibira, Larak,
Sippar, and Shuruppak. After a missing
section in the tablet, the story
describes how the gods send a flood to
destroy mankind. The god Enki (lord of
the underworld ocean of fresh water and
Sumerian equivalent of Ea) warns
Ziusudra of Shuruppak to build a large
boat (the passage describing the
directions for the boat is also lost).
When the tablet resumes, it tells about
a terrible storm that rages for seven
days. Then (the god) Utu (|vTv| or
|oTo| or |uTu|) (the sun) appears and
Ziusudra opens a window, prostrates
himself, and sacrifices an ox and a
sheep. After another break the text
resumes, the flood is apparently over,
and Ziusudra is prostrating himself
before An (|oN|) (the sky-god) and
Enlil (the chief of the gods), who give
him "breath eternal" and take him to
live in Dilmun. The rest of the poem is
lost.
More than 80% of all known Sumerian
literary compositions have been found
at Nippur.
The name Ziusudra also appears in the
WB-62 version of the Sumerian king list
as a king/chief of Shuruppak who
reigned for 10 (shar) years. Ziusudra
was preceded in this king list by his
father SU.KUR.LAM who was also king of
Shuruppak and ruled 8 (shar) years. On
the next line of the King List are the
sentences "The flood swept thereover.
After the flood swept thereover, ...
the kingship was in Kish." The city of
Kish flourished in the Early Dynastic
II period soon after an
archaeologically attested river flood
in Shuruppak that has been radio-carbon
dated about 2900 BC. Polychrome pottery
from below the flood deposit have be
dated to the Jemdet Nasr period that
immediately preceded the Early Dynastic
I period.
The importance of Ziusudra in the King
List is that it links the flood
mentioned in the Epics of Ziusudra,
Atrahasis, Utnapishtim, etc to river
flood sediments in Shuruppak, Uruk, and
Kish that have been radio carbon dated
as 2900 BCE. So scholars conclude that
the flood hero was king of Shuruppak at
the end of the Jemdet Nasr period
(3100-2900) which ended with the river
flood of 2900 BCE.
Ziusudra being king of Shuruppak is
supported in the Gilgamesh XI tablet by
the reference to Utnapishtim as "man of
Shuruppak" at line 23.
A Sumerian document known as "The
Instructions of Shuruppak" dated to
around 2500 BCE, refers in a later
version to Ziusudra indicating that
Ziusudra may have become a venerable
figure in the literary tradition by
2500 BCE.
Scholars have found many similarities
between the stories of Ziusudra,
Atrahasis, Utnapishtim and Noah.
At this time, the scribes learning in
the tablet houses must be transfering
their oral stories onto clay, in
addition to studying, copying and
imitating earlier texts. Works created
in these years are almost all poetic in
form, some extending to thousands of
lines. These texts are mainly myths and
epic tales in the form of narrative
poems celebrating the adventures of
Sumerian gods and heros, hymns to gods
and kings, lamentations of Sumerian
cities, wisdom compositions that
include proverbs, fables, and essays.
The Sumerians belief in a variety of
gods and goddesses, so already, by the
time of the invention of writing we see
the theory of gods and goddesses. This
inaccurate belief in a god theory will
continue into present times. The
Sumerians have around 50 gods and 50
goddesses so far counted. The view
expressed is the traditional view that
many of the gods have human form, many
are related, and they control various
objects such as the sky (the god Anu,
also god of heaven which indicates
belief in a heaven (but this may be
Christian misinterpretation, do dead
people go to sky/heaven in Sumerian
myths?)), the earth (the goddess Ki,
consort to Anu), the wind (the god
Ishkur), the sun (the god Utu), the
earth (the god Enki), grain (the
goddess Ashnan), venus (the goddess
Inanna), and many more.
Many of the gods will be renamed as
time continues, for example, the
Sumerian goddess "Inanna", the first
god known to be associated with the
planet Venus, is named "Ishtar" by the
Akkadians and Babylonians, "Isis" by
the Egyptians, "Aphrodite" by the
Greeks, "Turan" by the Etruscans, and
"Venus" by the Romans. The Sumerians
call Inanna the "Holy Virgin" and this
may indicate an early example of the
erroneous belief that a female that has
not had sex is somehow more pure.
[2550 BCE]
wriiten on (parchment) in Egypt.
[2500 BCE]
[2500 BCE]
[2500 BCE]
[2500 BCE]
papyrus.
[2500 BCE]
Skandinavia .
[2500 BCE]
metal objects.
[2500 BCE]
valley.
[2407 BCE]
Papyrus, in Egypt.
[2400 BCE]
text in Syria, at Elba, near Aleppo,
from palace libraries and archives.
[2400 BCE]
written on a clay tablet in Lagash.
This document is created by an
archivist of Entemena, the fifth in a
dynasty of rulers of Lagash. The
purpose of the document is to record
the boundary between Lagash and Umma,
but to set the context, describes the
history of the border and the struggle
for power between Lagash and Umma as
far back as the archivist's records
reach, which is to the time of Mesilim,
the suzerain of Sumer around 2600 BCE.
This text is somewhat abstract because
of the many references to gods.
[2200 BCE]
observatory in the Americas is near
Lima, Peru. Structures at the site,
discovered near Lima, Peru, align with
the directions of sunrise and sunset at
critical points in the agricultural
calendar, including December 21, the
start of the Southern Hemisphere's
growing season, and June 21, the end of
harvest.
[1] A giant carving of a frowning face
is among the sculptures found at what
experts say is the oldest known
astronomical observatory in the Western
Hemisphere. Structures at the site,
discovered near Lima, Peru, align with
the directions of sunrise and sunset at
critical points in the agricultural
calendar, including December 21, the
start of the Southern Hemisphere's
growing season, and June 21, the end of
harvest. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://news.nationalgeographic.c
om/news/bigphotos/66237588.html
[2100 BCE]
science) text, found in Nippur.
The earliest
medical (health science) text, found in
Nippur. There are more than 10 remedies
listed on this clay tablet, thought by
some to be recorded by a physician for
fellow physicians or students.
Materials used are mostly from plants,
such as cassia, myrtle, asafoetida,
thyme, and from trees such as the
willow, pear, fir, fig and date trees,
but also include sodium chloride
(salt), potassium nitrate (saltpeter),
milk, snake skin, and turtle shell.
These materials are prepared from seed,
root, branch, bark or gum, and are
probably stored in either solid or
powdered form. Some ingredients are
boiled in water and probably filtered.
The suffering body part is then rubbed
by the filtrate, oil is rubbed on it,
and more materials may be added. For
mixtures taken internally, beer, milk
and or oil are used to make the
"medicine" more palatable.
This is the only
medical text recovered in the 3rd
millenium BCE, but there is debate
about medical knowledge in Egypt for
which the earliest evidence is the
Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus which
dates to the 17th century BCE but is
thought to be based on material going
back to 3000BCE.
To obtain potassium nitrate
(saltpeter), judging from later
Assyrian methods, the Sumerians may
remove for purification any crystalline
material from drains where nitrogenous
waste products such as urine flow. The
Sumerians may have used fractional
crystallization to separate the
components such as salts of sodium and
potassium.
The text requires for materials to be
"purified" before their use, and this
may involve a number of chemical
operations. One part of the text calls
for a pulvarized alkali which is
thought to be the alkali ash produced
by the pit-burning of plants of the
Amaranthaceae (was Chenopodiaceae)
family which are rich in soda. Two
presciptions use alkali together with
substances that contain a large amount
of fat which would produce a form of
soap.
In this, the oldest medical text,
there are no references to any god,
demon, magic spell or incantation.
[2050 BCE]
Ur-Nammu tablet.
The earliest recorded laws,
the Ur-Nammu tablet. Ur-Nammyu founded
the Third Dynasty of Ur. The laws are
written in Sumerian cuneiform and are
damaged so only a few have been
deciphered. One law involves a trial by
water, another describes the return of
a slave to their master. Other laws
describe monetary penalties for violent
crimes such as for cutting off a foot
or nose. To me this opens the debate
about an eye-for-an-eye punishment
versus pentalies such as jail and
monetary fines.
This tablet was found
in Nippur.
[2000 BCE]
Valley.
[2000 BCE]
China.
[2000 BCE]
vehicles.
[2000 BCE]
[2000 BCE]
in Asian steppes.
[2000 BCE]
(melted and purified?).
[2000 BCE]
[2000 BCE]
tool originated in Sumer.
[2000 BCE]
[2000 BCE]
O
ldest lock, found in ruins of the
palace of Khorsabad near Nineveh. The
lock is made of wood and uses a tumbler
design, similar to modern locks. This
kind of lock will be used widely in
Egypt.
[1] Ancient wooden lock and key from
Khorsabad (Much reduced) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.usgennet.org/usa/topi
c/preservation/science/inventions/chpt8.
htm
[2000 BCE]
clay tablet from the library in the
tablet house in Nippur. This tablet
lists the titles of numerous tablets
with stories recognized by modern
people from other tablets.
[1] PLATE II OLDEST LITERARY
CATALOGUE This plate illustrates a
literary catalogue compiled in
approximately 2000 B. C. (clay tablet
29.15.155 in the Nippur collection of
the University Museum). The upper part
represents the tablet itself; the lower
part, the author's hand copy of the
tablet. The titles of those
compositions whose actual contents we
can now reconstruct in large part are
as follows: 1. Hymn of King Shulgi
(approximately 2100 B. C.). 2. Hymn of
King Lipit-Ishtar (approximately 1950
B. C.). 3. Myth, ''The Creation of the
Pickax'' (see p. 51). 4. Hymn to
Inanna, queen of heaven. 5. Hymn to
Enlil, the air-god. 6. Hymn to the
temple of the mother-goddess Ninhursag
in the city of Kesh. 7. Epic tale,
''Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Nether
World'' (see p. 30). 8. Epic tale,
''Inanna and Ebih'' (see p. 82). 9.
Epic tale, ''Gilgamesh and
Huwawa.'' 10. Epic tale, ''Gilgamesh
and Agga.'' 11. Myth, ''Cattle and
Grain'' (see p. 53). 12. Lamentation
over the fall of Agade in the time of
Naram-Sin (approximately 2400 B.
C.). 13. Lamentation over the
destruction of Ur. This composition,
consisting of 436 lines, has been
almost completely reconstructed and
published by the author as
Assyriological Study No. 12 of the
Oriental Institute of the University of
Chicago. 14. Lamentation over the
destruction of Nippur. 15. Lamentation
over the destruction of Sumer. 16.
Epic tale, ''Lugalbanda and
Enmerkar.'' 17. Myth, ''Inanna's
Descent to the Nether World'' (see p.
83). 18. Perhaps a hymn to
Inanna. 19. Collection of short hymns
to all the important temples of
Sumer. 20. Wisdom compositions
describing the activities of a boy
training to be a scribe. 21. Wisdom
composition, ''Instructions of a
Peasant to His Son.'' 16 PD
source: http://www.sacred-texts.com/ane/
sum/img/pl02.jpg
[2000 BCE]
the Gilgamesh (or Gish-gi(n)-mash)
story are written in Sumerian on clay
tablets.
Gilgamesh, according to the Sumerian
king list, was the fifth king of Uruk,
the son of Lugalbanda, ruling around
2650 BCE.
Many Sumerian texts have stories about
a hero killing a beast (or
dragon-slaying tales). Sometimes the
hero is a god, for example Enki or
Ninurta. Gilgamesh is described as a
man, and in other stories as part man
and part god.
This story is pieced together from 14
tablets and fragments and goes like
this:
The "lord" Gilgamesh, realizing that,
like all mortals, he must die sooner or
later, is determined to "raise up a
name" for himself before dying. So
Gilgamesh decides to journey to the far
away "Land of the Living" to cut down
the cedar trees there and bring them to
Erech (Uruk). Gilgamesh tells this to
his servant (slave), Enkidu. Enkidu
advises Gilgamesh to describe his plan
to Utu who is in charge of the cedar
land. (one interpretation explains that
this belief is because the sun was
thought to touch the mountains with the
trees at sunset). Acting on this advice
Gilgamesh brings offerings to Utu and
pleads for support on his journey. At
first Utu is skeptical, but Gilgamesh
repeats his plea and Utu takes pity on
him, and decides to help Gilgamesh
probably by stopping the seven demons
that personify destructive weather
phenomena that might menace Gilgamesh
on his journey across the mountains
between Erech and the "Land of the
Living". Overjoyed, Gilgamesh gathers
fifty volunteers from Erech, men who
have neither "house" nor "mother" who
are ready to follow him. After having
weapons of bronze and wood prepared for
him and his companians, they cross the
seven mountains with the help of Utu.
Much of the text is poorly preserved at
this part, but when the text become
clear, we see that Gilgamesh has fallen
into a heavy sleep and is only awakened
after considerable time and effort.
Angered by this delay Gilgamesh swears
he will enter the "Land of the Living"
with no interference from man or god.
Enkidu pleads with Gilgamesh to turn
back, because the guardian of the
cedars is the fearful monster Huwawa,
whose destructive attack none may
withstand. But convinced that with
Enkidu's help, no harm can happen to
either of them, Gilgamesh tells his
servent to put away his fear and go
forward with him. The monster Huwawa,
spying on them from his cedar house
makes frantic but vain efforts to drive
the band of men off. After a break of
some lines, Gilgamesh, after chopping
down some trees has probably reached
Huwawa's inner chamber. Curiously,
Gilgamesh merely slaps Huwawa, and
Huwawa is overcome by fright. Huwawa
says a prayer to the sun-god Utu, and
begs Gilgamesh not to kill him.
Gilgamesh suggests to Enkidu that
Huwawa be set free, but Enkidu is
fearful of the consequences and advises
against letting Huwawa free. Huwawa
criticizes Enkidu for this merciless
view. Gilgamesh and Enkidu cut off the
head of Huwawa. They then bring the
corpse of Huwawa to the gods Enlil and
Ninlil. After several fragmentary
lines, the tablet ends.
[1] The Yale Tablet of the Gilgamesh
Epic License: The Project Gutenberg
eBook, An Old Babylonian Version of the
Gilgamesh Epic, by Anonymous, Edited by
Morris Jastrow, Translated by Albert T.
Clay This eBook is for the use of
anyone anywhere at no cost and
with almost no restrictions
whatsoever. You may copy it, give it
away or re-use it under the terms of
the Project Gutenberg License
included with this eBook or online at
www.gutenberg.org
source: http://www.gutenberg.org/files/1
1000/11000-h/11000-h.htm
[1842 BCE]
alphabet. Proto-semitic alphabet made
in turquoise mines probably by Semitic
humans. This alphabet is thought to
have replaced cuneiform, and may be
root of all other alphabets.
This
first strictly phonetic alphabet is in
use until 1797 BC.
[1800 BCE]
alphabet thought to be developed at
this time.
[1700 BCE]
from asia in the form of the two
wheeled chariot (as seen in image of
tutankhamun).
[1700 BCE]
text, found in Nippur. This is a 3 by
4.5 inch Sumerian clay tablet. This
text include instructions describing
how far apart to plow, how far apart to
space barley seeds, to change the
direction of furrows each year, when to
water the plants, and to harvest the
barley "in the day of its strength"
before the barley bends under its own
weight. This text shows that 3 people
work together as a team to harvest
barley, a reaper (cutter), a binder and
a third whose job is not clear.
Threshing of the barley is done by a
sledge (sled) moved back and forth over
the heaped up grain stalks for 5 days.
The barley is then "opened" with an
"opener" which is drawn by oxen. The
grain is then winnowed with pitch forks
to free it from dust and laid on
sticks.
[1700 BCE]
horse back riding, is on a clay tablet
that tells a Sumerian fable.
[1650 BCE]
in the "Rhind Mathematical Papyrus" in
a work entitled "directions for knowing
all dark things" now in located in the
British Museum.
Ahmose (also called
"Ahmes") states that he copied the
papyrus from a now-lost Middle Kingdom
original, dating around 2000 BC.
[1552 BCE]
Ebers papyrus, in Egypt.
[1550 BCE]
written on a clay tablet in Sumerian.
Some of these fables will be ancestors
of Aesop's fables 1000 years later
around 550BCE. The Sumerian fables
include stories about talking animals
such as dogs, cattle, donkeys, foxes,
pigs, sheep, lions, wild oxen (the now
extinct Bos primigenius), goats and
wolves.
[1500 BCE]
rice grown in china.
[1500 BCE]
(where?).
Earliest evidence of Corn
(maize) grown in America (where?).
[1500 BCE]
[1500 BCE]
[1500 BCE]
Assyria.
[1500 BCE]
[1500 BCE]
[1500 BCE]
[1500 BCE]
[1500 BCE]
वेद) (English:
"knowledge"), four ancient Indian
collections of hymns and ritual
formulas are started around this time.
The 4 "Vedas" form the oldest
scriptural texts of the religion of
Hinduism. The four Vedas are: the
"Rig-Veda", the "Yajur-Veda", the
"Sama-Veda", and the "Atharva-Veda".
[1358 BCE]
(BCE c1385-c1350), Pharaoh of Egypt,
introduces the concept of monotheism.
Some people claim that Zoroastrianism,
Judaism and therefore all monotheistic
religions descend from Amenhotep's Sun
God Aton.
Akhenaton may be the first person of
recorded history to question or doubt
the ancient "gods rule the universe"
theory, although Akhenaton clearly
believes in the existence of a god.
[1] Antiquit� �gyptienne,
Akh�naton, Mus�e
�gyptien du Caire, (�gypte).
Statue of Akhenaten depicted in a
style typical of the Amarna period, on
display at the Museum of Egyptian
Antiquities, Cairo Reign 1353 BC
� 1336 BC[2] or 1352 BC �
1336 BC[3] or 1351�1334 BC[4] CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GD-EG-Caire-Mus%C3%A9e061.JPG
[2] English: Amun and
Mut Nederlands: Amon en
Mut Source http://runeberg.org/nfba/04
95.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Amon_och_Mut%2C_Nordisk_familjebok.pn
g
[1300 BCE]
Syria, at Ugarit (Ras-Shamra) near
Latakia, from palace libraries and
archives.
[1200 BCE]
[1200 BCE]
galley with fifty oars.
[1200 BCE]
[1200 BCE]
casting.
[850 BCE]
alphabet language from phoenician
humans. Phoenician humans are using a
variation of letters used at this time
by Semite humans in Syria-Palestine,
Canaanite writing. "Alef" (ox), "beth"
(house), "gimel" (camel), "daleth"
(door), etc. are changed to "alpha",
"beta", "gamma", "delta", etc. The
semitic alphabets Hebrew and Arabic are
descended from the Canaanite language.
[800 BCE]
for first time in Greece.
? is the first name
in history, if pronounced accurately,
to contain the "u" (cup) sound.
[800 BCE]
used for first time in Greece.
Theta
(uppercase Θ, lowercase θ) is
the eighth letter of the Greek
alphabet, derived from the Phoenician
letter Teth.
Ṭēth (also
Teth, Tet) is the ninth letter of many
Semitic abjads, including Phoenician,
Aramaic, Hebrew ט, Syriac ܛ
and Arabic ṭāʼ ﻁ
(in abjadi order, 16th in modern
order).
In Ancient Greek theta represened an
aspirated dental stop (/th/), but in
Koiné and later dialects it
fricativized to a voiceless dental
fricative /θ/.
Koiné Greek
(Κοινή
Ἑλληνι
54;ή), a Greek dialect that
developed from the Attic dialect (of
Athens) and became the spoken language
of Greece at the time of the Empire of
Alexander the Great. It became the
lingua franca (a common language used
by people with different native
languages) of the Roman Empire. The
Koine was the original language of the
New Testament, of the writings of the
early Christian Church Fathers and of
all of Greek literature for about ten
centuries.
According to Porphyry of Tyros, the
Egyptians used an X within a circle as
a symbol of the soul
? is the first name in history, if
pronounced accurately, to contain the
"t" (theta) sound. By the time of
Thessaly and Thales.
This occurs only in the Greek language
and is found in no earlier languages
(to my knowledge).
[800 BCE]
the Italian peninsula by people who
migrate from the north, and settled in
the Latium region, around the River
Tiber, where the Roman civilization
will first develop.
[785 BCE]
eclipses.
[1] by Ted Huntington PD
source: my own based on info from
http://www.britannica.com/eb/art-3466?ar
ticleTypeId=1 and
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/fac
tsheet/sunfact.html
[700 BCE]
speaking people start using the letter
"C" (Gamma), not only to represent it's
traditional sound "G", but also for the
sound "K", usually reserved for the
letter "K". This will add confusion to
how to pronounce a word, and violates a
more simple, logical system where one
letter equals only one sound.
At this time
Latin speaking people start replacing
words with K with the letter "C".
[688 BCE]
(Asurbanipal's predecessor) has a
library in the southwest palace, or
'palace without rival', at Nineveh.
[669 BCE]
collects clay tablets and builds a
library.
Ashurbanipal, the last great king of
ancient Assyria, systematically
collects clay tablets and builds a
library, and is one of the few kings of
ancient history that can read and
write. This is probably the largest
library of this time and 20,000 to
30,000 cuneiform tablets containing
approximately 1,200 distinct texts have
been uncovered.
Assyrian sculpture reached a high point
under his rule (for example the
Northern palace and south-western
palace at Nineveh, battle of Ulai).
Greeks people refer to Ashurbanipal as
Sardanapalos; Latin and other medieval
texts refer to Ashurbanipal as
Sardanapalus. In the Bible he is called
As(e)nappar or Osnapper (Ezra 4:10).
During Ashurbanipal's rule, Assyria
excelled in art and had a strong
military. Ashurbanipal creates "the
first systematically collected library"
at Nineveh, where he tries to gather
all cuneiform literature available.
Therefore, this library is different
from an archive where tablets simply
accumulate over time.
[1] Ashurbanipal on a Babylonian stela
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Assurbanipal_als_hogepriester.jpg
[2] Ashurbanipal hunting, a palace
relief from Nineveh PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Assurbanipal_op_jacht.jpg
[669 BCE]
story of Gilgamesh is from the library
of Ashurbanipal in Nineveh. It was
written in standard Babylonian, a
dialect of Akkadian that was only used
for literary purposes. This version was
standardized by Sin-liqe-unninni
sometime between 1300 BCE and 1000 BCE
out of the older versions to one
official version.
There are 12 tablets and the story is
this:
Tablet 1. The story starts with an
introduction of Gilgamesh of Uruk, the
greatest king on earth, two-thirds god
and one-third human, as the strongest
King-God who ever existed. The
introduction describes his glory and
praises the brick city walls of Uruk.
The people in the time of Gilgamesh,
however, are not happy. They complain
that he is too harsh and abuses his
power by requiring that he have sex
with each woman after their marriage
before their husband does, so the
goddess of creation Aruru creates the
wild-man Enkidu from clay, who naked,
long-haired, and innocent of all human
relations, lives with the wild beasts
of the plains. Enkidu starts bothering
the shepherds. When one of them
complains to Gilgamesh, the king sends
the woman Shamshat, a prostitute
(courtesan, priestess or prostitute,
nadītu or hierodule in Greek) to
"humanize" Enkidu by having sex with
him. Shamshat has sex with Enkidu and
satifies his sex instincts. As a result
Enkidu loses his brute strength but
gains in wisdom. With this new found
wisdom the wild beasts no longer
recognize Enkidu as their own. The
courtesan Shamshat guides Enkidu in the
civilized arts of eating, drinking and
dressing. This humanized Enkidu is then
ready to meet Gilgamesh, whose arrogant
and tyrannical spirit he is destines to
subdue. Gilgamesh has some unusual
dreams and his mother Ninsun explains
them by telling that a mighty friend
will come to him.
Tablet 2. Enkidu and
Shamshat leave the wilderness for Uruk
to marry each other. When Gilgamesh
comes to the party to have sex with
Shamshat he finds his way blocked by
Enkidu. (Another version has Gilgamesh
meeting Enkidu and eager to display his
unrivaled position in Erech, Gilgamesh
arranges a night-time orgy and invites
Enkidu to attend. Enkidu, however, is
repelled by Gilgamesh's sexual
cravings, and blocks his way to prevent
Gilgamesh from entering the house
appointed for the orgy.) Enkidu and
Gilgamesh fight each other. Gilgamesh
the sophisticated towsman and Enkidu
the simple plainsman. Enkidu seems to
be getting the better of Gilgamesh,
when Gilgamesh breaks off from the
fight, the two kiss and embrace (this
portion is missing from the Standard
Babylonian version but is supplied from
other versions). Out of this bitter
struggle is born a friendship of two
heros. After this fight Gilgamesh
introduces Enkidu to his mother and
makes him family because the poor man
has none of his own. (Enkidu is not
happy in Erech because it's sexual life
makes him weaker.) So Gilgamesh
proposes to travel to the Cedar Forest
to cut some great trees and kill the
forest's fearful guardian, the mighty
Humbaba (Huwawa in the earlier Sumerian
version). Enkidu objects, knowing the
cedar forest from his early savage
days, but Gilgamesh only mocks his
fears.
Tablet 3. Gilgamesh and Enkidu
prepare to adventure to the Cedar
Forest. Gilgamesh confers with the
elders of Erech, obtains the approval
of the sun-god Shamash (utu in the
earlier Sumerian text), the patron of
all travelers, and has the craftsmen of
Uruk cast gigantic weapons for himself
and Enkidu. (Another version has
Gilgamesh telling his mother about his
planned journey who complains about it
but then asks the sun-god Shamash for
support and gives Enkidu some advice.)
Tablet 4. Gilgamesh and Enkidu journey
to the Cedar Forest (in the Sumerian
version they take 50 young males with
them). On the way Gilgamesh has five
bad dreams but due to the bad
construction of the tablet they are
hard to reconstruct. Enkidu each time
explains the dreams as a good omen.
When they reach the forest Enkidu
becomes afraid again and Gilgamesh has
to encourage him.
Tablet 5. When the heroes
finally meet Humbaba, the beast-like
guardian of the trees starts to
threaten them. This time Gilgamesh is
the one that becomes afraid. After some
brave words from Enkidu the battle
begins. Their rage separates the Sirara
mountains from the Libanon. Finally
Shamash sends his 13 winds to help the
two heroes and Humbaba is defeated. The
monster begs Gilgamesh for his life and
Gilgamesh pities Humbaba. Enkidu
however gets angry with Gilgamesh and
asks him to kill the beast. Humbaba
then turns to Enkidu and begs him to
persuade his friend to spare his life.
When Enkidu repeats his request to
Gilgamesh Humbaba curses them both
before Gilgamesh puts an end to it.
(other versions?) When the two heroes
cut a huge tree Enkidu makes a huge
door of it for the gods and lets it
float down the river.
Tablet 6. On their
return to Uruk, Gilgamesh rejects the
sexual advances of Anu's daughter, the
goddess of love and lust Ishtar,
because of what happened to her
previous lovers like Dumuzi (Another
version has Gilgamesh rejecting Ishtar
because of her promiscuity and
faithlessness, which seems unlikely).
Angered and offended, Ishtar asks her
father Anu to send the "Bull of Heaven"
against Uruk to destroy Gilgamesh and
his city to avenge the rejected sexual
advances. When Anu rejects her
complaints, Ishtar threatens to raise
the dead from the nether world. Anu
becomes scared and gives in. The Bull
of Heaven descends and begins to lay
waste to the city of Uruk, killing its
warriors by the hundreds. (possibly the
Bull eats up all the plants?) Gilgamesh
and Enkidu, together take up the
struggle against the Bull and this time
without divine help, kill the Bull.
(They offer the Bull's heart to
Shamash.) (When they hear Ishtar cry
out in agony, Enkidu tears off the
bull's hindquarter and throws it in her
face and threatens her.) The city Uruk
celebrates, but Enkidu has a bad dream
detailed in the next tablet.
Tablet 7. In the
dream of Enkidu, the gods decide that
somebody has to be punished for killing
the Bull of Heaven and Humbaba, and
they decide to punish Enkidu. Enkidu is
sentenced to an early death by the
gods. (All of this is against the will
of Shamash). Enkidu tells Gilgamesh all
about it and then curses the door he
made for the gods. Gilgamesh is shocked
and goes to temple to pray to Shamash
for the health of his friend. Enkidu
then starts to curse Shamat because now
he regrets the day that he became
human. Shamash speaks from the heaven
and points out how unfair Enkidu is and
also tells him that Gilgamesh will
become a shadow of his former self
because of his death. Enkidu regrets
his curses and blesses Shamat. He
becomes more and more ill and describes
the Netherworld as he is dying.
Tablet 8.
Gilgamesh delivers a lamentation for
Enkidu, offering gifts to the many gods
in order that they might walk beside
Enkidu in the netherworld.
Tablet 9. Gilgamesh sets
out to avoid Enkidu's fate and makes a
perilous journey to visit Utnapishtim
and his wife (Ziusudra in the early
Sumerian flood stories), the only
humans to have survived the Great Flood
who were granted immortality by the
gods, in the hope that he too can
attain immortality. Along the way,
Gilgamesh passes the two mountains
where the sun rises from, guarded by
two scorpion-men. They allow him to
proceed and he travels through the dark
where the sun travels every night. Just
before the sun is about to catch up
with him, he reaches the end. The land
on the end of the tunnel is a
wonderland full of trees with leaves of
jewels.
Tablet 10. Gilgamesh meets the alewyfe
(barmaid) Siduri and tells her the
purpose of his journey. Siduri attempts
to dissuade him from his quest but
sends him to Urshanabi the ferryman to
help him cross the sea to Utnapishtim.
Urshanabi is in the company of some
sort of stone-giants. Gilgamesh
considers them as hostile and kills
them. When he tells Urshanabi his story
and asks for help he is told that he
just killed the only creatures able to
cross the Waters of Death. The waters
of death are not to be touched so
Utshanabi commands him to cut 120 oars
so that they can cross the waters by
picking a new oar each time. Finally
they reach the island of Utnapishtim.
Utnapishtim sees that there is
something wrong with the boat, and asks
Gilgamesh about it. Gilgamesh tells him
his story and asks for help but
Utnapishtim reprimands him because
fighting the fate of humans is futile
and ruins the joy in life.
Tablet 11.
Gilgamesh argues that Utnapishtim is
not different from him and asks him his
story, why he has a different fate.
Utnapishtim tells him about the great
flood, his story is a summary of the
story of Atrahasis (see also Gilgamesh
flood myth) but skips the previous
plagues sent by the gods(explain more).
He reluctantly offers Gilgamesh a
chance for immortality, but questions
why the gods would give the same honor
as himself, the flood hero, to
Gilgamesh and challenges Gilgamesh to
stay awake for six days and seven
nights first. However just when
Utnapishtim finishes his words
Gilgamesh falls asleep. Utnapishtim
ridicules the sleeping Gilgamesh in the
presence of his wife and tells her to
bake a loaf of bread for every day he
is asleep so that Gilgamesh cannot deny
his failure. When Gilgamesh, after six
days and seven nights discovers his
failure Utnapishtim is furious with him
and sends him back to Uruk with
Urshanabi in exile. The moment that
they leave, Utnapishtim's wife asks her
husband to have mercy on Gilgamesh for
his long journey. Utnapishtim tells
Gilgamesh of a plant at the bottom of
the ocean that will make him young
again. Gilgamesh obtains the plant by
binding stones to his feet so he can
walk the bottom of the sea. He doesn"t
trust the plant and plans to test it on
an old-timer back in Uruk.
Unfortunately he places the plant on
the shore of a lake while he bathes,
and it is stolen by a snake who loses
his old skin and thus is reborn.
Gilgamesh weeps in the presence of
Urshanabi. Having failed at both
opportunities, he returns to Uruk,
where the sight of its massive walls
prompts him to praise this enduring
work to Urshanabi.
Tablet 12. Note that the
content of the last tablet is not
connected with previous ones. Gilgamesh
complains to Enkidu that his
ball-game-toys fell in the underworld.
Enkidu offers to bring them back.
Delighted Gilgamesh tells Enkidu what
he must and mustn"t do in the
underworld in order to come back.
Enkidu forgets the advice and does
everything he was told not to. The
underworld keeps him. Gilgamesh prays
to the gods to give him his friend
back. Enlil and Sin don"t bother to
reply but Enki and Shamash decide to
help. Shamash cracks a hole in the
earth and Enkidu jumps out of it. The
tablet ends with Gilgamesh questioning
Enkidu about what he has seen in the
underworld. The story doesn"t make
clear if Enkidu reappears only as a
ghost of really comes alive again.
Some important points to notice in this
story are:
1) That prostitution is probably
legal and sex is openly talked about
without a feeling of embarrassment. In
modern times paying for most kind of
sex is illegal and books that talk
about sex are kept private and are
restricted from young people. Notice
the story of how sex with the female
Shamshat calms and civilizes the
wild-man Enkidu, perhaps relating an
accurate common-knowledge view of the
calming effect that happens to an
aggressive male after orgasm. So in
terms of sexuality humans are more
backwards now than humans were 2700
years ago, mainly as a result of the
rise of the antisexual religions
centered on Jesus and Mohammed.
2)
Notice the Bull sent from the gods. In
the earlier Sumerian myths the bull of
the sun is called amar-utu which is
translated into Marduct in Akkadian.
Perhaps this story provides a reason
why an older god (Marduct) should be
replaced, symbolically represented as
the bull being killed. In addition, the
idea of a bull sent from gods may have
influenced the later Greek myth of Zeus
taking the form of a bull and having
sex with women in that form.
3) Notice the
belief in a Netherworld, similar to
Hades in Greek, a place believed to be
where dead people live after their
death. So this inaccurate belief of
humans living in some other place after
their death is clearly in effect by
this time. (Earliest Sumerian writings
describe Afterlife)
4) Notice the curious nature
of the fractional 2/3 god and 1/3 human
aspect of Gilgamesh. This may reflect
an interest in mathematics. Perhaps
this influenced the 3 part nature of
the god of the Jesus-based Christian
religion (Jesus being the 1/3 human,
god the 1/3 god, and the holy spirit
occupying the last 1/3) (explain story
of the spirit replacing the role of a
female as Helen Ellerbe states in Dark
Side of Christianity?).
5) Interesting also the
reckless view of chopping down trees
without any thought about replacing
them, or that they the trees take years
to grow, etc. In some way, Humbaba
might be viewed as a fallen hero, being
protector of the trees.
Notice how Enkidu plays the role of
antisexuality and setting limits on the
power of a tyrant and king. Another
interesting point is how Ishtar is a
female requesting sex from a male which
may imply that female humans might have
the authority to make such a request of
male humans. That a snake is used to
eat the plant that makes old living
objects young instead of some other
species to explain why the snake sheds
a layer of skin might be the reason a
snake is in the garden of eden in the
Hebrew Bible which will evolve into the
Christian Old Testament.
[668 BCE]
Asurbanipal assembles library. This
library at Nineveh contains thousands
of tablets, many brought from other
sites.
[660 BCE]
replaces hieratic in most secular
writing, but hieratic continued to be
used by priests for several more
centuries.
The Demotic symbol set, is a short
hand, very rapid, abbreviated form of
hieratic, and looks like series of
"agitated commas". The word "demotic"
is from Greek meaning "of the people"
or "popular".
[650 BCE]
aquaduct, a channel used to move water
from one place to another, is in
Assyria. This aquaduct is built of and
carries water across a valley to the
capital city, Nineveh.
[621 BCE]
Δράκων)
(flourishes 600s BCE), creates an early
law code in Athens. This law code is
very harsh, punishing both trivial and
serious crimes with death.
[605 BCE]
library under Nebuchadnezzar.
[600 BCE]
Θαλης) is the
first human of record to explain the
universe with out using any gods in the
explanation, claiming the universe
originated as water.
Thales measured a
pyramid by comparing the pyramid shadow
with the shadow from a stick. Diogenes
Laertius, and Aristotle both wrote
texts on Thales. One story describes
Thales as owning olive fields, and
buying all the olive presses in his
town in order to corner the market in
olive oil one year. Thales is viewed
as the first of "7 wise men".
[1] Thales, one of the Seven Sages of
Greece From French Wikipedia:
fr:Image:Thales.jpg Original source:
http://www.phil-fak.uni-duesseldorf.de/p
hilo/galerie/antike/thales.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Thales.jpg
[600 BCE]
Screw from clay tablets in Nineveh.
[590 BCE]
Σολων) (BCE
c630-c560), Athenian Statesman,
introduces democratic reform to the
government of Athens by changing rule
by people determined by birth to people
determined by wealth and implements a
more humane law code.
[1] This bust, titled 'Solon' (National
Museum, Naples) is technically more
sophisticated than anything produced in
Solon's own time. Ancient literary
sources, from which history largely
derives its knowledge of Solon, were
similarly constructed long after the
event. PD
source: http://www.usu.edu/markdamen/Cla
sDram/images/03/solon.jpg
[2] The Areopagus, as viewed from the
Acropolis, is a monolith where Athenian
aristocrats decided important matters
of state during Solon's time. CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Areopagus_from_the_Acropolis.jpg
[05/08/585 BCE]
moon on this day (according to
Herodotus).
[580 BCE]
Αναξίμ^
5;νδρος)
(Anaximandros) oNoKSEMoNDrOS or
ANAKSEmANDrOS? (610 BC Miletus - 546 BC
Miletus) friend and student of Thales.
Anaximander thought life originated in
water and that humans evolved from
fish. This is the first record in
history of the theory of evolution.
Anaximander is among the first Greek
philosophers to use a geocentric system
with the earth as a flat cylinder fixed
and unmoving in the center, with the
sun, moon and stars and actual physical
objects attached to rotating
crystalline spheres centered around the
earth. Presumably Greece and all
surrounding places were located on the
flat part of the cylinder. {check}
Ana
ximander had a more abstract idea of
the universe than Thales. Anaximander
introduced the science of the ancient
east to Greece, made use of the sundial
(known for centuries in Egypt and
Babylonia), was the first to draw a map
of the entire known earth. Anaximander
recognized that the stars appeared to
orbit the pole star, and so viewed the
sky as a complete sphere (not just a
semisphere over the earth). This is
the first evidence for the idea of
spheres in astronomy. This would grow
to contribute to the complicated and
erroneus system of Ptolomy which will
dominate science until Copernicus and
Kepler. Anaximander thinks that the
earth is curved to explain the change
in position of the stars, thinking the
earth to be a cylinder. The first
papyrus by Anaximander is lost.
[550 BCE]
and "Forum" inscriptions.
[1] The w:en:Duenos inscription is an
Old Latin inscription from a vase found
near the Quirinal Hill in
Rome. Source: John Edwin Sandys,
''Epigraphy'', in A Companion to Latin
Studies (ed. John Edwin Sandys),
Cambridge, Cambridge University Press,
1913; p. 733, plate 108. This, in
turn, credits Heinrich Dressel
(1845-1920), Annali, pl. 1, 1880.
Probably this means the Annali dell'
Instituto di Corrispondenza
Archeologica. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Duenos_inscription.jpg
[2] This is a turn-of-the-century
rubbing of the Forum inscription, which
dates to the 5th century BCE and is one
of the oldest known Latin
inscriptions. Source: John Edwin
Sandys, ''Epigraphy'', in A Companion
to Latin Studies (ed. John Edwin
Sandys), Cambridge, Cambridge
University Press, 1913; p. 732, plate
107. This, in turn, credits Domenico
Comparetti (1835-1927), Iscrizione
archaica del Foro Romano, Firenze,
1900. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Forum_inscription.jpg
[545 BCE]
(Πεισίσ
64;ρατος), the
tyrant of Athens founds a library in
Athens. This is the first library in
Greece. Xerxes will take this library
to Persia, and Seleucus Nicanor will
return it to Greece.
[545 BCE]
Ἡρόδοτ
59;ς, Herodotos) (484 BCE- c425
BCE), a Greek historian writes "The
Histories", a collection of stories on
different places and peoples he learns
about through his travels. It includes
the conflict between Greece and Persia.
Herodot
us' invention will earn him the title
"The Father of History" and the word he
uses for his achievement, "historie",
which previously had meant simply
"inquiry", will pass into Latin and
take its modern connotation of
"history" or "story". This nickname
will be given to him by Cicero (De
legibus I,5)
Herodotos writes that
doctors are very specialized in Egypt.
There are doctors for eyes, head,
teeth, stomach, and for "invisible
diseases", which may be disturbances of
the "nervous system". or perhaps
simply any disease without a clear
cause (incl bacteria, virus).
[540 BCE]
~500BC), possible pupil of Anaximander.
Isaac Asimov claimed that Anaximenes
was the first to distinguish clearly
between planets and stars {check}.
Perhaps Anaximenes made the name
"planet" which translates to "wanderer"
in Greek. Anaximenes thought that a
rainbow is natural phenomenon, and not
a goddess, as was the prevailing
belief.
Anaximenes thought air to be a
fundamental element of the universe,
theorizing that by compression air
turns to water and then earth.
[540 BCE]
Greek philosopher, poet, social and
religious critic , learns from
Pythagarus, but leaves Ionia for
Southern Italy, (to a town named
"Elea"). Xenophanes was less mystical
and wrote of the Pythagarus school.
Xenophanes did not believe in
transmigrartion of souls, or in
primitive greek gods, but in a mono
theism rare to greek. Xenophanes found
seashells on mountain tops and reasoned
that earth changed over time, so that
mountains must have been under sea and
then rose, therefore Xenophanes is the
first human in history to make a
contribution to the science of Geology.
Not until Hutton were any other
contributions to Geology made.
Our knowledge of his views comes from
his surviving poetry, all of which are
fragments passed down as quotations by
later Greek writers. His poetry
criticized and satirized a wide range
of ideas, including the belief in the
pantheon of human-like gods and the
Greek people's continued support of
athleticism.
Xenophanes rejected the idea that the
gods resembled humans in form. One
famous passage ridiculed the idea by
claiming that, if oxen were able to
imagine gods, then those gods would be
in the image of oxen. Because of his
development of the concept of a "one
god greatest among gods and men" that
is abstract, universal, unchanging,
immobile and always present, Xenophanes
is often seen as one of the first
monotheists.
This shows that there was
a large amount of tolerence of
religious criticism, without any
serious punishment.
[530 BCE]
mi west of athens), a Greek architect,
constructed for the tyrant Polycrates
of Samos a tunnel to bring water to the
city, passing the tunnel through a hill
for half a mile, starting at both ends,
meeting at the center and unaligned by
only a few inches.
[530 BCE]
sculptor and architect who, along with
his father Rhoecus, also a sculptor in
Samos, is often credited with the
invention of ore smelting and,
according to Pausanias, the craft of
casting. He is also credited with
inventing a water level, a carpenter's
square, and, according to Pliny, a lock
and key and the turning lathe.
Reports of
lock and key earlier (check, perhaps
different kind?).
[529 BCE]
Metapontum {Southern Italy}), is first
to describe earth as a sphere, and
inspires study of math, astronomy,
music and gender equality, but also
supports secrecy and mysticism which
some claim have had a bad and long
lasting effect on science. Pythagoras
adapts the earth-centered crystalline
sphere system of Anaxamander, but with
the earth as a sphere instead of a
cylinder.
Pythagoras formed a school
open to female and male students, who
lived at the school and were required
to own no personal possessions and to
have a vegetarian diet. Pythagoras'
followers were commonly called
"Pythagoreans".
Pythagoras experiments with a
monochord, an instrument that has a
single string is stretched over a sound
box. The string is fixed at bothes ends
and a moveable bridge alters the pitch.
Pythagoras found that strings of
musical instruments made higher pitch
sounds when made more short, finding
pitch related to length. Pythagoras
found, for example, twice the length
equaled 1 octave lower, a 3 to 2 ratio
equaled a fifth, a 4 to 3 ratio equaled
a fourth. Pythagoras found that also
increasing tension raised pitch.
A Pythagorean named Hippasus is
credited with the proof that the square
root of 2 can not be expressed as a
ratio of two numbers (is irrational).
Pythagorian humans decide to keep
secret "irrational numbers". There is
a story of one human killed for not
keeping a secret.
By mathematical deduction Pythagoras
shows that the square of the hypotenuse
equals the sum of the squares of the
length of both sides of a right
triangle. Although this law was known
earlier in India and perhaps Egypt ,
the theorem is still called the
"Pythagorean Theorem". Pythagoras is
credited with being the first person to
recognize that the morning star
(Phosphorus) and evening star
(Hesperus) are the same star, after
this time, the star is called
"Aphrodite" (this "star" is later
recognized to be planet Venus).
Pythagoras is the first to write that
the orbit of the earth moon is not in
the plane of the Earth equator but at
an angle to that plane. Pythagoras is
the first to teach that earth is a
sphere, and first to teach that the
Sun, Moon, and planets did not follow
the motion of the stars, but had paths
of their own. This changed the star
system theory from the theory of
Anaximander of a single heavenly
crystaline sphere, to adding separate
spheres for the planets. This theory
of the star system would last until
Kepler.
Pythagoras mistakenly thought that
vibrations from the crystaline spheres
rubbing together created a harmonious
"Music of the Spheres", which will last
for a long time.
[520 BCE]
Εκαταί_
9;ς) (~550 BC Miletus-476 BC) of
Miletus is a Greek historian, native of
Miletus from a wealthy family.
Hecataeus continued the tradition of
Thales, traveled through the Persian
empire, and made a book on Egypt and
Asia that has never been found. In
Egypt, Egyptian humans showed Hecataeus
records going back hundreds of
generations. Hecataeus continued the
work of anaximander in trying to map
the entire earth. Hecataeus
rationalised history and geography,
writing the first account of history
that did not accept gods and myths at
face value. Hecataeus had a skeptical
and scornful view of myths. Hecataeus
and his books will undoubtably become
the inspiration for the later historian
Herodotus.
This skepticism of religion
appears to be widespread and higly
tolerated in this time of history in
Ionia.
Hecataeus was one of the first
classical writers to mention the Celtic
people.
Some have credited Hecataeus
with a work entitled Ges Periodos
("Travels round the Earth" or "World
Survey'), in two books each organized
in the manner of a periplus, a
point-to-point coastal survey. One on
Europe, is essentially a periplus of
the Mediterranean, describing each
region in turn, reaching as far north
as Scythia. The other book, on Asia, is
arranged similarly to the Periplus of
the Erythraean Sea of which a version
of the 1st century CE survives.
Hecataeus described the countries and
inhabitants of the known world, the
account of Egypt being particularly
comprehensive; the descriptive matter
was accompanied by a map, based upon
Anaximander"s map of the earth, which
he corrected and enlarged. The work
only survives in some 374 fragments, by
far the majority being quoted in the
geographical lexicon Ethnika compiled
by Stephanus of Byzantium.
The other known work of Hecataeus was
the Genealogiai, a rationally
systematized account of the traditions
and mythology of the Greeks, a break
with the epic myth-making tradition,
which survives in a few fragments, just
enough to show what we are missing.
Hecataeus' work, especially the
Genealogiai, shows a marked scepticism,
opening with "Hecataeus of Miletus thus
speaks: I write what I deem true; for
the stories of the Greeks are manifold
and seem to me ridiculous."1 Unlike his
contemporary Xenophanes, he did not
criticize the myths on their own terms;
his disbelief rather stems from his
broad exposure to the many
contradictory mythologies he
encountered in his travels.
An anecdote from Herodotus (II, 143),
of a visit to an Egyptian temple at
Thebes, is illustrative. It recounts
how the priests showed Herodotus a
series of statues in the temple's inner
sanctum, each one supposedly set up by
the high priest of each generation.
Hecataeus, says Herodotus, had seen the
same spectacle, after mentioning that
he traced his descent, through sixteen
generations, from a god. The Egyptians
compared his genealogy to their own, as
recorded by the statues; since the
generations of their high priests had
numbered three hundred and forty-five,
all entirely mortal, they refused to
believe Hecataeus's claim of descent
from a mythological figure. This
encounter with the immemorial antiquity
of Egypt has been identified as a
crucial influence on Hecataeus's
scepticism: the mythologized past of
the Hellenes shrank into insignificant
fancy next to the history of a
civilization that was already ancient
before Mycenae was built.
He was probably the first of the
logographers to attempt a serious prose
history and to employ critical method
to distinguish myth from historical
fact, though he accepts Homer and other
poets as trustworthy authorities.
Herodotus, though he once at least
controverts his statements, is indebted
to Hecataeus for the concept of a prose
history.
[515 BCE]
Bisitun or Bisutun,
بیستو
6; in modern Persian; in Old Persian is
Bagastana the meaning is "the god's
place or land") includes three versions
of the same text, written in three
different cuneiform script languages:
Old Persian, Elamite, and Babylonian.
Like the
Rosetta Stone is to translating
Egyptian hieroglyphs, so this
inscription is the most important
inscription to translating cuneiform
writing.
Iran)
[1] Behistun Inscription, with some
modern annotations Sketch: Fr.
Spiegel, Die altpers. Keilinschriften,
Leipzig 1881. Source:
http://titus.fkidg1.uni-frankfurt.de/did
act/idg/iran/apers/behistun.htm Copyrig
ht expired due to age of document PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:BehistunInscriptionSketch.jpg
[2] Darius I the Great's
inscription GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Darius_I_the_Great%27s_inscription.jp
g
[510 BCE]
north of Miletus, ~540 bc - ~475 bc)
disagrees with Thales, Anaximander, and
Pythagorus about the nature of the
ultimate substance, thinking fire to be
a fundamental element of the universe.
Heraclitus claims that the nature of
everything is change itself. A
typically pessimistic view led to
Herkleitos being called the "weeping
philosopher". Only fragments of text
by Heraclitus have been found.
Heraclitus
thought the only unchanging fact is
that change is certain, for example,
Heraclitus thought that a different sun
could appear each day.
Heraclitus wrote a
book; Diogenes Laertius tells us this
in his "Lives and Opinions of Eminent
Philosophers". Diogenes also writes
that Herclitus deposited his book as a
dedication in the great temple of
Artemis, the Artemesium, one of the
largest temples of the 6th Century.
Many later philosophers in this period
refer to the work. "Down to the time of
Plutarch and Clement, if not later, the
little book of Heraclitus was available
in its original form to any reader who
chose to seek it out." Heraclitus
became very popular in the period
following his writing. Within a
generation or two "the book acquired
such fame that it produced partisans of
his philosophy who were called
Heracliteans."
Karl Popper argues that Heraclitus
relativizes moral values in saying "the
good and the bad are identical".
[510 BCE]
Velia), Italy - ??) a student of
Ameinias, and pre-Socratic philosopher,
follows in the tradition of the Ionian
exiled Pythagorus and Xenophanes.
Parmenides opposed the view of
Heraclitus, claiming that one object
can not turn in to other object
fundamentally different. Parmenides
argued that creation (something from
nothing) and destruction (nothing from
something) is impossible. Parmenides
chose reason over senses, feeling
senses to be untrustworthy. Parmenides
founds school in Elea, the "Eliatic
School" based on this philosophy of
reason over senses. Zeno was the most
recognized person educated in the
school. Zeno, will use distrust of
senses to describe a set of paradoxes.
Parmenides is the first famous
philospher native to Italy.
Plato
entitled one dialog "parmenides", and
this text describes the meeting of an
older parmenides and a young Socrates.
this date must have been ~450 bc. this
may have been a Plato fiction.
His only known work, conventionally
titled 'On Nature' is a poem, which has
only survived in fragmentary form.
Approximately 150 lines of the poem
remain today.
[508 BCE]
ΚλεισθÎνης) (BCE c570-c508)
creates democratic reform of the
Athenian government, basing political
responsibility on citizenship of a
particular place instead of on
membership in a family clan.
The word "democracy" (Greek:
δημοκÏατία - "rule by the
people") is invented by Athenians in
order to define their system of
government around this time. The word
Democracy comes from demos ("people")
and kratos ("rule").
[500 BCE]
[500 BCE]
orders a 1,306 line inscription carved
on a mountain in Behistan, Iran. This
text is in 3 languages, Old Persian,
Elamite, and Akkadian. This
inscription will later be used in the
1800s to translate cuneiform.
[499 BCE]
Greek cities of Asia Minor against
Darius 1 of Persia. This advice is not
followed, the Greek revolt is
supressed, and the 150 year scientific
leadership of the Greek cities of Asia
Minor ends.
[490 BCE]
called Tunis - ???), Cathaginian (A
branch of the Phoenicians) Navigator,
sails 60 ships with 3000 people, down
the coast of Africa in order to start
new settlements. Much of what is
learned about Hanno is from an 18
sentence travel-record, or "Periplus"
of this journey, from Herodotus, and
Pliny the Elder. Herodotus will
express doubts about the accuracy of
Hanno's story, because of a report that
in the far south the sun at noon was in
the nothern half of the sky, which
Herodotus will think is impossible, but
is in fact true for the southern
hemisphere of earth. This is strong
evidence, taken together with the
Periplus of Hanno's journey that Hanno
is the first human to sail over the
equator into the Southern Hemisphere.
H
erodotus declares that Hanno claimed to
have circumnavigated Africa.
[470 BCE]
(᾿Αλκμα&#
8055;ων) (~500 BC Croton,
Italy - ???) is first to theorize that
the brain is the center of wisdom, and
emotions. Alcmaeon is the first human
known to dissect the bodies of humans
and other species. (check in )
Alcmaeon records the existence of the
optic nerve and the tube connecting the
ear and mouth, and distinguishes
arteries from veins.
Both Democritus and
Hippocrates (and Plato and Philolaus )
will accept the idea that the brain is
the center of wisdom and emotions, two
generations later. This view of the
brain as the center of emotions will
not be accepted by Aristotle, who
thinks the heart is the center of
wisdom and emotions. This more
accurate view of the brain as the
center of wisdom and emotions was not
popular for thousands of years, and
many people even now still believe that
the heart is the center of emotions,
evidence of this is in the common
expression "to feel something in your
heart".
These two tubes are now called the
"Eustachian tubes", named after
Eustachio, who will describe these
tubes again 2000 years later.
Alcmaeon lived in Croton during the
height of Pythagarus' influence. There
is evidence that Alcmaeon was not
Pythagorean (for example, Aristotle
writes a book on the Pythagoreans and a
separate book on Alcmaeon), but the
possibility exists that Alcmaeon was
Pythagorean.
Alcmaeon thought the human body was a
microcosm, reflecting the macrocosm
(universe).
Alcmaeon distinguished arteries from
veins, but did not recognize these as
blood vessels, because veins and
arteries are empty in dead people.
(check, I find this hard to believe,
where would the blood go?)
Alcmaeon wrote at least one book, or
which only fragments remain.
Alcmaeon
is the first to develop an argument for
the immortality of the soul.
[470 BCE]
angle between the plane of the
celestial equator, and the zodiac (the
yearly path of the sun in the sky) to
be 24°. This measures the tilt of the
earth relative to the plane the earth
moves in.
[468 BCE]
north shore of the Aegean. This may
lead Anaxagarus to think planets,
stars, and earth are made of the same
materials, and that the sun was a
flaming stone.
[464 BCE]
Clazomenae/Klazomenai 75 mi north of
Miletus - ~428 BC Lampsacus now Lapseki
Turkey) introduces Ionian science of
Thales to Athens, saying that the
universe was not made by a diety, but
through the action of infinite "seeds",
which will later develop into atomic
theory under Leucippos. Anaxagoras
accurately explains the phases of the
earth moon, and both eclipses of moon
and sun in terms of their movements.
Anaxagoras says that the sun is a red
hot stone and the moon a real place
like the earth, not gods as is the
prevailing belief.
moves to Athens
from Asia Minor (Turkey). Anaxagoras
brought philosophy and the love of
scientific inquiry from Ionia (and
Thales) to Athens (as Pythagorus had to
Italy). Anaxagoras was a rationalist
(not a mystic like Pythagoras).
Anaxagarus explained accurately the
phases of the earth moon, and both
eclipses of moon and sun in terms of
their movements. Anaxagoras supports
the opinion that the universe
originated not by a diety but through
the action of abstract mind on an
infinite number of "seeds", seeds that
were a form of atoms simultaneusly
thought of by Leucippos. According to
Anaxagoras "heavenly" bodies - planets,
stars were brought in to existence by
the same processes that formed the
earth and that these bodies are made of
the same materials.
Anaxagoras says
that the sun is a red hot stone and the
moon a real place like the earth.
Pericles learned to love and admire
him, and the poet Euripides derived
from him an enthusiasm for science and
humanity. Some authorities assert that
even Socrates was among his disciples.
Anaxagoras thinks the sun to be an
incandescent rock the size of the
Peloponnesus (about the size of
Massachussetts), and thinks the moon is
like earth and might be inhabited.
Anaxagoras teaches in Athens for 30
years, and the school formed by
Anaxagoras starts the scholoarly
tradition that lasts for 1000 years.
An
axagoras is said to have learned under
Anaximenes, but more likely anaximenes
sure to have been dead by the time
Anaxagoras was born.
[460 BCE]
south Italy - 430? BCE), is chief of
"Eliatic School" (means "from Elea") in
Athens and may have taught Pericles.
The Eliatic humans teach the terribly
false theory that senses are not useful
for finding truth. Zeno made 4
paradoxes that were supposed to
disprove the possiblity of motion as
sensed. The most popular of these
paradoxes is "Achilles and the
tortoise", which is explained for
example, by saying, if Achilles moves
10 times the speed of a tortoise, and
the tortoise is 10 meters in front,
Achilles will never catch the tortoise
because when Achilles goes 10 meters,
the tortoise has already moved 1 meter,
by the time Achilles moves that 1
meter, the tortoise has moved 1/10
meter. This was supposed to be a
paradox because humans usually view a
fast object passing a slow object, so
the human senses must be false.
Although based on errors, the paradoxes
will stimulate humans like Aristotle,
who, for example, will give arguments
against the paradoxes.
Zeno bases these paradoxes on the idea
that space and time are infinitely
divisible, and this encourages laters
humans like Democritus, into searching
for indivisible objects and reaching
the conclusion of atoms. This view did
not win popularity until 2200 years
later with Dalton.
The argument Zeon
made is obiously wrong, mainly because,
this does not disprove motion, both
objects are still moving. But also
because people simply need to
understand that even at 10 times the
speed of an object, if the object is
far enough ahead initially, the object
will never be passed.
[460 BCE]
Λευκιπ`
0;ος ) (lEUKEPOS?)
(Leucippus) (~490 BC Miletus -???) is
the first person of record to support
the theory that everything is composed
entirely of various indestructable,
indivisible elements called atoms.
Leuk
ippos represents the final part of
science and logic in Asia Minor before
the destruction of the coastal cities
by humans from Persia.
Leukippos
teaches Democritos.
Leukippos is the
first person to say that every event
has a natural cause.
Leukippos is a contemporary of Zeno,
Empedocles and Anaxagoras of the Ionian
school of philosophy. The popularity
of Leukippos will become so completely
overshadowed by that of Democritus, who
systematized his views on atoms, that
years later Epicurus will doubt the
very existence of Leukippos, according
to Diogenes Laertius x. 7. However
Aristotle and Theophrastus explicitly
credit Leukippos with the invention of
Atomism.
The most famous among Leucippus' lost
works were titled Megas Diakosmos (The
Great Order of the Universe or The
great world-system) and Peri Nou (On
mind).
Diogenes Laertius reports that he was a
student of Parmenides' follower Zeno.
Ar
istotle certainly ascribes the
foundation of the atomist system to
Leucippus. Leucippus is sometimes said
to have been the author of a work
called the Great World-System; one
surviving quotation is said to have
come from a work On Mind. A single
fragment of Leucippus survives. :
"Nothi
ng happens at random (maten), but
everything from reason (ek logou) and
by necessity."
Leucippus is named by most sources as
the originator of the theory that the
universe consists of two different
elements, which he called "the full" or
"solid", and "the empty" or "void".
Both the void and the solid atoms
within it are thought to be infinite,
and between them to constitute the
elements of everything.
Leucippus is reported to hold that the
atoms are always in motion (DK 67A18).
Aristotle criticizes him for not
offering an account that says not only
why a particular atom is moving
(because it collided with another) but
why there is motion at all. Because the
atoms are indestructible and
unchangeable, their properties
presumably stay the same through all
time.
The argument for indivisible
atoms is said to have been a response
to Zeno's argument about the
absurdities that follow if magnitudes
are divisible to infinity.
[460 BCE]
Agrigento), Sicily - Mount Etna (?)
~430 bc) understands that the heart is
the center of the blood vessel system.
Empedocles thinks some organisms not
adapted to life have died in the past.
Empedocles unites the 4 elements
(water, air, fire, earth) described by
earlier people into a theory of the
universe.
Empedocles thought that
objects formed and broke apart by
forces similar to the human "love" and
"strife", this idea will be taken by
Aristotle, improved upon and remain the
basis for chemistry for more than 2000
years. Empedicles gains an
understanding of air by trying to fill
a clepsydra (also called "water thief",
a hollow brass sphere with a long tube)
by holding a thumb on the hole which
then prevents water from entering the
spherical container.
Empedocles is actively pro-democracy
where he lives in the Greek city of
Akragas in Sicily, and helps to
overthrow a tyranny in Akragas. When
offered the job of tyrant, Empedocles
refuses because he wants more time for
philosophy. Empedocles is known also
as a physician, as well as a
philosopher and poet. Empedocles is
influenced by Pythagoras, shows some
amount of mysticism, does not object to
being called a prophet and
miracle-worker, and is thought to bring
dead humans back to life. Empedocles
says on one day he would be taken up to
heaven and made a god, and on that day
he is supposed to have jumped into the
crator of Mount Etna, although some
people say he died in Greece.
Empedocles combined the views of the
schools of Asia Minor.
Thales had
water, Anaximenes had air, Heraclitus
had fire, and Xeonphanes had earth as
the main element of the universe and
Empedocles combined these elements in
his theory of the universe.
His philosophical and scientific
theories are mentioned and discussed in
several dialogues of Plato, and they
figure prominently in Aristotle's
writings on physics and biology and, as
a result, also in the later Greek
commentaries on Aristotle's works.
Diogenes Laertius devotes one of his
Lives of Eminent Philosophers to him
(VIII, 51-77). His writings have come
down to us mostly in the form of
fragments preserved as quotations in
the works of these and other ancient
authors. Extensive fragments, some of
them not previously known, were
recently found preserved on a papyrus
roll from Egypt in the Strasbourg
University library (see Martin and
Primavesi 1999).
Traditionally, Empedocles' writings
were held to consist of two poems, in
hexameter verse, entitled "On Nature"
and "Purifications".
Empedocles
wrongly thought that the heart was the
center of wisdom and emotion.
Empedicles gains an understanding of
air, (perhaps Empedocles is where the
word "impedes" originates from) by
trying to fill a clepsydra (also called
"water thief", a hollow brass sphere
with a long tube) by holding a thumb on
the hole which then prevents water from
entering the spherical container.
Like Pythagoras, he believed in the
transmigration of souls between humans
and animals and followed a vegetarian
lifestyle.
Traditionally, Empedocles' writings
were held to consist of two poems, in
hexameter verse, entitled "On Nature"
and "Purifications". The recently
edited fragments of the Strasbourg
papyrus, however, have led some to
claim that the two were originally a
single work. In any event, the papyrus
does show the two to be thematically
more closely related than previously
thought. Nevertheless, the themes of
the two parts (if they did belong to a
single poem) are sufficiently distinct
that separate treatment is appropriate
here. Even if there is not a strict
separation of the two themes, the first
primarily concerns the formation,
structure, and history of the physical
world as a whole, and the formation of
the animals and plants within it; the
second concerns moral topics.
[460 BCE]
natural philosopher, expresses
atheistic opinions.
[454 BCE]
Pythagorean meeting place. Plutarch
will relate that as a young man
Philolaus was one of two people to
escape this event.
[451 BCE]
Πρωταγa
2;ρας) (c. 481-c. 420
BC) writes in "On the Gods", the
agnostic view: "Concerning the gods, I
have no means of knowing whether they
exist or not or of what sort they may
be, because of the obscurity of the
subject, and the brevity of human
life." The Athenians condemned him to
death for this, but he escaped, and
then perished, lost at sea.
[450 BCE]
croton - ~385 BCE), the most recognized
of the Pythagorian school after
Pythagoras, theorizes that the earth
was not the center of the universe but
moves through space. Philolaus thinks
the earth, moon, the other planets and
sun circle a great fire in separate
spheres, and that the sun is only a
reflection of this fire. This is the
first recorded idea that the earth
moves thru space.
Philolaus is the
first to print Pythagorian views and
make them available to the public.
Because of persecutions, Philolaus
temporarily moves to Thebes (on the
Greek mainland). Instead of 9 spheres
Philolaus made 10 (10 was viewed as a
special number, one example is that
1+2+3+4=10). This is the first
recorded idea that the earth moves thru
space. When Copernicus claimed that
the earth and planets move circling the
sun, some people labeled this
"Pythagorean heresy". Philolaus thought
that the spheres of the planets made
celestial music as they turned, and
this theory persisted even to the time
of Kepler.
Philolaus is a contemporary of
Socrates.
Philolaus writes at least one book, "On
Nature", which is probably the first
book to be written by a Pythagorean.
Of the 20+ fragments preserved in
Philolaus' name, it is generally
accepted that eleven of the fragments
come from his genuine book. The other
fragments come from books forged in
Philolaus' name at a later date.
Philolaus is a precursor of Aristarchos
in moving the Earth from the center of
the universe to a planet. Some view
this theory as an attempt to explain
physical phenomena, and others view
this theory as a guess, or based on
mystical reasons.
Philolaus' genuine book was one of the
major sources for Aristotle's account
of Pythagorean philosophy.
There is
controversy as to whether or not
Aristotle's description of the
Pythagoreans as equating things with
numbers is an accurate account of
Philolaus' view. Plato mentions
Philolaus in the Phaedo and adapts
Philolaus' metaphysical scheme for his
own purposes in the Philebus.
Only one brief and not very reliable
ancient life of Philolaus survives,
that of Diogenes Laertius (VIII 84-5).
Diogenes includes Philolaus among the
Pythagoreans. Philolaus is one of the
three most important figures in the
ancient Pythagorean tradition, along
with Pythagoras himself and Archytas.
Th
e central evidence for Philolaus' date
is Plato's reference to him in the
Phaedo (61d-e). Socrates' interlocutors
(speaking in Socrates' defense),
Simmias and Cebes, indicate that they
were pupils of Philolaus in Thebes at
some time before the dramatic date of
the dialogue (399 BC).
Philolaus of Tarentum (c. 480-400 B.C.)
conceived of the Earth as a spherical
body in motion around a central cosmic
fire. He also postulated that the
stars, the Sun, the Moon, and the five
known planets -- Venus, Mercury, Mars,
Jupiter, and Saturn -- were spherical
bodies. His Sun was not at the center;
as the Earth revolved around the
central fire once a day and the Moon
once a month, the Sun moved around the
same cosmic fire once a year. The other
planets took even longer periods to
orbit around the fire, while the sphere
of the fixed stars was stationary.
[450 BCE]
law in Rome, are completed. These laws
describe rules for property, crimes,
marriage, divorce and funeral among
other topics.
[450 BCE]
of metal connected together) from a
Celtic chieftain's burial in Ciumesti,
Romania.
[450 BCE]
Chinese: 大运河;
Traditional Chinese:
大運河; pinyin: DÃ
Yùnhé) of China, also known as the
Beijing-Hangzhou Grand Canal
(Simplified Chinese:
京杭大运河
; Traditional Chinese:
京杭大運河
; pinyin: Jīng Háng Dà Yùnhé),
the largest ancient canal or artificial
river on earth, is constructed at this
time.
[1] Grand Canal of China. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kaiserkanal01.jpg
[438 BCE]
[434 BCE]
Anaxagoras moves to Lampsacus. Meton
continues astronomical research in
Athens, but popular people in Athens
turn from natural philosophy to moral
philosophy.
Anaxagoras dies 6 years
later in 428 BCE.
[431 BCE]
established in Sri Lanka.
According to the Mahavamsa (a
historical poem written in the
Pāli language, of the kings of Sri
Lanka), the ancient chronicle of
Sinhalese royalty written in the 500s
CE, King Pandukabhaya (300s BCE) had
lying-in-homes and hospitals
(Sivikasotthi-Sala) built in various
parts of the country. This is the
earliest documentary evidence there is
of institutions specifically dedicated
to the care of the sick anywhere in the
world. Mihintale Hospital is perhaps
the earliest hospital on earth.
In ancient cultures, religion and
medicine were linked. As early as 4000
BCE religions identified specific
deities with healing. The earliest
known institutions aiming to provide
cure were Egyptian temples. Greek
temples dedicated to the healer-god
Asclepius might admit the sick, who
would wait for guidance from the god in
a dream. The Romans adopted this diety
but using the name Æsculapius.
Æsculapius was provided with a temple
(291 BC) on an island in the Tiber in
Rome, where similar rites were
performed.
[1] Mihintale, Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka
Mihintale and Missaka Pabatha is
situated near to Anuradhapura in Sri
Lanka GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mihintale_missaka.jpg
[430 BCE]
and atheism and brought to trial.
Pericles faces people in court in
defense of Anaxagoras, and Anaxagoras
is freed (unlike Socrates a generation
later).
Anaxagoras is the first human
of history to have a legal conflict
with a state religion.
The people in Athens cannot accept the
rationalism of Anaxagoras (similar to
the people of Croton to Pythagoras but
with with mysticism).
Anaxagoras was a friend of the most
respected people in Athens, including
Euripides (wrote plays), and Pericles.
Some people claim that enemies of
Pericles attempted to hurt Pericles
through his friend Anaxagarus.
[430 BCE]
Δημόκρ_
3;τος) (~460 BC Abdera,
thrace -~ 370 BC) in Abdera, elaborates
on atomic theory of his teacher
Leukippos. Demokritos thinks that the
Milky Way was a vast group of tiny
stars. Demokritos explains the motions
of atoms as based on natural laws, not
on the wants of gods or demons.
Demokri
tos thinks that the Milky Way was a
vast group of tiny stars. Aristotle,
argues against this.
Democritus was among the first to
propose that the universe contains many
worlds, some of them inhabited: (both
"world" and "universe" translate as
"kosmos", but perhaps "kosmos" is also
used to refer to planets?)
"In some worlds
there is no Sun and Moon, in others
they are larger than in our world, and
in others more numerous. In some parts
there are more worlds, in others fewer
(...); in some parts they are arising,
in others failing. There are some
worlds devoid of living creatures or
plants or any moisture."
Democritus traveled in egypt, and
settled in Greece. He learned the
rationist view from his teacher
Leukippos of Miletus (Thales also from
Miletus). Like all the early
rationalist people some ideas have a
modern sound. He lived in the shadow
of Socrates, who rejected the universe
as defined by Democritus. None of the
72 books written by Democritos has ever
been found, humans only have records of
Democritus from other people (often
unfriendly). Widely called the
"laughing philosopher", perhaps because
he was cheerful, or because he laughed
more than most people.
Demokritos thinks that
even the human mind and the gods (if
any) were made of combinations of
atoms. Each atom was different and
explained the various properties of
substances. Atoms of water were smooth
and round so water flowed and had no
shape, atoms of fire were thorny which
made burns painful, atoms of earth
rough and jagged so they held together
to form a hard substance. Demokritos
explains changes in nature and matter
as the separating and joinging of
atoms. These views are similar to
Anaximander.
One of the first mechanist people, saw
universe as a mindless and determinate
as a machine. the creation of the
universe was the result of swirling
motions set up in great numbers of
atoms, forming worlds (planets?).
Later people will chose to follow
Socrates rather than Democritus, with
the exception of Epicurus 100 years
later, who will teach atomism.
The atomists hold that there are
smallest indivisible bodies, Demokritos
called "atoma", which means "cannot be
divided", from which everything else is
composed, and that these move about in
an infinite empty space.
Democritus is
said to have known Anaxagoras, and to
have been forty years younger.
Much of
the best evidence is that reported by
Aristotle, who regarded him as an
important rival in natural philosophy.
Aristotle wrote a monograph on
Democritus, of which only a few
passages quoted in other sources have
survived. Democritus seems to have
taken over and systematized the views
of Leucippus, of whom little is known.
Although it is possible to distinguish
some contributions as those of
Leucippus, the overwhelming majority of
reports refer either to both figures,
or to Democritus alone; the developed
atomist system is often regarded as
essentially Democritus'.
Diogenes Laertius lists 70 works by
Democritus on many fields, including
ethics, physics, mathematics, music and
cosmology. Two works, the "Great World
System" ("Megas Diakosmos") and the
"Little World System" ("Micros
Diakosmos"), are sometimes ascribed to
Democritus, although Theophrastus
reports that the former is by
Leucippus.
Ancient sources describe
atomism as one of a number of attempts
by early Greek natural philosophers to
respond to the challenge offered by
Parmenides. Parmenides had argued that
it is impossible for there to be change
without something coming from nothing.
Since the idea that something could
come from nothing was generally agreed
to be impossible, Parmenides argued
that change is merely illusory. In
response, Leucippus and Demokritus,
along with other Presocratic pluralists
such as Empedocles and Anaxagoras,
developed systems that made change
possible by showing that it does not
require that something should come to
be from nothing. These responses to
Parmenides suppose that there are
multiple unchanging material
principles, which persist and merely
rearrange themselves to form the
changing world of appearances. In the
atomist version, these unchanging
material principles are indivisible
particles, the atoms: the atomists are
said to have taken the idea that there
is a lower limit to divisibility to
answer Zeno's paradoxes about the
impossibility of traversing infinitely
divisible magnitudes.
The atomists held that there are two
fundamentally different kinds of
realities composing the natural world,
atoms and void. Atoms, from the Greek
adjective atomos or atomon,
‘indivisible," are infinite in number
and various in size and shape, and
perfectly solid, with no internal gaps.
They move about in an infinite void,
repelling one another when they collide
or combining into clusters by means of
tiny hooks and barbs on their surfaces,
which become entangled. Other than
changing place, they are unchangeable,
ungenerated and indestructible. All
changes in the visible objects of the
world of appearance are brought about
by relocations of these atoms: in
Aristotelian terms, the atomists reduce
all change to change of place.
Macroscopic objects in the world that
we experience are really clusters of
these atoms; changes in the objects we
see-qualitative changes or growth,
say-are caused by rearrangements or
additions to the atoms composing them.
While the atoms are eternal, the
objects compounded out of them are not.
Clusters of atoms moving in the
infinite void come to form kosmoi or
worlds as a result of a circular motion
that gathers atoms up into a whirl,
creating clusters within it (DK
68B167); these kosmoi are impermanent.
Our world and the species within it
have arisen from the collision of atoms
moving about in such a whirl, and will
likewise disintegrate in time.
The reports concerning Demokritus'
ethical views indicate that Demokritus
was committed to a kind of enlightened
hedonism, in which the good was held to
be an internal state of mind rather
than something external to it. The good
is given many names, amongst them
euthymia or cheerfulness, as well as
privative terms, e.g. for the absence
of fear. Some fragments suggest that
moderation and mindfulness in one's
pursuit of pleasures is beneficial;
others focus on the need to free
oneself from dependence on fortune by
moderating desire. Several passages
focus on the human ability to act on
nature by means of teaching and art,
and on a notion of balance and
moderation that suggests that ethics is
conceived as an art of caring for the
soul analogous to medicine's care for
the body (Vlastos 1975, pp. 386-94).
Others discuss political community,
suggesting that there is a natural
tendency to form communities.
Although the evidence is not certain,
Demokritus may be the originator of an
ancient theory about the historical
development of human communities. In
contrast to the Hesiodic view that the
human past included a golden age from
which the present day is a decline, an
alternative tradition that may derive
from Demokritus suggests that human
life was originally like that of
animals; it describes the gradual
development of human communities for
purposes of mutual aid, the origin of
language, crafts and agriculture.
Although the text in question does not
mention Demokritus by name, he is the
most plausible source (Cole 1967;
Cartledge 1997).
Demokritus thought that many worlds
were born and died, Demokritus argued
by cutting an apple, that some material
could not be cut/divided.
[430 BCE]
BCE Larissa (now Larisa), Thessaly)
founds a school of medicine on Cos that
is the most science based of the time.
Hippocrates will be recognized as the
father of medicine, although other
people (like Alcmaeon had practiced
healing and were students of the human
body). 50 books, called the
Hippocratic collection, are credited to
him, but are more likely collected
works of several generations of his
school, brought together in Alexandria
in 200-300 BCE. The books contain a
high order of logic, careful
observation, and good conduct.
Disease
was viewed as a physical phenomenon,
not credited to arrows of Apollo, or
possession by demons. For example,
epilepsy, was thought to be a sacred
disease, because a human appeared to be
in the grip of a god or demon, but in
this school epilepsy was described as
being caused by natural causes and
thought to be curable by physical
remedies, not by exorcism.
There is
much uncertainty, but Hippocrates was
born of a family in a hereditary guild
of magicians on the Isle of Cos,
described to be descended from
Asklepios, the Greek god of medicine.
Visited Egypt early in life, there
studied medical works credited to
Imhotep. Some people claim that he was
a student of Democritus. Hippocrates
taught in Athens (and other places),
before opening his own school of health
in Cos.
"desperate diseases require desperate
remedies", "one man's meat is another
man's poison" are two quotes from this
text. The people in the school taught
moderation of diet, cleanliness and
rest for sick or wounded (and also
clenliness for physicians), that the
physician should interfere as little as
possible in the healing process of
nature (excellent advice for the amount
of info learned at that time).
For the most part, disease was thought
to be the result of an imbalance of the
vital fluids ("humors") of the body, an
idea first advanced by Empedocles.
These were listed as four: blood,
phlegm, black bile and yellow bile.
A statue found on Cos in 1933 is
thought to be of Hippocrates.
Humans
that graduate with a "medical" degree
must still repeat the oath credited to
Hippocrates (although repeating oaths
is stupid, and few if any actually
people actually follow this advice of
do no harm, in particular in
psychiatric hospitals).
[430 BCE]
Greek poet and sophist, becomes an
atheist after an incident that happens
against him that goes unpunished by the
gods. He speaks out against the
orthodox religions, and criticizes the
Eleusinian Mysteries. Diagoras throws a
wooden image of a god into a fire,
saying that the deity should perform
another miracle and save itself. The
Athenians put a price on his capture,
dead or alive, and he flees, living the
rest of his life in southern Greece.
[410 BCE]
that 235 lunar months (moon rotations
of earth) are close to 19 earth years,
so if there are 12 years of 12 lunar
months, and 7 years of 13 lunar months,
every 19 years the lunar calendar would
match the seasons. This will come to
be called the "Metonic cycle" (although
probably recognized by astonomers in
Babylonia before this time). The Greek
calendar will be based on the Metonic
cycle until 46 BCE when the Julian
calendar will be made by Julius Caesar
with the help of Sosigenes.
This cycle can be
used to predict eclipses, forms the
basis of the Greek and Jewish
calendars, and is used to determine the
date for Easter each year.
A year of 12 synodic or lunar months is
354 days on average, 11 days short of
the 365.25 day solar year. The
Athenians appear not to have had a
regular way of adding a 13th month;
instead, the question of when to add a
month was decided by an official.
[408 BCE]
Ἀριστο
66;άνης) (c.448 BCE
- c.385 BCE) a Greek comedy playwriter,
questions the idea of Gods in {cannot
find play} by writing "Shrines!
Shrines! Surely you don't believe in
the gods. What's your argument? Where's
your proof?" and in the comedy play
"Knights":
"Demosthenes: Of which statue? Any
statue? Do you then believe there are
gods?
Nicias: Certainly.
Demosthenes: What proof have
you?"
Although in the comedy "Clouds",
Aristophanes paints Ionian science in a
bad light through a portrayal of
Socrates encouraging young people to
beat their parents. But perhaps even
then, people paid for such a message to
be read during a play (now newspapers,
magazines, television and movies accept
money for such messages), and money for
propaganda, a very old (albeit
secretive) system, may have influence
Aristophanes even then.
[1] Aristophanes - Project Gutenberg
eText 12788 The Project Gutenberg
EBook of Library Of The World's Best
Literature, Ancient And Modern, Vol. 2,
by Charles Dudley
Warner http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1
2788 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aristophanes_-_Project_Gutenberg_eTex
t_12788.png
[399 BCE]
Σωκράτ_
1;ς) SO-Kro-TES? (~470 BC Athens -
399 BC Athens) is sentenced to death
and forced to end his own life, charged
with impiety, (failure to show due
piety toward the gods of Athens,
"asebia" greek:
ασέβει^
5;) and of corrupting Athenian youth
through his teachings.
One major issue with
Sokrates is his opinion on democracy.
Plato clearly is anti-democracy, but
Sokrates appears to defend Athenian
democracy with his military service, is
friends with a Democratic general, and
accepts the democratic decision of the
jury instead of chosing to escape.
Another issue is Sokrates support for
science. Clearly "The Clouds", written
by Aristophanes in 423 BCE, paints
Sokrates in the tradition of science
and learning, and warns of the dangers
of free thought. But there are clearly
no recorded scientific contributions
from Sokrates, and his life appears to
revolve around conversation mainly
centered on ethics, although Sokrates
can be possibly credited with atheism.
Clearly there is friction between the
traditional belief in gods and the
newer belief in science which is
associated with logic and atheism.
Anaxagoras was persecuted for atheism,
in Athens, 31 years earlier, in 430
BCE.
Another central issue is the conflict
between the educated and the
uneducated, in the case of Plato, blame
is placed on Democracy for the
brutality and stupidity of the
majority, instead of on stupidity and
lack of education itself.
Isaac Asimov claims that this will have
a profound effect on science, and that
it is surprising that the Greek people
failed in science after such an
excellent start with Thales,
Demokritos, Eratosthenes, Aristarchos
and Archimedes. Asimov claims that
there are other factors, but one cause
was the popularity of the views of
Socrates (Carl Sagan relates the origin
of these views to Pythagorus), typing
that the largest part of Greek wisdom
was focused into the field of moral
philosophy, while natural philosophy
(now called science) became less
popular.
The execution of Socrates by the
democrat humans is upsetting to Plato.
Plato leaves Athens saying until "kings
are philosphers or philosophers are
kings" nothing would be good on earth.
(Plato traces his descent from earlier
kings of Athens and perhaps has himself
in mind). For several years, he visits
the greek cities in Africa and Italy.
Eunapius (346-414 CE) writes "So it was
just as in the time of the renowned
Socrates, when no one of all the
Athenians, even though they were a
democracy, would have ventured on that
accusation and indictment of one whom
all the Athenians regarded as a walking
image of wisdom, had it not been that
in the drukenness, insanity, and
license of the Dionysia and the night
festival, when light laughter and
careless and dangerous emotions are
discovered among men, Aristophanes
first introduced ridicule into their
corrupted minds, and by setting dances
upon the stage won over the audience to
his views; for he made mock of that
profound wisdom by describing the jumps
of fleas {an allusion to "Clouds"}, and
depicting the shapes and forms of
clouds, and all those other absurd
devices to which comedy resorts in
order to raise a laugh. When they saw
that the audience in the theatre was
inclined to such indulgence, certain
men set up an accusation and ventured
on that impious indictment against him;
and so the death of one man brought
misfortune on the whole state. For if
one reckons from the date of Socrates'
violent death, we may conclude that
after it nothing brilliant was ever
again achieved by the Athenians, but
the city gradually decayed and because
of her decay the whole of Greece was
ruined along with her."
[1] From
http://hypernews.ngdc.noaa.gov This
image is in the public domain because
its copyright has expired in the United
States and those countries with a
copyright term of life of the author
plus 100 years or less. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Socrates.png
[2] The Death of Socrates, by
Jacques-Louis David (1787) The
two-dimensional work of art depicted in
this image is in the public domain in
the United States and in those
countries with a copyright term of life
of the author plus 100 years. This
photograph of the work is also in the
public domain in the United States (see
Bridgeman Art Library v. Corel Corp.).
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Socratesdeath.jpg
[398 BCE]
Αρχύτα`
2;) (428 BC - 347 BC), third most
recognized Pythagorean, solves problem
of "doubling a cube".
Archytas is taught for
a while by Philolaus and is a teacher
of mathematics to Eudoxus of Cnidus,
and Menaechmus. Archytas was a
scientist of the Pythagorean school and
famous for being a good friend of
Plato.
Sometimes he is believed to be the
founder of mathematical mechanics. He
is also reputed to have designed and
built the first artificial,
self-propelled flying device, a
bird-shaped model propelled by a jet of
what was probably steam, said to have
actually flown some 200 yards. This
machine, which its inventor called The
Pigeon, may have been suspended on a
wire or pivot for its flight. If true
this is the first use of steam to move
an object, and this will not be
duplicated until Hero 400 years later.
[1] Bust of Archita, Greek philosopher,
politician and scientist. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Architabr.jpg
[2] Archytas PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Archytas.jpeg
[390 BCE]
Socrates, founds the Cyrenaic school of
philosophy. Aristippus supports the
pursuit of pleasure and avoidance of
pain, usually refered to negativly as
"hedonism". Cyrene was a Greek city in
Northern Africa in modern day Libya.
Aristippus breaks social conventions
and engages in behavior considered
undignified or shocking for the sake of
pleasure. The Cyrenaic school will
developed these ideas and influence
Epicurus and later Greek skeptics.
Aristippus accepts money for
instruction as the Sophists do. They
also incorrectly reject the idea of
postponing immediate gratification for
future or long term pleasure. In this
respect they will differ from the
Epicureans. The main source of
information about Aristippus is from is
the "Lives of the Philosophers" by
Diogenes Laertius, who wrote over 500
years after Aristippus died.
[387 BCE]
Πλάτων,
Plátōn, "wide, broad-shouldered")
(~427BC Athens - 347 BC Athens) founds
a school in western Athens on a piece
of land once owned by a legendary Greek
human named "Academus", and so this
school comes to be called "The
Academy", and this word will eventually
generally apply to any school. The
Academy will be a center for science
and education for 900 years until 529
CE.
Plato is an Athethian aristocrat
(of the ruling class or nobility) whose
original name is "Aristocles", but he
gets the nick name "Platon" (meaning
"broad") because of his broad
shoulders. (Cicero also was a nick
name). Plato is in the "war service"
(tph military?) and is interested in
politics, but rejects Athenian
democracy.
In this year, Plato
returned to Athens. (on the way to
Athens, Plato is supposed to have been
captured by pirates and held for
ransom).
The Academy has shrine to the muses
(mouseion) and is viewed as a religious
organisation by the government.
Plato stayed at the Academy for the
rest of his life, except for 2 years in
the 360s, when he visited Syracuse, the
main city of Greek Sicily, to tutor the
new king Dionysius II. Dionysius II
appeared brutal, and Plato returned
safely to Athens. Plato is supposed to
have died in his sleep at the age of 80
after attending a wedding feast of a
student. Writing credited to Plato are
consistently popular and are of a
series of dialogues between Socrates
and others. Most of what is known about
Socrates is from these texts. Like
Socrates, Plato was mainly interested
in moral philosophy and hated natural
philosophy (science). To Plato,
knowledge had no practical purpose.
Plato liked mathematics, perhaps
because the perfection of math, the
loftiest form of pure thought, was
different from the reality of the
universe (viewed as "gross" and
imperfect). Above the main doorway to
the academy were the words in Greek:
"Let no one ignorent of mathematics
enter here." Plato did think that math
could be applied to the universe. The
planets, he thought, exhibited perfect
geometric form. This is in Timaeus. He
describes the 5 and only 5 perfect
solids, those objects with equal faces,
lines and angles. (4 sided tetrahedron,
six sided hexahedron (or cube), 8 sided
octahedron, 12 sided dodecahedron, and
20 sided icosahedron. 4 of the 5
represented the 4 elements, while the
dodecahdron represented the whole
universe. These solids were first
discovered by the Pythagoreans. Plato
thought the planets were spheres and
moved in circles along the crystalline
spheres that held them in place. The
idea that the universe must reflect the
perfection of abstract mathematics was
most popular until Kepler, even though
compromises with reality had to be made
constantly, beginning after the death
of Plato with Eudoxus and Callippus.
In Timaeus, Plato invented a moralistic
story of a completely fictional land
called "Atlantis". This legend has had
unending popularity and has persisted
to now. One Aegean island exploded
vocanically in 1400 BC and this may
have given rise to this story. The
views of Plato had a strong influence
on Christian people until the 1200s
when Aristotle gained more popularity.
Carl Sagan states that:
"Plato and his
followers separated the earth from the
"heavens" (the rest of the universe),
Plato taught contempt for the real
world and disdain for the practical
application of science. Plato served
tyrants, and taught the separation of
the body from the mind, a natural
enough idea in a slave society."
and
that "{Plato} preferred the perfection
of these mathematical abstractions to
the imperfections of everyday life. He
believed that ideas were far more real
than the natural world. He advised the
astronomers not to waste their time
observing the stars and planets. It was
better, he believed, to just think
about them. Plato expressed hostility
to observation and experiment. He
taught contempt for the real world and
disdain for the practical application
of scientific knowledge. Plato's
followers succeeded in extinguishing
the light of science and experiment
that had been kindled by Democritus and
the other Ionians. Plato's unease with
the world as revealed by the senses was
to dominate and stifle Western
philosophy. Even as late as 1600,
Johannes Kepler was still struggling to
interpret the structure of the Cosmos
in terms of Pythagorean solids and
Platonic perfections." I am not sure
that we should fully blame Pythagoras
and Plato for the collapse of science,
as much as we should the tradition of
religion that came long before them.
But clearly the support of these
incorrect views by a majority of later
intellectuals shows large scale bad
judgement. The popularity of Plato is
a mystery since Plato did not make one
contribution to science. Sagan says
that this popularity is because the
views of Plato justify a corrupt social
order, where I think that this
popularity was simply a mistaken
belief. In addition the Academy served
as a center for science and education
until 529 CE.
In "The Republic", one of the earliest
and most influential books on political
theory, Plato presents a plan for the
ideal society and government. Plato
disliked Athenian democracy. It was the
leaders of the Athenian democracy that
had sentenced his teacher to die for
seeking truth and wisdom. Plato
preferred Sparta's model of government.
In Sparta, the needs of the state
(country) were put above the
individual. Serving the government was
more important than achieving personal
goals. Plato believed that too much
personal freedom led to disorder and
chaos. Athens was a primary example of
this disorder.
" Plato wanted only the most
intelligent and best-educated citizens
to participate in government. He
divided people into three classes:
workers to produce life's necessities,
soldiers to defend the people, and
specially trained leaders to govern the
state (country). The specially trained
leaders would be an elite class that
included both men and women. The wisest
of all would be a philosopher-king with
ultimate authority. The
philosopher-king would be well educated
to make decisions for the good of all
the people."
"Rather than being remembered for a
specific model of the Universe it was
his views on its nature, put forward in
his dialogue Timaeus, that were to so
strongly influence subsequent
generations. To Plato the Universe was
perfect and unchanging. Stars were
eternal and divine, embedded in an
outer sphere. All heavenly motions were
circular or spherical as the sphere was
the perfect shape. Such was his
influence that the concept of circular
paths was not challenged until Kepler,
after many years of painstaking
calculations, discovered the elliptical
orbits of planets nearly 2,000 years
later."
[378 BCE]
Εύδοξο`
2;) (~408 BC Cnidus (now Turkish coast)
- ~355 bc Cnidus) is the first Greek
human to realize that the year is not
exactly 365 days, but 6 hours more.
Egyptians were already aware of this
and Eudoxus may have gotten this idea
from Egypt. Eudoxus draws a map of
earth better than the map of Hecataeus.
Eudoxus is first greek human to try to
map stars. Eudoxus divides the sky in
to degrees of latitude and longitude, a
system that is eventually applied to
the earth.
Eudoxus is at the Acadamy, and
then later creates his own school in
Cyzicus on Northwest coast of Turkey.
Eudoxus visited Plato. Eudoxus is the
first to try to save the appearances of
the Plato (Pythagorean?) theory of
planets moving on spheres.
[1] A pupil of Plato, Eudoxus
elaborated a geocentric model composed
of crystalline spheres, incorporating
the Platonic ideal of uniform circular
motion. System of 27 Spheres:
* 1 for the fixed stars * 3 each
for the Sun and Moon * 4 each for
the 5 planets Spheres within
spheres in perfect circular motion
combine to give retrograde
motions. Spheres within
Spheres (Click on the image to
view at full scale [Size: 20Kb]) 4
Spheres for each planet: * One
was aligned with the celestial poles,
turning once a day to give rising &
setting. * Second was tilted
23.5º, rotated slowly in the opposite
direction to give the usual
west-to-east drift of the planets
relative to the fixed stars. *
Third & Fourth were introduced to
produce the periodic retrograde motions
of the planets. All were in uniform
circular motion about their axes.
COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www-astronomy.mps.ohio-st
ate.edu/~pogge/Ast161/Unit3/greek.html
[370 BCE]
(῾Ικέτη&
#962;), and fellow Pythagorean Ekfantos
(Έκφαντ
59;ς) (400 BCE) are the first to
theorize that the earth turns on its
own axis.
Herakleitos will adopt this
theory.
[366 BCE]
Αριστο`
4;έλης
Aristotélēs (BCE 384 - March 7,
322) is a pupil of Plato at the Academy
until the age of 37 (347 BCE). Plato
calls Aristotle the "intelligence" of
the school. Aristotle studies biology
and natural history.
[1] Description 16th century painting
of Alexander the Great, lowered in a
glass diving bell Source NOAA Photo
Library, Image ID: nur09514, National
Undersearch Research Program (NURP)
Collection Date 2006-13-01
(upload) Author Credit: OAR/National
Undersea Research Program (NURP);
''Seas, Maps and Men'' PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Alexander_the_Great_diving_NOAA.jpg
[2] Description: Diving bell,
Marinmuseum (Naval museum), Karlskrona,
Sweden Source: Image taken by Henrik
Reinholdson CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:L-Taucherglocke.png
[366 BCE]
Αριστο`
4;έλης,
Aristotélēs) (ArESTOTeLAS?) opens
his own school in Athens, called the
Lyceum
(Λύκειο
57;, Lykeion) (lIKEoN?). Aristotle
classifies 500 species, and dissectes
nearly 50, correctly classifying
dolphins with species of the field, not
with fish. Aristotle puts forward the
first theory of gravity, claiming that
heavy objects go down and incoreectly
that light objects go up.
Aristotle founds
school called Lyceum, because aristotle
lectured in a hall near temple to
Apollo Lykaios (Apollo, wolf god), also
called the "Peripatetic School" because
Aristotle some times lectured while
walking through the gardens of the
school. Aristotle makes an early
university library of manuscripts
(papyri?). Aristotle founds the
science of logic. Aristotle classifies
500 species, and dissectes nearly 50.
Interested in sea life, Aristotle finds
that dolphins are born alive and
nourished by a placenta. No fish has a
placenta but mammals do, and Aristotle
correctly classifies dolphins with
species of the field, not with fish.
Aristotle also studied viviparous
sharks, born with no placenta.
Aristotle notes that torpedo fish stun
other fish (with electricity).
Aristotle is wrong in denying gender to
plants. He studies the embryo of
chicken, and the stomach of a cow. He
thinks incorrectly that the heart is
center of life and thinks the brain is
only a cooling organ for the blood.
Aristotle accepts the spheres of
Eudoxus and Callipus and added more
spheres to make 54 spheres in total.
Aristotle thinks these spheres are real
where Eudoxus probably thought they
were imaginary. Aristotle accepts the
4 elements of Empedocles but only on
earth, and adds a 5th element of
"aether" for the heavens. This theory
of aether will continue until the
Michaelson-Morley experiment proves
that no aether exists 2000 years later.
Aristotle agrees with Pythagoreans
that that laws of the heavens and earth
were separate. Aristotle thinks that
heavier object fall faster than lighter
objects (technically, wrong for small
everyday objects near earth, but true
in principle for 3 similar mass
objects. A heavier object will reach a
second object faster than a lighter
object will when all 3 objects are
similar masses, because the heavier
object will pull the other mass closer
faster than the lighter object. For us
earth bound people, common mass objects
like rocks will not be massive enough
to move the earth closer to them, and
so therefore reach the earth at the
same time.). Aristotle rejects the
atoms of Leukippos and Democritos,
dooming that idea for thousands of
years, although Aristotle agrees with
Pythagoras that the earth is a sphere.
Aristotle found the science of zoology
(the study of all living objects,
biology). Aristotle thinks that sound
travelled as impacts in air and could
not exist without air.
Following Plato's example, Aristotle
gives regular instruction in philosophy
in a gymnasium dedicated to Apollo
Lyceios, from which his school will
come to be known as the Lyceum. The
school is also called the Peripatetic
School because Aristotle preferred to
discuss problems of philosophy with his
pupils while walking up and down
(peripateo), the shaded walks
(peripatoi) around the gymnasium.
Aristotelian philosophy then depended
upon the assumption that man's mind
could elucidate all the laws of the
universe, based on simple observation
(without experimentation) through
reason alone.
During the thirteen
years (335 BC-322 BC) which Aristotle
spends as teacher of the Lyceum, he
composes most of his writings.
Imitating Plato, Aristotle writes
"Dialogues" in which his doctrines were
expounded in somewhat popular language.
He also composes the several treatises
on sciences, logic, metaphysics, and
ethics, in which the language is more
technical than in the Dialogues. These
writings succeeded in bringing together
the works of his predecessors in Greek
philosophy, and how he pursued, either
personally or through others, his
investigations in the realm of natural
phenomena. Pliny will claim that
Alexander placed under Aristotle's
orders all the hunters, fishermen, and
fowlers of the royal kingdom and all
the overseers of the royal forests,
lakes, ponds and cattle-ranges, and
Aristotle's works on zoology make this
statement believable. Aristotle was
fully informed about the doctrines of
his predecessors, and Strabo will
assert that he was the first to
accumulate a great library.
During the last years of Aristotle's
life the relations between him and
Alexander became very strained, owing
to the disgrace and punishment of
Callisthenes, whom Aristotle had
recommended to Alexander. Nevertheless,
Aristotle continued to be regarded at
Athens as a friend of Alexander and a
representative of Macedonia.
Consequently, when Alexander's death
became known in Athens, and the
outbreak occurred which led to the
Lamian war, Aristotle shared in the
general unpopularity of the
Macedonians. The charge of impiety,
which had been brought against
Anaxagoras and Socrates, was now
brought against Aristotle. He left the
city, saying, "I will not allow the
Athenians to sin twice against
philosophy" (Vita Marciana 41). He took
up residence at his country house at
Chalcis, in Euboea, and there he died
the following year, 322 BC. His death
was due to a disease, reportedly 'of
the stomach', from which he had long
suffered.
Aristotle's legacy also had a profound
influence on Islamic thought and
philosophy during the middle ages.
Muslim thinkers such as Avicenna,
Farabi, and Yaqub ibn Ishaq al-Kindi
were a few of the major proponents of
the Aristotelian school of thought
during the Golden Age of Islam.
Though we know that Aristotle wrote
many elegant treatises (Cicero
described his literary style as "a
river of gold"), the originals have
been lost in time. All that we have now
are the literary notes of his pupils,
which are often difficult to read (the
Nicomachean Ethics is a good example).
It is now believed that we have about
one fifth of his original works.
Aristotle underestimated the importance
of his written work for humanity. He
thus never published his books, only
his dialogues. The story of the
original manuscripts of his treatises
is described by Strabo in his Geography
and Plutarch in his "Parallel Lives,
Sulla": The manuscripts were left from
Aristotle to Theophrastus, from
Theophrastus to Neleus of Scepsis, from
Neleus to his heirs. Their descendants
sold them to Apellicon of Teos. When
Sulla occupied Athens in 86 BC, he
carried off the library of Appellicon
to Rome, where they were first
published in 60 BC from the grammarian
Tyrranion of Amisus and then by
philosopher Andronicus of Rhodes.
Aristotle did not like the idea of
atoms that Democritos had thought
about. If matter was made up of tiny
particles there must be spaces between
them, spaces that would have nothing in
them - a vacuum. Aristotle's refusal to
accept the possibility that a vacuum
could exist came from his ideas about
forces. He said that non-living objects
could have "natural" or "forced"
motion. The natural motion of earth and
water was downwards because they had
"gravity" while air and fire always
rose because they had "levity". An
object was given forced motion when it
was thrown into the air and Aristotle
concluded that the speed of an object
depended on the force acting on it - no
force, no speed.
Arostotle writes "History of Animals".
Though we know that Aristotle wrote
many elegant treatises (Cicero
described his literary style as "a
river of gold"), the originals have
been lost in time. All that we have now
are the literary notes of his pupils,
which are often difficult to read (the
Nicomachean Ethics is a good example).
It is now believed that we have about
one fifth of his original works.
Aristotle underestimates the importance
of his written work for humanity. He
thus never publishes his books, only
his dialogues. The story of the
original manuscripts of his treatises
is described by Strabo in his
"Geography" and Plutarch in his
"Parallel Lives, Sulla": The
manuscripts were left from Aristotle to
Theophrastos, from Theophrastos to
Neleus of Scepsis, from Neleus to his
heirs. One of Neleus' descendents (it
is unknown who), digs up the buried
scrolls and sells them for a large sum
in gold to a bibliophile, Apellicon of
Teos. Apellicon of Teos makes a
'botched up' edition titled the 'Lost
Texts of Aristotle'. When Sulla
occupies Athens in 86 BCE, he will
carry off the library of Appellicon to
Rome. The grammarian Tyrannion of
Amisus in Rome, friend of Atticus and
Cicero, obtains the scrolls on loan,
gives up on making his own compiled
edition and entrusts the project to
Andronicus of Rhodes, who subdivides
the treatises into books. The originals
are returned to Sulla's library. This
edition of the texts of Aristotle will
be published in 60 BCE.
Faustus is the son of the Emperor
Sulla, and Pompey's son-in-law. The
cultural elite go to Faustus' house to
consult these precious texts of
Aristotle. Cicero writes a letter to
Atticus about the delight of Faustus'
library. To pay off debts, Faustus
sells the scrolls of Aristotle, and
they have never been located since.
Much of this story comes from Strabo
who was presumably a pupil of Tyrannion
of Amisus.
[357 BCE]
(Ηράκλε
53;τος) (387 BCE- 312
BCE) adopts the view of two
Pythagoreans, Hiketos and Ekfantos, in
theorizing that the earth rotates on
its own axis. Herakleitos thinks that
the planets Mercury and Venus orbit the
sun (although putting the earth at the
center of the universe). Herakleitos
speculates that the universe was
infinite, each star being a world in
itself, composed of an earth and other
planets.
Herakleitos learns in Plato's
Academy.
Herakleitos wrote on astronomy
and geometry and thought the earth
possibly rotated. Aristarchus took
this idea, but the support Hipparchus
gives for the earth centered theory was
more popular.
Heraclides' father was
Euthyphron, a wealthy nobleman who sent
him to study at the Academy in Athens
under its founder Plato and under his
successor Speusippus, though he also
studied with Aristotle. According to
the Suda, Plato, on his departure for
Sicily in 360 BCE, left his pupils in
the charge of Heraclides. Speusippus,
before his death in 339 BCE, had chosen
Xenocrates as his successor but
Xenocrates narrowly triumphed in an
ensuing election against Heraclides and
Menedemus.
A punning on his name, dubbing him
Heraclides "Pompicus," suggests he may
have been a rather vain and pompous man
and the target of much ridicule.
However, Heraclides seems to have been
a versatile and prolific writer on
philosophy, mathematics, music,
grammar, physics, history and rhetoric,
notwithstanding doubts about
attribution of many of the works. It
appears that he composed various works
in dialogue form. The main source of
this biographical welter is the
collection by Diogenes Laërtius.
Like the Pythagoreans Hicetas and
Ecphantus, Heraklitos proposed that the
apparent daily motion of the stars was
created by the rotation of the Earth on
its axis once a day. According to a
late tradition, he also believed that
Venus and Mercury revolve around the
Sun. This would mean that he
anticipated the Tychonic system, an
essentially geocentric model with
heliocentric aspects. However, the
tradition is almost certainly due to a
misunderstanding, and it is unlikely
that Heraklitos, or his Pythagorean
predecessors, advocated a variation on
the Tychonic system.
Of particular significance to
historians is his statement that fourth
century Rome was a Greek city.
The theory of homocentric spheres
failed to account for two sets of
observations: (1) brightness changes
suggesting that planets are not always
the same distance from the Earth, and
(2) bounded elongations (i.e., Venus is
never observed to be more than about
48° and Mercury never more than about
24° from the Sun). Heracleides of
Pontus (4th century BC) attempted to
solve these problems by having Venus
and Mercury revolve about the Sun,
rather than the Earth, and having the
Sun and other planets revolve in turn
about the Earth, which he placed at the
centre. In addition, to account for the
daily motions of the heavens, he held
that the Earth rotates on its axis.
Heracleides' theory had little impact
in antiquity except perhaps on
Aristarchus of Samos (3rd century BC),
who apparently put forth a heliocentric
hypothesis similar to the one
Copernicus was to propound in the 16th
century.
[1]
Ηράκλε_
3;τος (~544 - 483
π.Χ.) COPYRIGHTED GREECE
source: http://sfr.ee.teiath.gr/historia
/historia/important/html/images/Heraklit
.jpg
[347 BCE]
in charge of the Academy. Aristotle
leaves the Academy.
Aristotle meets
Theophrastus in Lesbos, and a lifelog
friendship is started. Aristotle gives
the nickname "Theophrastus" (divine
speech) to Theophrastus whose real name
is Tyrtamus.
[342 BCE]
the Son of Amyntas II, Phillip II is
King of Macedon, and wants Aristotle
back in court to teach his 14 year old
son Alexander.
[340 BCE]
papyrus, in Greece.
[336 BCE]
moves back to Athens, and Alexander III
(Alexander the Great) starts to take
over the Persian empire. Aristotle
sends his nephew Callisthenes as
historian.
[332 BCE]
the city with his best advisors, and
laying out the city in either seeds or
flower. When a large flock of birds
eat the seeds, Alexander thinks this is
a bad omen, but his advisors tell him
that this means the city will serve
many people from all over {try to find
source of exact story}. This story has
Alexander commanding that there be a
library dedicated to the Muses built in
Alexandria.
It is possible that the
mouseion was built starting now, and
much of the city was constructed by the
time Ptolemy arrives to rule 9 years
later in 323 BCE.
[325 BCE]
(Δικαια
61;χος) (DIKEoRKOS)
(Dicaearchus) (~355 BCE - ~285 BCE)
makes geometric constructions of a
hyperbola and a parabola, is among the
first to use geographical coordinates
(latitude and longitude).
[325 BCE]
(Πυθέας)
(380 BCE Massalia {now Marseille
France}- 310) sails to Great Britain
and possibly Iceland.
Pytheas is the first
person to explain tides as happening
because of the influence of the moon,
is the first person to show that the
North star was not exactly at the pole
and makes a small circle in a day.
Pythias describes the Midnight Sun (the
Sun is visible for 24 hours), the
aurora and Polar ice, and is the first
person to mention the name "Britannia"
and Germanic tribes.
Pytheas lives in
the western most Greek colonized city,
and sails west (where everybody else in
greek colonized cities moved east)
through the Pillars of Hercules (the
Strait of Gibraltar) and up the nothern
coast of europe. None of his writings
have been found, but he will be
referenced by later humans. He
explores the island of Great Britain,
sails north to "Thule" (possibly
Iceland, or islands north of Great
Britain) is stopped by fog and turned
back to explore Northern Europe, by
sailing the Baltic sea as far as the
Vistula (Wisla river). Pytheas follows
the teachings of Dicaerchus and
determines the latitude of Massalia by
observing the sun. Pytheas observes
the tides in the ocean (there are no
tides in the land that surround the
Mediterranean). Only 2000 years later
would Newton explain the attaction of
the moon.
[323 BCE]
Aristotle choses Theofrastos
(Theophrastus) (Greek:
Θεόφρα`
3;τος) (tEOFrASTOS?)
(~372 BC Eresus, Lesbos - 287 Athens)
to preside over the Peripatetic school,
which he does for thirty-five years.
The Lyceum maintains it's highest
quality under Theophrastos.
Theophrastos describes over 500 species
of plants and is the founder of botony,
the study of plants. Theophrastus is
charged with asebeia (atheism) but
acquitted by a jury in Athens.
Aristotle in
his will made him guardian of his
children, bequeathed to him his library
and the originals of his works, and
designated him as his successor at the
Lyceum on his own removal to Chalcis.
Eudemus of Rhodes also had some claims
to this position, and Aristoxenus is
said to have resented Aristotle's
choice.
Theophrastus presided over the
Peripatetic school for thirty-five
years, and died in 287 BC. Under his
guidance the school flourished greatly;
there were at one period more than 2000
students, and at his death he
bequeathed to it his garden with house
and colonnades as a permanent seat of
instruction. Menander was among his
pupils. His popularity was shown in the
regard paid to him by Philip, Cassander
and Ptolemy, and by the complete
failure of a charge of impiety brought
against him. He was honoured with a
public funeral, and "the whole
population of Athens, honouring him
greatly, followed him to the grave"
(Diogenes Laërtius v41).
From the lists of the ancients it
appears that the activity of
Theophrastus extended over the whole
field of contemporary knowledge. His
writing probably differed little from
the Aristotelian treatment of the same
themes, though supplementary in
details. He served his age mainly as a
great popularizer of science. The most
important of his books are two large
botanical treatises, "On the History of
Plants", in nine books (originally
ten), and On the Causes of Plants, in
six books (originally eight), which
constitute the most important
contribution to botanical science
during antiquity and the middle ages;
on the strength of these works some
call him the "father of Taxonomy". We
also possess in fragments a History of
Physics, a treatise On Stones, and a
work On Sensation, and certain
metaphysical Airoptai, which probably
once formed part of a systematic
treatise. He made the first known
reference to the phenomenon of
pyroelectricity, noting in 314 BC that
the mineral tourmaline becomes charged
when heated. Various smaller scientific
fragments have been collected in the
editions of JG Schneider (1818-21) and
F. Wimmer (1842-62) and in Usener's
Analecta Theophrastea.
His book The Characters deserves a
separate mention. The work consists of
brief, vigorous and trenchant
delineations of moral types, which
contain a most valuable picture of the
life of his time. They form the first
recorded attempt at systematic
character writing. The book has been
regarded by some as an independent
work; others incline to the view that
the sketches were written from time to
time by Theophrastus, and collected and
edited after his death; others, again,
regard the Characters as part of a
larger systematic work, but the style
of the book is against this.
[323 BCE]
"impiety" (lack of respect for gods,
atheism) and leaves Athens.
The charge
of impiety, which had been brought
against Anaxagoras and Socrates, was
now brought against Aristotle. He
leaves Athens saying, "I will not allow
the Athenians to sin twice against
philosophy" (Vita Marciana 41). He
takes up residence at his country house
at Chalcis, where his mother had lived,
in Euboea, and there he dies the
following year, 322 BC. His death was
due to a disease, reportedly 'of the
stomach', from which he had long
suffered.
After the death of Alexander, the
anti-Macedonian party accuses Aristotle
of impiety. With the example of
Socrates behind him, Aristotle escapes
to Chalcis in Euboea, where he dies in
the same year.
[323 BCE]
(Καλλιπ
60;ος) KAL lEP POS? (~370 BCE
Cyzicus - ~ 300 BCE) makes a more
accurate measurement of the solar year,
finding the measurement of Meton 100
years earlier to be 1/76 of a day too
long. Kallippos constructs a a 76 year
cycle of 940 months to unite the solar
and lunar years. This calendar is
adopted in 330 BCE and will be used by
all later astronomers.
Ptolemy gave us
an accurate date for the beginning of
this cycle in 330 BC in the Almagest
saying that year 50 of the first cycle
coincided with the 44th year following
the death of Alexander.
Callipps studies under Eudoxus and adds
8 more spheres to the 26 earth-centered
spheres of Eudoxus, in order to more
accurately explain the motions of the
planets.
The system made by Eudoxus has the Sun,
Moon, Mercury, Venus and Mars each with
five spheres while Jupiter and Saturn
have four and the stars have one. This
addition of six spheres over the system
proposed by Eudoxus increases the
accuracy of the theory while preserving
the belief that the heavenly bodies had
to possess motion based on the circle
since that was the 'perfect' path.
He also made careful measurements of
the lengths of the seasons, finding
them to be 94 days, 92 days, 89 days,
and 90 days. This variation in the
seasons implies a variation in the
speed of the Sun, called the solar
anomaly. The different length of the
seasons is due to the fact that the sun
is at one focus of an ellipse, which
means that the earth will be on one
side of the sun for more time than the
other side.
[323 BCE]
Πτολεμ^
5;ίος
Σωτήρ
Ptolemaios Soter, 367 BC-283 BC), a
Macedonian general, becomes ruler of
Egypt (323 BC-283 BC) and founder of
the Ptolemaic dynasty.
Ptolemy was one
of Alexander the Great's most trusted
generals, and among the seven
"body-guards" attached to his person.
He was a few years older than
Alexander, and his intimate friend
since childhood. He may even have been
in the group of noble teenagers tutored
by Aristotle.
[320 BCE]
(Πραξαγ
72;ρας) (~350 Cos - ???)
possibly teaches Herophilus, and is a
strong defender of the theories of
Hippocrates. Praxagoras distinguishes
between veins and arteries, recognizing
2 kinds of blood vessels (some credit
this to Alcmaeon). He things arteries
carry air (arteries are named for this
opinion), thinks arteries lead to
smaller vessels (which is true) that
then turned in to nerves (which is
false). Praxagoras noted the physical
connection between the brain and spinal
chord.
[317 BCE]
(Δημήτρ
53;ος
Φαληρεa
3;ς ) (Demetrius Phalereus) (died
c. 280 BCE) is an Athenian orator, a
student of Aristotle (who also teaches
Theophrastus and Alexander the Great),
and one of the first Peripatetics.
Demetrius writes extensively on the
subjects of history, rhetoric, and
literary criticism.
Demetrius is helped
into power in Athens by Alexander's
successor Cassander.
From 317 BCE to
307 BCE, Demetrius Phalereus is the
despot of Athens, serving under
Cassander. During this time he
provides
money for Theophrastus to build the
Lyceum which is to be devoted to
Aristotle's studies and modeled after
Plato's Academy.
institutes extensive legal
reforms. Carystius of Pergamum mentions
that he had a boyfriend by the name of
Diognis, of whom all the Athenian boys
were jealous. This shows clearly that
bisexuality was much more accepted as
natural in Greece. As time continues,
humans will lose this wisdom by
becoming more intolerent of
bisexuality.
[316 BCE]
gods had been originally kings, for
example that Zeus was a king of Crete,
who had been a great conqueror.
[311 BCE]
(Επίκου
61;ος) (Epicurus) (02/341 BCE
Samos - 270 BCE Athens) founds a
popular school in Athens. He argues
against the existence of any god.
Epikouros basis his philosophy on the
principle that pleasure is good and
pain is bad. This is the first school
to admit females and slaves. Epikouros
agrees with the atom theory of
Demokritos.
Eipkouros defines justice
as an agreement "neither to harm nor be
harmed."
In contrast to Aristotle,
Epikouros argues that death should not
be feared.
Later humans will mistake
the views of Epikouros to be supporting
free, open and overindulgent sexuality,
but he mistakenly warns against
overindulgence because he believes that
it often leads to pain.
Epicurus
thinks the highest pleasure is living
moderately, behaving kindly, removing
the fear of the gods, and death.
Of
300 treatises (scrolls?), almost
nothing has been found.
Epikouros
establishes the philosophy called
Epicureanism.
Epikouros forms "The Garden", named for
the garden he owns about halfway
between the Stoa and the Academy.
This
original school had only a few members
and was based in Epicurus' home and
garden.
An inscription on the gate of
the garden reads: "Stranger, here you
will do well to delay; here our highest
good is pleasure."
The school's
popularity grows and it will became,
along with Stoicism and Skepticism, one
of the three dominant schools of
Hellenistic Philosophy, lasting
strongly through the later Roman
Empire.
"Is God willing to prevent
evil but not able? Then He is not
omnipotent. Is He able but not willing?
Then He is malevolent. Is He both able
and willing? Then whence cometh evil?
Is He neither able nor willing? Then
why call Him God?"
Admiting of females
and slaves shocks and interests the
scholarly people of the time.
After the official approval of
Christianity by Constantine,
Epicureanism was repressed. Epicurus'
theory that the gods were unconcerned
with human affairs had always clashed
strongly with the Judeo-Christian God,
and the philosophies were essentially
irreconcilable. For example, the word
for a heretic in the Talmudic
literature is "Apikouros". Lactantius
criticizes Epicurus at several points
throughout his Divine Institutes. The
school endured a long period of
obscurity and decline. However, there
was a resurgance of atomism among
scientists in the 18th and 19th
Centuries, and in the late 20th
Century, the school was revived.
[310 BCE]
head of the Astronomical school in
Sippar (Babylonia), works out the
precession of equinoxes (the axis of
the Earth slowly changes direction over
many years ).
Hipparchus will make use
of the precession of the equinoxes as
documented by Kidinnu. Kidinnu makes a
complicated method of expressing
movement of the moon and planets,
differing from the view that these
objects must move at a constant
velocity. Stabo and Pliny refer to
Kidinnu.
[310 BCE]
(Στρατό
62;) (340 BCE Lampsacus - 270 BCE
Athens) studies at the Lyceum, traveles
to Alexandria, possibly tutors the son
of Ptolomy I (the Macedonian general
made King of Egypt) there.
Strato has an atheist view of the
universe. Strato views the universe as
a mechanical structure without any
dieties.
Strato is mainly interested in physics,
and expands on Aristotle's physics by
noticing that falling objects (for
example rainwater off a roof)
accelerate as they fall to the ground
rather than falling at a steady rate as
Aristotle predicted.
Another one of his teachings was the
doctrine of the void, postulating that
all bodies contained a void of variable
size, which also accounted for weight
differences between bodies.
One of Strato's students at the Lyceum
is Aristarchus of Samos.
[310 BCE]
of Aristippus the founder of the
Cyrenaic of philosophy, writes "on
Gods", which uses various arguments to
try to destroy Greek theology.
[307 BCE]
Athens, Demetrius Falereus is
overthrown, and he flees to Egypt.
Demetrius goes into exile a second time
on the accession of Ptolemy
Philadelphus, and he died soon
afterward.
[305 BCE]
(Ηροφιλ
59;ς) (Herophilus) (335 BCE
Chalcedon {now Kadikoy, Istanbul
Turkey} - 280 BCE) is the first human
to distinguish nerves from blood
vessels, in addition to motor nerves
from sensory nerves.
Herofilos is the first to
describe the liver and spleen, to
describe and name the retina of the
eye, to name the first section of the
small intestine "the duodenum", to
describe ovaries, the tubes leading to
the ovaries from the uterus, and names
the prostate gland. Herofilos is the
first human to note that arteries carry
blood, not air as previously believed,
a recognizes that the heart pumps blood
through the blood vessels. Herofilos is
first to distinguish between cerebrum
and cerebellum.
Herofilos notes that arteries, not
like veins, pulsate, and times the
pulsations with a water clock, but does
not make connection between artery
pulse and heart pulse.
Herofilos is the first human to think
wrongly think that blood letting has
value, and this focus on bleeding will
have a bad effect on healing for 2000
years. Erasistratus will carry on
Herofilos' work, but after Erasistratus
the Alexandria school of anatomy
declined. Like Alkmeon, Herophilus
also identifies the brain as the center
of widom and emotion, not the heart.
Together with Erasistratus he founders
of the great medical school of
Alexandria. Herofilos makes many
contributions to anatomy. Herophilus
performs up to 600 dissections in
public.
Herophilos divides nerves into
sensory (get sense information) and
motor (those responsible for motion).
Herophilus' chief work was in anatomy,
on which he composed several treatises,
including one On Dissections in several
books, and where a number of the terms
he coined passed, either directly or
via their Latin translations, into
anatomical vocabulary.
None of
Herofilos' works have been found yet,
but will be much quoted by Galen in the
2nd century AD.
Later medical authors,
Celsus, Rufus, Soranus and Galen, will
quote and comment on their
predecessors, often at considerable
length.
Before Herofilos and
Erasistratos, such dissections as had
been carried out were all performed on
animals.
Herofilos or Erasistratos starts the
school of health (traditionally called
medicine) in Alexandria, and this
school will last at least until Galen
in the second century CE.
Pre-Christian
Greek humans did not object to human
dissection, thinking a "soul" most
important, and a dead body just a group
of flesh. In Egypt, human dissection is
a serious impiety. He is particularly
interested in the brain.
Several of our
sources speak of Herophilus and
Erasistratus undertaking not merely
dissections, but also vivisections
(dissections on living bodies), on
human subjects. The Christian writer
Tertullian (ca. 155-230) describes
Herophilus as ‘that butcher who cut up
innumerable corpses in order to
investigate nature and who hated
mankind for the sake of knowledge" ("On
the Soul", chap. 10). However,
Tertullian was totally opposed to the
scientific investigations of pagan
researchers and did everything he could
to defame them and their work.
Pliny
and Rufus both refer in general terms
to the practice of human dissection
without specifying who first undertook
this. Another first century CE source,
the Roman medical writer Celsus, both
identifies the men concerned and
reports the arguments that were used to
justify this practice and that of
vivisection. In the introduction (23
ff.) of his work "On Medicine" Celsus
writes as follows concerning the group
of doctors known as the Dogmatists:
"Mor
eover since pains and various kinds of
diseases arise in the internal parts,
they hold that no one who is ignorant
about those parts themselves can apply
remedies to them. Therefore it is
necessary to cut open the bodies of
dead men and to examine their viscera
and intestines. Herophilus and
Erasistratus proceeded in by far the
best way, they cut open living
men-criminals they obtained out of
prison from the kings-and they
observed, while their subjects still
breathed, parts that nature had
previously hidden, their position,
colour, shape, size, arrangement,
hardness, softness, smoothness, points
of contact, and finally the processes
and recesses of each and whether any
part is inserted into another or
receives the part of another into
itself."
The Dogmatists wrote of the
advantages of vivisection over
dissection and defended this viewpoint
against the charge of inhumanity by
claiming that the good outweighed the
evil: ‘nor is it cruel, as most people
state, to seek remedies for multitudes
of innocent men of all future ages by
means of the sacrifice of only a small
number of criminals."
Unlike Tertullian, Celsus
cannot be accused of malicious
distortion. He himself disagrees with
the Dogmatists. 'To cut open the bodies
of living men,' he says later in his
introduction (74 f), "is both cruel and
superfluous: to cut open the bodies of
the dead is necessary for medical
students. For they ought to know the
position and arrangement of parts-which
the dead body exhibits better than a
wounded living subject. As for the
rest, which can only be learnt from the
living, experience itself will
demonstrate it rather more slowly, but
much more mildly, in the course of
treating the wounded." The tone of his
whole account is restrained and we have
no good grounds for rejecting it. No
one can doubt that religious and moral
considerations inhibited the opening of
the human body, whether dead or alive,
in antiquity. But that is not to say
that such inhibitions could never,
under any circumstances, be overcome.
The situation at Alexandria in the
third century BCE was clearly an
exceptional one in the particular
combination of ambitious scientists and
patrons of science that existed there
at that time. For all the ancients'
respect for the dead, corpses were
desecrated often enough by people other
than scientists. Moreover, when we
reflect that the ancients regularly
tortured slaves in public in the law
courts in order to extract evidence
from them, and that Galen, for example,
records cases where new poisons were
tried out on convicts to test their
effects, it is not too difficult to
believe that the Ptolemies permitted
vivisection to be practised on
condemned criminals.
Before Herofilos, doctors were called
Asclepiadae, in the sense that they
were spiritual descendants of the Greek
God of healing, Asclepius. Much of this
new health research is done in
Alexandria and rival capital Antioch.
Herofilos and his students are
interested in direct knowledge and
precise terminology. Galen (129-200
CE),will praise Herofilos in relation
to the ovarian arteries and veins
observed by Herofilos in the womb,
writing "I have not seen this myself in
other animals except occasionally in
monkeys. But I do not disbelieve that
Herofilos observed them in women; for
he was efficient in other aspects of
his art and his knowledge of facts
acquired through anatomy was
exceedingly precise, and most of his
observations were made not, as is the
case with most of us, on brute beasts
but on human beings themselves." Some
of Herofilos' pupils form their own
schools. One such student is
Callimachus. According to Polybius
around 150 BCE, the medical profession
is dominated by two schools, the
Herophileans and the Callimacheans.
Another pupil of Herofilos, Philinus of
Cos, will form a rival school, refered
to as the Empiricists, who differed
from Herofilos in disregarding anatomy
and physiology, focusing mainly on
therapeutics, claiming that a disease
must be treated experimentally. They
based their school on experiment and
past history of success.
[300 BCE]
(Greek:
Εκαταί_
9;ς) of Abdura
(Άβδηρα)
(340-280 BCE) (not to be confused with
other historian Hekataeos of Miletus
200 years earlier) to live in Egypt and
write a new Aegyptiaca (history of
egypt), which has not yet been found,
but large parts of this work will be
found in the writing of Diordorus.
Hecataeus compares Egyptian Gods to
Greek Gods, equating Dionysius to
Osirius, Demeter to Isis, Apollo to
Horus, Zeus to Ammon, Hermes to Thoth,
Hephaestus to Ptah, Pan to Min, even
the 9 muses to Osiris' nine maidens.
He
cataeus of Abdera (or of Teos), Greek
historian and Sceptic philosopher,
flourishes in the 4th century BCE.
Hecataeus accompanies Ptolemy I Soter
in an expedition to Syria, and sails up
the Nile with Ptolemy as far as Thebes
(Diogenes Laertius ix. 6I). The result
of his travels is recorded by him in
two works, "Aegyptiaca" and "On the
Hyperboreans", which will be used by
Diodorus Siculus. According to the
Suda, Hecataeus also writes a treatise
on the poetry of Hesiod and Homer.
Regarding his authorship of a work on
Jewish people (which wil be utilized by
Josephus in "Contra Apionem"), it is
conjectured that portions of the
Aegyptiaca were revised by a
Hellenistic Jewish person from his
point of view and published as a
special work.
While in Egypt Hekataeos of Abdura
writes that priests teach children two
kinds of writing, sacred (hieratic) and
the more common (demotic), in addition
to geometry and arithmetic. Hecataeus
writes "they (egyptians) have preserved
to this day the record concerning each
of the stars over an incredible number
of years...they have also observed with
great interest the motions, ... orbits
and stoppings of the planets".
[297 BCE]
invitation from King Ptolemy I Soter in
297 BCE to tutor Ptolemy's heir, and
instead recommends Demetrios Falireus
(other sources cite Straton as being
recommended and tutoring ), who had
recently been driven out from Athens as
a result of political fallout from the
conflicts of Alexander's successors.
This information is based on the
"Letter of Aristeas", which will be
written around 150 BCE. Ptolemy I
accepts Demetrios Falireus, and
Demetrios moves to Egypt. Demtrios
Falireus is a politician, and prolific
writer. Diogenes Laertius will write
highly of Demetrios and will provide a
list of Demetrios' works on a wide
range of subjects.
Demetrios begins collecting texts for
the King's library, following the
tradition of Plato, with works on
state-forming, kingship and ruling.
[297 BCE]
(Πτολεμ
45;ίου
Σωτήρα)
starts construction of the Soma, in
Alexandria, a mausoleum where Alexander
and subsequent kings will be stored
after death, the famous Lighthouse of
Pharos, the research center known as
the Mouseion (a temple to the Muses, a
"Mousaeion"
(Μουσεί
59;ν also
Μουσεί_
9;υ, Museum: in actuality a
University and Library ) and the Royal
Library (which may have been a separate
building near the Mousaeion or may have
been inside the Mousaeion), in the
Royal Palaces area. The Mousaeion will
house the smartest scientists of this
time. This research center will also
include a zoo. Some of these monuments
will take more time to build than 2
decades and will be completed under the
reign of Ptolemy II.
Irenaeus will write
in the second century CE that "Ptolemy
the son of Lagos had the ambition to
equip the library established by him in
Alexandria with the writings of all men
as far as they were worth serious
attention". This is evidence that
Ptolemy I founded the library in
Alexandria.
Living in the Mousaeion located in the
royal quarter of the city, there is
what Strabo would later call a
"synodos" (community) of perhaps 30-50
educated men (there are no women), who
are salaried members of a "civil list"
for their services as tutors, paid for
from taxes, while at the same time
exempt from taxes, given free food and
room, dining together in a (stone?)
circular-domed dining hall. Outside
this hall there are classrooms, where
the residents from time to time are
called upon to teach. For 700 years
until the 4th century CE, as many as a
hundred scholars at a time will come to
the library to consult this collection,
to read, talk, and write.
Papryis
scrolls are stored in linen or leather
jackets and kept in racks in the hall
or in the cloisters (corridors with
pillars ).
Separate niches are devoted to
different classes of authors, and to
different categories of learning.
The Museion is a research center where
no regular teaching (for example of
children how to write) took place, most
young men learned as research
assistants. There were probably public
lectures occassionaly attended by the
king.
According to the letter of Aristeas,
Demetrius recommends that Ptolemy II
Philadephus should gather a collection
of books on kingship and ruling in the
style of Plato's philosopher-kings, and
furthermore to gather books of all the
world's people so that Ptolemy might
better understand subjects and trade
partners. Demetrius must also help
inspire the founding of a Museum in
Ptolemy's capital, Alexandria, a temple
dedicated to the Muses. This is not the
first temple dedicated to the divine
patrons of arts and sciences, but
coming a half-century after the
establishment of Plato's Academy,
Aristotle's Lyceum, Zeno's Stoa and the
school of Epicurus, and located in a
rich center of international trade and
cultural exchange, the place and time
are ripe for such an institution to
flower. Scholars are invited there to
carry out the Peripatetic activities of
observation and deduction in math,
medicine, astronomy, and geometry; and
most of the scientific findings of
earth will be recorded and debated
there for the next 500 years.
Ptolemy I establishes the Mousaeion
with a director who is a Pagan priest
(different from the head librarian).
The Mousaeion is dedicated to the
Muses, and there is a Biblion (a place
of books) for scholars.
Some people think that the Mousaeion is
built like the Rameseseum, a
combination of palace, museum, and
shrine. As a shrine dedicated to the
Muses, the Mousaeion has the same legal
status as Plato's school in Athens,
where a school requires religious
status to gain the protection of
Athenian law. The Mousaeion is presided
over by a priest of the Muses, called
an "epistates", or director, appointed
like the priests who manage the temples
of Egypt.
A Head Scholar-Librarian is
appointed by the King, and also
holdsthe post of royal tutor to the
King's children.
The Mousaeion
initially does editing of homer texts.
Ptolemy I invents the God Serapis (in
Greek
Σέραπη)
with the help of 2 priests, an Egyptian
preist named Manethon and an Athenian
preist named Timotheus.
It is possible that people constructed
some of the buildings in Alexandria in
the nine years after Alexander founded
Alexandria.
Some people think that the Royal
library is located in the Mousaeion,
while others think that the Royal
Library occupies it's own building next
to (perhaps connected to)the Mousaeion
or near the Mediterranean coast.
Around 25 BCE, Strabo will describe
each building in the royal palace and
will not mention any library, although
Strabo will use the past tense to
describe a library available to
Eratosthenes. Around 80 CE Plutarch
will write that Caesar burned down "the
Great Library", but it is unusual for
the library to be on fire but not the
Mousaeion (unless the Library was
farther away) which Strabo clearly
indicates is intact after the time of
Caesar.
Unlike Athens, in Alexandria,
initially, philosophy is not popular.
Perhaps from the teaching of Aristotle,
who supported an observational method,
his student Demetrios Falireus focuses
mainly on the physical sciences.
Geometry probably originated from land
measurement, as the word "Geometry"
implies. Celestial observations help to
determine terrestrial property
boundaries, and so men at the museum
turned to applications of mathematics
and geometry.
Timon (c. 320-230 BCE) (of Phlius,
Greek sceptic philosopher and satirical
poet, a pupil of Stilpo the Megarian
and Pyrrho of Elis) and Herodas
('Ηρωδας)
a Greek poet, the author of short
humorous dramatic scenes in verse,
written under the Alexandrian empire in
the 3rd century BCE) refer to the
Mouseion alone, with no mention of a
separate library.(s49? s47? or s46?)
Timon of Phlius ) (of Athens),
expresses a bitter and envious reaction
towards moden intellectual developments
saying "many are feeding in populous
Egypt, scribblers on papyrus,
ceaselessly wrangling in the bird-cage
of the Muses" .
Most employees are translators, called
"scribblers" (charakitai) wrote on
papyrus (charta).
Editorial activity at Alexandria helps
to standardize many texts.
The sites of the Museum and Library are
uncertain, but both are definitely in
the Bruchium. The Museum buildings are
surrounded by courts and walks planted
with trees. A portico, covering the
front and two sides, leads to the Great
Hall (or "Excedra"). Behind this Great
Hall is a dining hall (Oecus), which is
a cicular building with a dome roof and
a terrace, supported by a circles of
columns inside the hall. On this
terrace there is an Observatory. In the
surrounding park is a zoological
garden.
In 2004 a Polish-Egyptian team claimed
to have discovered a part of the
library while excavating in the
Bruchion region. The archaeologists
claimed to have found thirteen "lecture
halls", each with a central podium.
Zahi Hawass, the president of Egypt's
Supreme Council of Antiquities, said
that all together, the rooms uncovered
so far could have seated 5000 students.
The picture thus presented is of a
fairly massive research institution.
date of about
30 BC to the discovery. This date
corresponds very well with the well
known Mouseion, Alexandria's famous
ancient University. However, the same
reports refer to the classrooms as
"Roman-era", which is inconsistent with
a date of 30 BC. Other reports, also
attributed to the Supreme Council of
Antiquities, date the find between the
5th and 7th centuries (AD), which would
be rather inconsistent with the famous
university's later period, though
certainly a part of the Roman-era.
[297 BCE]
Ephasus (later to become the first head
librarian of record), and Euclid
(thought to be born in Alexandria)
respond to Ptolemy I Soter's invitation
to be employed in the Mousaeion.
[295 BCE]
Εὐκλεί
48;ης) YUKlEDES? (325 BCE -
265 BCE), in Alexandria, makes a scroll
called "Elements" which is a
compilation of all the mathematical
knowledge known up to then, and will be
one of the most successful mathmatical
texts in the history of earth.
Euclid
proves that the number of primes is
infinite, that the square root of 2 is
irrational, and shows light rays as
straight lines.
Eukleidos either
answers Ptolemy I's invitation, or is
recruited by Demetrios Falereus, and is
one of the first people to work in the
Mousaeion in Alexandria. He starts a
school of mathematics at the Mousaeion
which will last at least until the time
of Pappus in the fourth century CE.
Euclid's
"Elements" will go through more than
1000 editions after the invention of
printing. "Elements" compiles all the
accumulated wisdom since the time when
Thales lived (250 years before).
Euclid starts with axioms and
postulates, then adds theorems. The
only theorem credited to Euclid with
most certainty is the proof for the
Pythagorean theorem. This book has
geometry, ratio, proportion, and number
theory. In his "Eudemiarz Summary",
Proclus (410-485 CE) writes about how
King Ptolomy I, studying geometry, asks
Euclid if there was no easier path to
understanding geometry, and that Euclid
replied that "there is no royal road to
geometry". It is likely that this
quote has been taken from a similar
story told about Menaechmus (fl. c350
BCE) and Alexander the Great. Euclid
states that the whole is equal to the
sum of it's parts, and that a straight
line is the shortest distance between 2
points.
Euclid may have run a school
of mathematics in Alexandria. Pappus of
Alexandria (fl. c320 CE) will write
that the Greek mathematician Apollonius
learned geometry from the students of
Euclid in Alexandria.
Eukleidis is a Greek mathematician, who
lived in Alexandria, Egypt during the
reign of Ptolemy I (323 BC283 BC), and
is often considered to be the "father
of geometry". His most popular work,
Elements, is the most successful
textbook in the history of mathematics.
Within it, the properties of
geometrical objects are deduced from a
small set of axioms, thereby founding
the axiomatic method of mathematics.
Although best-known for its geometric
results, the Elements also includes
various results in number theory, such
as the connection between perfect
numbers and Mersenne primes.
Euclid also wrote works on perspective,
conic sections, spherical geometry, and
possibly quadric surfaces. Neither the
year nor place of his birth have been
established, nor the circumstances of
his death.
Although many of the results in
Elements originated with earlier
mathematicians, one of Euclid's
accomplishments was to present them in
a single, logically coherent framework.
In addition to providing some missing
proofs, Euclid's text also includes
sections on number theory and
three-dimensional geometry. In
particular, Euclid's proof of the
infinitude of prime numbers is in Book
IX, Proposition 20.
The geometrical system described in
Elements was long known simply as the
only "geometry". Today, however, it is
often referred to as Euclidean geometry
to distinguish it from other so-called
non-Euclidean geometries which will be
found in the 1800s CE. These new
geometries will grow out of more than
2000 years of investigation into
Euclid's fifth postulate, one of the
most-studied axioms in all of
mathematics, known as the "parallel
postulate", the postulate that no two
angles in a triangle can be equal or
greater than 2 90 degree angles. This
postulate will be shown to only be true
for flat surfaces and not for the
surface of a sphere or hyperboloid.
One story about Euclid is from Stobaeus
and relates that one of Euclid's
students, when he had learned the first
proposition, asked his teacher, "But
what is the good of this and what shall
I get by learning these things?", to
which Euclid calls a slave and says,
"Give this fellow a penny, since he
must make gain from what he learns. "
[295 BCE]
Alexander.
[290 BCE]
priest, writes a history of Babylonia,
which in complete form has not yet been
found, although secondary sources
provide some information.
[288 BCE]
into Greek in Alexandria around this
time or later. Commonly refered to as
the "Septuagint" ("LXX"), because
according to the Letter of Aristeas, at
the advice of Demetrius Phalereus,
Ptolomy II hires 72 preists to come to
Alexandria to complete the
translation.
The Hebrew Bible is also called the Old
Testament by Christians. This text
includes the Pentateuch PeNToTUK and
other books for a total of 24 or 39
books depending on how they are
grouped. The Pentateuch (also called
the "Torah") is a Greek word derived
from the word "penta" (five) and
"teukos" (implement), which means
"implementation of five books", and
refers to the Hebrew Bible's books of
Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers,
and Deuteronomy.
Probably the Pentateuch is translated
into Greek in the third century BCE,
Isaiah and Jeremiah translated during
the first half of the second century
BCE, and the Psalms and the rest of the
Prophets during the second half of the
second century BCE.
[287 BCE]
the Lyceum after the death of
Theophrastos.
[287 BCE]
Aristotle's library to Neleus.
According to Athenaeus, Ptolemy II buys
this library for a large sum of money.
However, in apparent conflict to this
story, Strabo will later write that the
willed books will stay in the family of
Neleus until sold to Apellicon, the
wealthy book collector of Teos.
Apellicon's library in Athens will be
captured by Sulla in 86 BCE and taken
to Rome. One way to resolve these
conflicting accounts is to presume that
the book collection sold to Ptolemy II
is probably the large collection of
books from the school library but not
Aristotles' and Theophrastos' own
original works. Ptolemy II probably
obtained Aristotle's writing, but not
original works when Straton, Ptolemy
II's former tutor is head of the
Lyceum. Plutarch will write that the
Peripatetics did not have the original
texts of Aristotle and Theophrastos
because the legacy of Neleus had
"fallen into idle and base hands".
[285 BCE]
(Greek
Κτησίβ_
3;ος), (fl. 285 - 222 BCE) a
member of the Alexandrian Mouseion, is
the first person of record to use
compressed air, building a water and
compressed air powered organ and
catapult.
Ktisibios uses compressed air to
improve the water-clock, called a
"clepsydra" which will be the most
accurate method of measuring time until
the pendulum clock of Huygens in the
1600s. Ktesibios uses the weight of
water and compressed air to make a
water organ (hydraulus) where water
forces air through the organ pipes much
like a flute, and makes an air-powered
catapult. Around 25 BCE Vitruvius
describes Ktisibios as using an early
form of rack and pinion gearing in a
water clock.
Ktesibios starts the engineering
tradition in Alexandria.
His lost work "On
pneumatics" will earn him the title of
"father of pneumatics".
His "Memorabilia", a single
compilation of his research, cited by
Athenaeus, is also lost.
"Memorandum on
mechanics", "Belopoietica": Works on
mechanics and engines of war, both
lost.
Ctesibius is thought to be the founder
of the Alexandrian school of
mathematics and engineering, and may
have been one of the first directors of
the Museum of Alexandria.
Ktesibios is the son of a barber from
Aspondia, a suburb of Alexandria, and
adds a ball of lead in a pipe as a
counterweight to a barber mirror to
make the mirror more easy to raise and
lower.
In Ktesibios' "clepsydra" or
water clock, water drips into a
container at a constant rate raising a
floating object with a pointer. No
writings by Ktesibios have been found,
Vitruvius, Athenaeus, Philo of
Byzantium, Proclus and Hero of
Alexandria, the last engineer of
antiquity all refer to Ktesibios.
Many historians
compare Ktesibios second only to
Archimedes in engineering, I would add
Hero of Alexandria to this list.
In his
age Ctesibius was miserably poor, if
Diogenes Laertius can be trusted, who
recounts how the generous philosopher
Arcesilaus, "when he had gone to visit
Ctesibius who was ill, seeing him in
great distress from want, he secretly
slipped his purse under his pillow; and
when Ctesibius found it, 'This,' said
he, 'is the amusement of Arcesilaus."'
[1] Ktesibios water organ. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://alexandrias.tripod.com/ct
esibius.htm
[2] Ktesibios water pump. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://alexandrias.tripod.com/ct
esibius.htm
[283 BCE]
that the earth and other planets go
around the sun. Aristarchus figures
out that the Sun is one of the fixed
stars, the closest star to the Earth.
Aristarchos understands the earth
rotates on it's own axis each day.
Aristarchos understands that the sun is
much larger than the earth.
Aristarchos understands that the stars
are very distant. Aristarchos
calculates a close estimate for the
size of the earth moon. A principle
work of Aristarchos, titled
"Heliocentric system", now lost, is
considered by many of his
contemporaries as "impious", and one
contemporary writes that Aristarchos
should be charged with impiety.
Aged 32,
Aristarchos moves from the Lyceum
(Λύκειο
57;, Lykeion) in Athens (presumably) to
Alexandria where he will make his
epochal theories.
He adds 1/1623rd of a
day to the solar year, estimated at 365
1/4 days by Callippus, and calculated
the length of the Lunisolar cycle at
2434 years.
Aristarchos understands
that the stars show no visible parallax
because they are very distant. From
the shadow of the earth on the moon
during an eclipse, and using the size
of earth given by Eratosthenes,
Aristarchos calculates the size of the
moon which is very close to the true
size.
From the shadow of the earth on
the moon during a lunar eclipse,
Aristarchos estimates that the diameter
of the Earth is 3 times the diameter of
the Earth Moon. Using Eratosthenes'
calculation that the Earth was 42,000
km in circumference, he concludes that
the Moon is 14,000 km in circumference.
This is a very close estimate since
the moon has a circumference of about
10,916 km.
Aristarchus argued that the Sun, Moon,
and Earth form a near right triangle at
the moment of first or last quarter
moon. He estimated that the angle was
87°. Using correct geometry, but
inaccurate observational data,
Aristarchus concluded that the Sun was
20 times farther away than the Moon.
The true value of this angle is close
to 89° 50', and the Sun is actually
about 390 times farther away. He
pointed out that the Moon and Sun have
nearly equal apparent angular sizes and
therefore their diameters must be in
proportion to their distances from
Earth. He thus concluded that the Sun
was 20 times larger than the Moon;
which, although wrong, follows
logically from his incorrect data.
From this he may have concluded that a
small body like the earth orbiting a
large body like the sun would be more
logical than the sun orbiting the
earth.
Aristarchos is the main supporter of
the heliocentric system, as opposed to
the geocentric system of Anaximander,
the Pythagoreans, Philolaus, Plato and
Archelaus. The erroneous earth-centered
theory which will last for 1,800 years
until Copernicus.
Archimedes writes:
"You King Gelon are
aware the 'universe' is the name given
by most astronomers to the sphere the
centre of which is the center of the
Earth, while its radius is equal to the
straight line between the center of the
Sun and the center of the Earth. This
is the common account as you have heard
from astronomers. But Aristarchus has
brought out a book consisting of
certain hypotheses, wherein it appears,
as a consequence of the assumptions
made, that the universe is many times
greater than the 'universe' just
mentioned. His hypotheses are that the
fixed stars and the Sun remain unmoved,
that the Earth revolves about the Sun
on the circumference of a circle, the
Sun lying in the middle of the orbit,
and that the sphere of fixed stars,
situated about the same center as the
Sun, is so great that the circle in
which he supposes the Earth to revolve
bears such a proportion to the distance
of the fixed stars as the center of the
sphere bears to its surface."
So clearly Aristarchus believes the
stars to be infinitely far away, and
sees this as the reason why there is no
visible parallax, an observed movement
of the stars relative to each other as
the Earth moves around the Sun. The
parallax of stars can only be measured
with a telescope. But the geocentric
model is thought to be a simpler,
better explanation for the lack of
parallax. The rejection of the
heliocentric view was apparently quite
strong, as the following passage from
Plutarch suggests (On the Apparent Face
in the Orb of the Moon):
"{Cleanthes, a
contemporary of Aristarchus} thought it
was the duty of the Greeks to indict
Aristarchus of Samos on the charge of
impiety for putting in motion the
Hearth {earth} of the universe, ...
supposing the heavens to remain at rest
and the earth to revolve in an oblique
circle, while it rotates, at the same
time, about its own axis."
Cleanthes wrote a treatise "Against
Aristarchus.".
Plutarch and Sextus Empiricus will both
write about "the followers of
Aristarchus".
Principal works:
"Heliocentric system": Lost.
Considered by many of his
contemporaries as "impious".
"On the
Magnitudes and Distances of the Sun and
Moon": Extant. Describes how he
calculated the sizes of the sun and
moon and their distances from the
earth
"On Light and Colours"
"Sun dials"
Aristarchus also
invented an improved sundial with a
concave hemispherical surface and a
gnomon in the centre.
The work of Aristarchus will be
defended and promoted by Seleucus of
Babylonia a century later.
Perhaps Aristarcos escapes a charge of
impiety because the main opposition,
Cleanthes is in Athens and Aristarchos
is in Alexandria. But perhaps, charges
of impiety were taken less seriously by
then, or the public had become more
tolerant or accustomed to the people in
the universities.
[283 BCE]
arrested and or exiled to the delta
where Demetrios dies, possibly murdered
while sleeping by the venom of a snake
bite ordered by Ptolemy II.
[283 BCE]
librarian by Ptolemy II. Zenodotus
will be head librarian from 283-270
BCE.
Zenodotus separates Homer into 24
books, which is the same as the number
of letters in the Greek alphabet,
marking alledgedly unauthentic versus
with an obelus {A mark (or ÷) used in
ancient manuscripts to indicate a
doubtful or spurious passage}.
[281 BCE]
interested zoology, and may be the
person that makes the garden, zoo, and
observatory. The zoo under Philadefus
contains lions, leopards, lynxes,
buffaloes, wild asses, a 45 foot
python, a giraffe, rhinoceros, polar
bear, parrots, peacocks, and
pheasants.
Callimachus, Theocritus, and a host of
lesser poets, glorify the Ptolemaic
family. Ptolemy himself is eager to
increase the library and to patronize
scientific research. He has unusual
beasts of far off lands sent to
Alexandria. Interested in Hellenic
tradition, he shows little interest in
the native religion.
There are limits on what the people in
the Alexandrian schools can write. One
story relates how Sotades of Maronea
satirized Ptolemy II and his sister
Arsinoe on the occasion of their
marriage, when identified, he was
imprisoned and executed, although this
story may have only been a myth to
scare people.
The material and literary splendour of
the Alexandrian court was at its height
under Ptolemy II.
Callimachus, Theocritus, and a host of
lesser poets, glorify the Ptolemaic
family. Ptolemy himself is eager to
increase the library and to patronize
scientific research. He has unusual
beasts of far off lands sent to
Alexandria. Interested in Hellenic
tradition, he shows little interest in
the native religion.
[06/10/280 BCE]
in Syria, and Attalids in Pergamon
compete for scientific supremecy by
establishing libraries and centers for
learning in their capitals, Alexandria,
Antioch, and Pergamum.
[280 BCE]
Problems" from Aristotle's Lykeum
describes parallel wheel in mesh, but
does not specifically mention toothed
wheels. These may describe friction
wheels instead of gears.
[1] Input torque is applied to the ring
gear, which turns the entire carrier
(all blue), providing torque to both
side gears (red and yellow), which in
turn may drive the left and right
wheels. If the resistance at both
wheels is equal, the pinion gear
(green) does not rotate, and both
wheels turn at the same rate. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Differential_free.png
[2] If the left side gear (red)
encounters resistance, the pinion gear
(green) rotates about the left side
gear, in turn applying extra rotation
to the right side gear (yellow). GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Differential_locked.png
[275 BCE]
Μανέθω_
7;), a native egyptian historian,
writes a history of Egypt in Greek.
Manetho
composes works in Greek on Egyptian
history and religion based on egyptian
records. What has been found so far
from Manetho are lists of the Egyptian
dynasties, and the Hyksos invasion of
Egypt and its connection to the life of
Moses, although the original text will
be corrupted in the three centuries
between Manethon and Josephus. As a
high priest at Heliopolis, Manethon is
quoted as having recounted the myths of
the egyptian gods.
[275 BCE]
contains a contract of apprenticeship
to a doctor who has a house training
clinic (oikia), which covers a period
of 6 years for a fee.
[275 BCE]
BCE) is among Zenodotus' most famous
assistants. Callimachus may never
formally have held the position of
Librarian, but begins for the Library
the first subject catalog of history,
"the Pinakes" (tablets). This is
composed of 6 sections, and lists some
120,000 scrolls of classical poetry and
prose. The full title was "Tables of
those who were eminent in every branch
of learning, and what they wrote, in
120 volumes". It may include works not
yet obtained by the library. The
Pinakes are separated by subject.
These subjects include: comedy,
tragedy, lyric poetry, epic, rhetoric,
law, history, mathematics, medicine,
philosophy (natural science) and
miscellaneous. Within each subject,
authors are listed alphabetically, with
a short biography, a bibliography of
the author {a complete list of their
works}, also alphabetically ordered,
the opening words of each work, and the
length of the work.
The Pinakes will
serve as a model for future indexes,
for example the Arabic 10th century
"Al-Fihrist" by Ibn-Al-Nadim.
Callimachu
s reports that the library has 400,000
mixed scrolls with multiple works, and
90,000 scrolls of single works.
[274 BCE]
Ερασίσ`
4;ρατος
(EroSESTrATOS?) (~304 BCE Chios {now
Khios, an aegean island} - 250 BCE
Samos), in Alexandria describes the
brain as being divided in to a larger
cerebrum and smaller cerebellum.
Erasistratos accepts atom theory.
He compares
folds (convolutions) in the brain of
humans with those of other species and
decides that the complexity of folds is
related to intelligence. He thinks
each organ is connected to and fed by
nerves, arteries and veins.
Erastitratos
thinks digestion is from grinding of
the stomach (which is only partially
true).
He proposed mechanical
explanations for many bodily processes.
He rejects the 4 humor theory
popularized by Hippokrates, but Galen
will support this idea.
He believed in
a tripartite system of humors
consisting of nervous spirit (carried
by nerves), animal spirit (carried by
the arteries), and blood (carried by
the veins).
Erasistratos was possibly a
grandson of Aristotle and learned under
Theophrasus in the Lyceum.
After the work of Erasistratus, the use
of dissection and study of anatomy
declined.
The humans in Egypt stop
dissection in Alexandria and not until
1500 years later (late 1200s CE) with
Mondino de Luzzi is dissection
practiced again.
Trains in Athens,
Erasistratos moves to Asia and is court
physician for Seleucus I, who controls
a major portion of what had been the
Persian Empire. Erasistratos then
moves west to continue the work of
Herofilos in Alexandria. the nerves
carried "nervous spirit", arteries
"animal spirit", and the vein blood.
Erasistratos takes a step backwards
from Herofilos in mistakenly thinking
that arteries do not carry blood. He
thinks air is carried from lungs to
heart and changed in to the "animal
spirit" that is carried in the
arteries.
He is best known for curing Antiochos,
Seleucus's son. Erasistratus said that
Antiochos was in love with his
stepmother, and that that was what was
ailing him, so he let them marry.
[270 BCE]
(Απολλώ
57;ιος ο
Ρόδιος)
(not to be confused with Apollonius of
Perga, a contemporary at the school)
replaces Zenodotus as librarian from
c270-245 BCE. Apollonius is best known
for his "Argonautika", a literary epic
retelling the ancient story of Jason
and the Argonauts' quest for the Golden
Fleece.
What is known of Apollonius' life comes
from two accounts taken from scholia.
Alexandrian by birth, Apollonius was
drawn to the center of Hellenistic
scholarship, the Library of Alexandria,
where he became a student of
Callimachus. Callimachus almost
exclusively wrote epigrams and other
short works, while Apollonius became
interested in epic poetry. Their
difference of opinions over the
appropriate length and style for poetry
led to a long and bitter literary feud,
which may have been exacerbated after
Ptolemy II chose Apollonius over his
teacher Callimachus for the prestigious
post of chief librarian.
The Argonautika differs in some
respects from traditional or Homeric
Greek epic, though Apollonius certainly
used Homer as a model. The Argonautika
is much shorter than Homer"s epics,
with four books totaling less than
6,000 lines, while the Iliad runs to
more than 15,000. Apollonius may have
been influenced here by Callimachus"
brevity, or by Aristotle"s demand for
"poems on a smaller scale than the old
epics, and answering in length to the
group of tragedies presented at a
single sitting" (Poetics), which is
true of the Argonautika.
Apollonius" epic also differs from the
more traditional epic in its weaker,
more human protagonist Jason and in its
many discursions into local custom,
aeitiology, and other popular subjects
of Hellenistic poetry. Apollonius also
chooses the less shocking versions of
some myths, having Medea, for example,
merely watch the murder of Apsyrtos
instead of murdering him herself. The
gods are relatively distant and
inactive throughout much of the epic,
following the Hellenistic trend to
allegorize and rationalize religion.
Heterosexual loves such as Jason"s are
more emphasized than homosexual loves
such as that of Herakles and Hylas are
less discussed, another trend in
Hellenistic literature. Many critics
regard the love of Medea and Jason in
the third book as the Argonautica"s
best written and most memorable
episode.
[265 BCE]
1st century CE that Hermippus, a
student of Callimachus writes a
commentary on the versus of Zoroaster
now. This implies that these stories
have been translated from Iranian to
Greek.
Pliny describes this work as a two
million line book which must be an
exaggeration.
[260 BCE]
from Alexandria is the first Greek
person to sail beyond the Red Sea,
through the Straight of Bab-El-Mandeb
(Gate of Tears) into the Indian Ocean.
[257 BCE]
Αρχιμή^
8;ης ) (287 Syracuse, Sicily
- 212 Syracuse, Sicily) is the first to
understand density (how mass and volume
are related). Archimedes makes a system
that is equivalent to the exponential
system to describe the amount of sand
needed to fill the universe. He makes
the best estimate of pi, builds a
mechanical model of the universe, and a
"screw of Archimedes".
Achimedes outlines methods
for calculating areas and volumes,
which later will form calculus.
Archimedes uses
levers to lift heavy objects, for
example the "claw of Archimedes"
supposedly used to lift or turn ships
over in the water. He reportedly
invented an odometer during the First
Punic War. He makes the "screw of
archimedes" (although is not the
first), a screw in a cylinder that when
turned moves water up and is still used
to move (pump) water. He makes a
mechanical planetarian, not proud of
his mechanical inventions (because this
kind of hobby is not common for humans
in philosophy) he prints only
mathematical ideas. He makes the best
estimate of pi by drawing polygons in a
circle and describes pi as being
between 223/71 and 220/70.
Archimedes may have
prevented one Roman attack on Syracuse
by using a large array of mirrors
(speculated to have been highly
polished (bronze?) shields) to reflect
and focus photons of light onto the
attacking ships causing them to catch
fire, although this has only been
duplicated for closely unmoving ships.
Archimedes also has been credited with
improving the accuracy and range of the
catapult.
The Archimedes work "The Sand Reckoner"
will be the primary source for future
people knowing that Aristarchos
understood that the earth and planets
rotate the sun, in addition to being
evidence that Archimedes and
Aristarchos talk to each other.
Archimedes screw devices are the
precursor of the worm gear.
Archimedes
calculates the oldest known example of
a geometric series with the ratio 1/4
(see image).
He proves that the ratio of a
circle's perimeter to its diameter is
the same as the ratio of the circle's
area to the square of the radius. He
does not call this ratio π but
gives a procedure to approximate it to
arbitrary accuracy and gave an
approximation of it as between 3 +
10/71 (approximately 3.1408) and 3 +
1/7 (approximately 3.1429). He proves
that the area enclosed by a parabola
and a straight line is 4/3 the area of
a triangle with equal base and height.
(see image)
Archimedes is the first to identify the
concept of center of gravity, and he
found the centers of gravity of various
geometric figures, assuming uniform
density in their interiors, including
triangles, paraboloids, and
hemispheres.
Asimov calls Archimedes the greatest in
science and math before Newton.
Archimedes is a
Greek mathematician, physicist,
engineer, astronomer, and philosopher
born in the seaport colony of Syracuse,
Sicily.
It's possible that in a long duration
seige that even the burning of a landed
ship from a roof might be of value.
Cicero writes that the Roman consul
Marcellus brought two devices back to
Rome from the sacked city of Syracuse.
One device mapped the sky on a sphere
and the other predicted the motions of
the sun and the moon and the planets
(i.e., an orrery). He credits Thales
and Eudoxus for constructing these
devices. For some time this was assumed
to be a legend of doubtful nature, but
the discovery of the Antikythera
mechanism has changed the view of this
issue, and it is indeed probable that
Archimedes possessed and constructed
such devices. Pappus of Alexandria
writes that Archimedes had written a
practical book on the construction of
such spheres entitled On
Sphere-Making.
Archimedes' works were not widely
recognized, even in antiquity. He and
his contemporaries probably constitute
the peak of Greek mathematical rigour.
During the Middle Ages the
mathematicians who could understand
Archimedes' work were few and far
between. Many of his works were lost
when the library of Alexandria was
burnt (twice) and survived only in
Latin or Arabic translations. As a
result, his mechanical method was lost
until around 1900, after the
arithmetization of analysis had been
carried out successfully. We can only
speculate about the effect that the
"method" would have had on the
development of calculus had it been
known in the 16th and 17th centuries.
Archimedes requests that his tombstone
include a cylinder circumscribing a
sphere, accompanied by the inscription
of his amazing theorem that the sphere
is exactly two-thirds of the
circumscribing cylinder in both surface
area and volume.
Writings by Archimedes
* On the Equilibrium of
Planes (2 volumes)
This scroll explains the law
of the lever and uses it to calculate
the areas and centers of gravity of
various geometric figures.
* On Spirals
In this scroll, Archimedes defines
what is now called Archimedes' spiral.
This is the first mechanical curve
(i.e., traced by a moving point) ever
considered by a Greek mathematician.
* On the Sphere and The Cylinder
In this scroll
Archimedes obtains the result he was
most proud of: that the area and volume
of a sphere are in the same
relationship to the area and volume of
the circumscribed straight cylinder.
* On Conoids and Spheroids
In this scroll
Archimedes calculates the areas and
volumes of sections of cones, spheres
and paraboloids.
* On Floating Bodies (2 volumes)
In the first
part of this scroll, Archimedes spells
out the law of equilibrium of fluids,
and proves that water around a center
of gravity will adopt a spherical form.
This is probably an attempt at
explaining the observation made by
Greek astronomers that the Earth is
round. Note that his fluids are not
self-gravitating: he assumes the
existence of a point towards which all
things fall and derives the spherical
shape. One is led to wonder what he
would have done had he struck upon the
idea of universal gravitation.
In the second part, a
veritable tour-de-force, he calculates
the equilibrium positions of sections
of paraboloids. This was probably an
idealization of the shapes of ships'
hulls. Some of his sections float with
the base under water and the summit
above water, which is reminiscent of
the way icebergs float, although
Archimedes probably was not thinking of
this application.
* The Quadrature of the Parabola
In this scroll,
Archimedes calculates the area of a
segment of a parabola (the figure
delimited by a parabola and a secant
line not necessarily perpendicular to
the axis). The final answer is obtained
by triangulating the area and summing
the geometric series with ratio 1/4.
* Stomachion
This is a Greek puzzle similar to
Tangram. In this scroll, Archimedes
calculates the areas of the various
pieces. This may be the first reference
we have to this game. Recent
discoveries indicate that Archimedes
was attempting to determine how many
ways the strips of paper could be
assembled into the shape of a square.
This is possibly the first use of
combinatorics to solve a problem.
* Archimedes' Cattle Problem
Archimedes wrote a
letter to the scholars in the Library
of Alexandria, who apparently had
downplayed the importance of
Archimedes' works. In these letters, he
dares them to count the numbers of
cattle in the Herd of the Sun by
solving a number of simultaneous
Diophantine equations, some of them
quadratic (in the more complicated
version). This problem is one of the
famous problems solved with the aid of
a computer. The solution is a very
large number, approximately 7.760271 ×
10206544 (See the external links to the
Cattle Problem.)
* The Sand Reckoner
In this scroll, Archimedes
counts the number of grains of sand
fitting inside the universe. This book
mentions Aristarchus of Samos' theory
of the solar system (concluding that
"this is impossible"), contemporary
ideas about the size of the Earth and
the distance between various celestial
bodies. From the introductory letter we
also learn that Archimedes' father was
an astronomer.
* "The Method"
In this work, which was unknown
in the Middle Ages, but the importance
of which was realised after its
discovery, Archimedes pioneered the use
of infinitesimals, showing how breaking
up a figure in an infinite number of
infinitely small parts could be used to
determine its area or volume.
Archimedes did probably consider these
methods not mathematically precise, and
he used these methods to find at least
some of the areas or volumes he sought,
and then used the more traditional
method of exhaustion to prove them.
Some details can be found at how
Archimedes used infinitesimals.
What an interesting group of people and
interesting time it must have been for
the people at the university in
Alexandria, perhaps unknown to them, to
be with the smartest and most
interesting humans on earth like
Aristarchos, Archimedes, Eritosthenes,
etc.). All people eat together at the
university which must have made for
some very enlightened conversations.
Archimedes' father is an astronomer.
Archimedes learns in Alexandria, and
decides to move back to Syracuse (which
is rare for most people in Alexandria)
perhaps because he is related to the
King of Syracuse Hieron II.
Archimedes is
independently wealthy and does not
depend on the wealth of royal people in
Egypt.
Archimedes is asked by Hieron if a
crown from a gold smith was really all
gold, or if the crown had silver mixed
in. Archimedes is told that he cannot
damage the crown in the determination.
Archimedes can not think of how to
solve the problem until one time he
steps in a bath and notes that the
water overflows. Archimedes realizes
that the amount of water that falls out
is equal to the volume of his body. If
put in water, Archimedes could measure
the volume of the crown, then measure
the weight of the crown, and compare
this weight with an equal volume of
pure gold. The crown and the piece of
gold with the same volume should weight
the same. If the crown weighes more
than the pure gold with the same
volume, then the crown is not pure
gold. Archimedes, excited by this
realization, ran naked through the
streets of Syracuse (although people
were not as disturbed by nudity then)
yelling "eureka! eureka!" (or
'Heureka'; Greek
ηὕρηκα;
I have found it). The crown is partly
silver and the goldsmith is executed.
Archimedes makes use of levers (Strato
was aware of the idea). Archimedes is
told to have said "give me a place to
stand and I can move the world". Hieron
is supposed to have challanged
Archimedes, and Archimedes said to have
lifted a ship from a harbor on to
shore.
[1] In the process, he calculated the
oldest known example of a geometric
series with the ratio 1/4 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arc
himedes
[2] parabola and inscribed triangle.
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Parabola.png
[250 BCE]
the most popular university in
philosophy is the Academy, but science
is moving to Alexandria.
[1] In the process, he calculated the
oldest known example of a geometric
series with the ratio 1/4 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arc
himedes
[2] parabola and inscribed triangle.
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Parabola.png
[250 BCE]
(Απολλώ
57;ιος ο
Περγαί_
9;ς ) (261 BCE Perga {south coast
of Turkey} - 190 BCE Pergamum?) is the
first to describe the ellipse,
parabola, and hyperbola.
Apollonius is
a Greek geometer and astronomer, of the
Alexandrian school.
Apollonios is educated at the
university in Alexandria, Apollonios
may have learned from Archimedes. Like
Euclid, Apollonois writes on math,
makes 8 "books", 7 of which have been
found. These writings include
descriptions of the ellipse, parabola
and hyperbola, 3 shapes Euclid did not
describe. All of these shapes can be
made by looking at a 2 dimensional
piece of a cone (and are called "conic
sections"). Kepler will make use of the
ellipse to describe the movement of
planets. He possibly thinks planets go
around the sun, and the sun goes around
earth, like Tycho Brahe will years
later. Late in life, Apollonius moves
from Alexandria to Pergamum, a city in
western Turkey (Asia Minor) that has a
library second only to Alexanmdria.
[246 BCE]
(ἘÏατοσθÎνης) (276 BCE
Cyrene now Shahat, on Libyan coast -
196 BCE Alexandria) is the first person
to accurately calculate the size of the
earth.
On the day of summer solstace, the
longest day of the year, the sun is
directly over head in Syene (now Aswan)
in southern egypt at the same time the
sun, Eratosthenes measure was degrees
from the (perpendicular)/zenith in
Alexandria. The difference is because
the surface of the earth is curved and
not flat. Erastosthenes is aware that
Syene and Alexandria are almost on the
same line of longitude (or meridian).
Eratosthene also knows the distance
between Syene and Alexandria
(Erastothenes hired a human to pace out
the distance between Alexandria and
Syene ), and used this distance and the
angle of the sun to calculate the
diameter of the planet earth. This
result was in units of measurement of
space called "stadia". Eratosthenes
calculates a distance between
Alexandria and Syene as 5,000 stadia,
and calculates that the angle of the
sun (in Alexandria at noon on the
longest day of the year) is 1/50th the
circumference of a circle. What size
the stade Eratosthenes uses is debated.
One source has Eratosthenes using the
Attic stade of 184.98m (606' 10") based
on 600 Attic feet of 308.3m each. This
puts the circumference Eratosthenes
measures at 46,245km (modern=40,000km)
or has an Egyptian Royal cubit of the
time as 525mm. For the most probable
length of a "stadia" the number
Eratosthenes got was 40,000 km (25,000
miles), this number is accurate (the
current estimate is 40,075.02 km). This
number appeared to be larger than most
humans could accept, the smaller value
of Poseidonius was accepted. From this
large number compared to the "known"
earth, Eratosthenes thought the various
seas formed a single interconnected
ocean. He teaches that Africa might be
circumnavigated, and that India can be
reached by sailing westwards from
Spain.
Eratosthenes makes the "Sieve of
Eratosthenes", a system for determining
prime numbers. Eratosthenes advised
adding an extra day every 4 years to
the Egyptian calendar, but this will
wait for Sosigenes 150 years later to
be officially done by Julius Caesar.
Eratosthenes makes a map of the "known"
earth, from the British Islands in the
East to Ceylon in the West, from the
Caspian Sea in the North to Ethiopia in
the South. This map is better than any
before. In astronomy, Eratosthenes
measures the angle of the earth's axis
with the plane the sun appears to move
in, and gets an accurate value. This
value is called the "obliquity of
ecliptic". Eratosthenes makes a star
map of 675 stars.
Around 255 BCE he invents the armillary
sphere, which will be widely used until
the invention of the orrery by
Posidonius (135-51 BCE).
Eratosthenes denounces those who divide
mankind into two groups, Greeks and
non-Greeks, and those, like Aristotle
and Isocrates who advised Alexander to
view the Greeks as friends and
non-Greeks as enemies. Eratosthenes
praises Alexander for disregarding this
attitude. Eratosthenes advocates the
Stoic moral principles of virtue and
vice as a criterion for the division of
men.
Eratosthenes is a friend of Archimedes.
Eratosthene
s' original writings on the measurement
of earth are lost, and all that have
been found are accounts of his work by
CLEOMEDES, PLINY, STRABO, PTOLEMY and
others.
The account of this measurement given
by CLEOMEDES explains that 1) the rays
of the Sun meeting the (spherical)
Earth are parallel, and at the summer
solstice, a gnomon at Alexandria
indicated a shadow of 1/50 of a
complete circle, while a gnomon at
Sy~n6 assumed to lie under the same
celestial meridian as Alexandria, on
the Tropic of Cancer, cast no shadow.
The distance between the two places is
5,000 stades. From this, (by applying
the ratio of distance from Alexandria
to Syene as equal to the ratio of 1/50
of a full circle), the circumference of
the Earth was calculated to be 50*5,000
= 250,000 stades.
Eratosthenes is the 3rd Head Librarian
of the Royal Library in Alexandria from
245-201 BCE. Eratosthenes is called
"Beta" by friends because they claim
that Eritosthenes is second best in
everything.
Eratosthenes was born in Cyrene, a
Greek colony in present-day Libya,
North Africa. His teachers include the
scholar Lysanias of Cyrene and the
philosopher Ariston of Chios who had
studied under Zeno, the founder of the
Stoic school of philosophy.
Eratosthenes also studies under the
poet and scholar Callimachus who was
also born in Cyrene. Eratosthenes then
spends some years studying in Athens.
After he
graduates from schools in Athens,
Ptolemy 3, impressed by Eritosthenes'
writings, asks him to be Head Librarian
of the Library in Alexandria.
Eratosthenes also tutors the son of
Ptolemy 3. (source?)
Eratosthenes gave a home to Eudoxes,
Euclid's brightest pupil, who became
the first of record to teach the
motions of the planets. Eratosthenes'
contemporaries at the museum included
Aristarchos of Samos (310-230 bce) the
first to recognize the earth and other
planets orbit the sun, Hipparchos, who
imported the 360-degree circular system
from Babylonia, and amassed charts of
starts and constellations, and
Herofilos and Erasistratos who
pioneered the study of human anatomy.
The library's access to Babylonian and
Egyptian knowledge gives it an
advantage against all competitors.
Because of a wide interest in many
sciences, Eratosthenes prefers to be
designated as 'philologus' as opposed
to 'grammaticus'. The Pinakes of
Callimachus (also from Cyrene) must be
a very valuable guide to Eratosthenes
in his search for information. In his
book "On the Measurements of the
Earth", Eritosthenes tries to determine
the distances of cities to each other
and their latitude and longitude. In
his main work "Geographica",
Eritosthenes shows his familiarity of
the earlier writings on geography,
looking at the works the "Itinerary"
and the works of Megasthenes and
Patrocles, explorers employed by the
rival Seleucid kingdom. As a result
Eratosthenes makes a complete revision
of the geographical map of this time.
Eratosthenes teaches that the apparent
original goal of the author of Homer is
to entertain and not to instruct as is
the prevailing view of the time. As a
stoic, Eratosthenes was more heretical
than the orthodox stoics such as
Strabo, who accuses Eratosthenes of not
mentioning Zeno, the founder of the
school, but only Zeno's dissedent pupil
Ariston, who founded a new branch of
Stoicism in Athens, and who was less
moralistic and more scientific than
Zeno.
[246 BCE]
requests to all leaders to borrow their
books {papyri scrolls} for copying.
When Athens lends him texts of
Euripides, Aeschylus, and Sophocles,
Ptolemy III has them copied, but keeps
the originals, cheerfully forfeiting
the fortune of fifteen talents he
deposited as bond. This amount is the
equivalent of the annual salary of 300
laborers in 5th century BCE Athens.
Ptolemy III refuses to send grain to
Athens during famine unless he is
allowed to borrow the master copies of
the above dramas.
Ptolemy III is the
first king to search ships for books.
Galen, explaining how a copy of
"Epidemics" (a work of the Hippocratic
medical corpus), which had once
belonged to Mnemon of Sidon, reached
the library recounts that customs
officials had orders from Ptolemy III
to confiscate from passing ships all
books they had, which were then copied.
The originals were deposited in the
Library, and marked in the catalog
"from the ships". Sometimes owners
received copies, but probably many
people sailed away from Alexandria
minus their first editions. Galen
writes that competition between the
kings of Pergamon and Egypt, in bidding
for old books, inflated the prices and
leads to forgeries being made. Galen
writes that the books from the ships
were first put in warehouses.
Seneca will claim that the Ptolemies
collect so many manuscripts not for
sake of learning but merely as
ornaments to display their wealth and
power.
Ptolemy III stops exporting papyrus to
stop the young library created by the
Selucids in Pergamon from competing. As
a replacement for papyrus, people in
Pergamon use cow skin.
[245 BCE]
Berenices ("Berenice's Hair") after
Ptolemy's wife Berenice II. She
sacrificed her hair in exchange for her
husband's safe return from the Third
Syrian War, which began in 246 BCE.
When the lock of hair disappeared,
Conon explained that the goddess had
shown her favor by placing it in the
sky. Not all Greek astronomers accepted
the designation. In Ptolemy's Almagest,
Coma Berenices is not listed as a
distinct constellation. However,
Ptolemy does attribute several seasonal
indications (parapegma) to Conon.
[240 BCE]
(Κόνων)
(circa 280 BCE Samos - circa 220 BCE
Alexandria) learns from Euclid, teaches
Archimedes.
Conon is the court
astronomer to Ptolemy III Euergetes.
He
named the constellation Coma Berenices
("Berenice's Hair") after Ptolemy's
wife Berenice II. She sacrificed her
hair in exchange for her husband's safe
return from the Third Syrian War, which
began in 246 BCE. When the lock of hair
disappeared, Conon explained that the
goddess had shown her favor by placing
it in the sky. Not all Greek
astronomers accepted the designation.
In Ptolemy's Almagest, Coma Berenices
is not listed as a distinct
constellation. However, Ptolemy does
attribute several seasonal indications
(parapegma) to Conon.
Conon was a friend of the mathematician
Archimedes. Apollonius of Perga
reported that he worked on conic
sections.
[240 BCE]
(Serapeum)
(Σεραπε
43;ου SRoPAU?) built
presumably to store surplus books of
the Royal Library.
The Sarapeion is a massive
raised acropolis of buildings.
The Serapeum is away from the main
library in the south west corner of
Alexandria, the Egyptian quarter of
Rhakotis. The Serapeum is called the
"daughter library". In the bilingual
foundation plaques, the name Serapis is
rendered in the Egyptian form of
Osor-Hapi (the Egyptian name is
Osorapis). Two obelisks (a thin 4 sided
monument becoming thinner up to the top
with a pyramidal top), are said to have
stood there as well as two red granite
sphinxes which are still at the site. A
black granite Apis bull (an egyptian
god) now in the Alexandria museum was
also in the Serapeum. This shows how
the vision of the Ptolemies was to
combine the Egyptian and Greek
populations.
Ptolemy 3 creates a temple of Serapis
in the South-West part of Alexandria,
some distance from the royal quarters.
: The excavations by Alan Rowe and
others in 1943-1944 will find
foundation plaques that clearly bear
the name of Ptolemy 3 Euergetes, even
though medieval writers will attribute
the Serapeum to Ptolemy 2 At the
southern end are two long corridors
opening into small rooms, and in
particular a row of 19 uniform rooms,
each about 3 by 4 meters. The
excavators theorize that these rooms
were used to shelve the scrolls of the
Serapeum library, and that the scrolls
were consulted in the corridors.
One source has
the Serapeum started under Ptolemy I
Soter but finished under Ptolemy 3 as
the foundation plaques excavated in
1942 indicate.
In the east end is a huge statue of the
god Serapeus (who looks like Zeus),
made of wood and covered with ivory and
gold, the outstretched arms nearly
reach the two side-walls. In the left
hand is a sceptre and under the right
hand was an image of Cerberus, with a
triple head of lion, dog and wolf, with
a python coiled around he three heads.
An east window behind the statue is
arranged so that the first rays of the
rising sun light up the features of the
god.
Under the plateau are underground
passages and storerooms.
Aphthonios (a Greek sophist and
rhetorician living in the second half
of the 4th century CE), in his
"Progymnasmata", an introductory book
on different kinds of rhetoric (fable,
narration, comparison, etc.), gives a
sample for the style of writing titled
"Description" that describes the
Sarapeion. Aphthonios writes:
"Description: the
temple in Alexandria, together with the
acropolis
Citadels are established for the common
security of cities - for they are the
highest points of cities. They are not
walled round with buildings, so much as
they wall round the cities. The centre
of Athens held the Athenian acropolis;
but the citadel which Alexander
established for his own city is in fact
what he named it, and it is more
accurate to call this an acropolis than
that on which the Athenians pride
themselves. For it is somewhat as this
discourse shall describe.
A hill juts out of the ground, rising
to a great height, and called an
acropolis on both accounts, both
because it is raised up on high and
because it is placed in the high-point
of the city. There are two roads to it,
of dissimilar nature. One is a road,
the other a way of access. The roads
have different names according to their
nature. Here it is possible to approach
on foot and the road is shared also
with those who approach on a wagon;
there flights of steps have been cut
and there is no passage for wagons. For
flight after flight leads higher and
higher, not stopping until the
hundredth step; for the limit of their
number is one which produces a perfect
measure.
After the steps is a gateway, shut in
with grilled gates of moderate size.
And four massive columns rise up,
bringing four roads to one entrance. On
the columns rises a building with many
columns of moderate size in front, not
of one colour, but they are fixed to
the edifice as an ornament. The
building's roof is domed, and round the
dome is set a great image of the
universe.
As one enters the acropolis itself a
single space is marked out by four
sides; the plan of the arrangement is
that of a hollow rectangle. There is a
court in the centre, surrounded by a
colonnade. Other colonnades succeed the
court, colonnades divided by equal
columns, and their length could not be
exceeded. Each colonnade ends in
another at right angles, and a double
column divides each colonnade, ending
the one and starting the other.
Chambers are built within the
colonnades. Some are repositories for
the books, open to those who are
diligent in philosophy and stirring up
the whole city to mastery of wisdom.
Others are established in honour of the
ancient gods. The colonnades are
roofed, and the roof is made of gold,
and the capitals {tops} of the columns
are made of bronze overlaid with gold.
The decoration of the court is not
single. For different parts are
differently decorated, and one has the
exploits of Perseus. In the middle
there rises a column of great height,
making the place conspicuous (someone
on his way does not know where he is
going, unless he uses the pillar as a
sign of the direction) and makes the
acropolis stand out by land and sea.
The beginnings of the universe stand
round the capital of the column. Before
one comes to the middle of the court
there is set an edifice with many
entrances, which are named after the
ancient gods; and two stone obelisks
rise up, and a fountain better than
that of the Peisistratids. And the
marvel had an incredible number of
builders. As one was not sufficient for
the making, builders of the whole
acropolis were appointed to the number
of twelve {by the dozen}.
As one comes down from the acropolis,
here is a flat place resembling a
race-course, which is what the place is
called; and here there is another of
similar shape, but not equal in size.
The beauty is unspeakable. If anything
has been omitted, it has been bracketed
by amazement; what it was not possible
to describe has been omitted."
[235 BCE]
265-202 BCE), experiments with air,
found that air expands with heat,
perhaps made air thermometer, noticed
that air was consumed by a burning
torch in a closed vessel.
Philon is a
Greek scholar and engineer who writes a
collection of books about the most
important mechanical inventions of the
time. Philon considers in his writings
the theoretical basis of mechanical
contrivances: the law of the lever for
pumps, war machines, and diving
devices. He describes an instrument for
the demonstration of the expansion of
air. This device might have been used
as a thermometer, one of the earliest
known.
Hero will also experiment with
air.
[235 BCE]
librarian of the library of Alexandria
and moves to Rhodes. Ptolemy III
Eurgetes appoints Eratosthenes to
replace Apollonius.
conflicts:
Ptolemy II Philadelphus appointed one
of Eratosthenes' teachers Callimachus
as the second librarian.
In 236 BC he
was appointed by Ptolemy III Euergetes
I as librarian of the Alexandrian
library, succeeding the first
librarian, Zenodotos, in that post.
[230 BCE]
Latin alphabet in Rome. Before this the
letter "C" could be either the "K" or
"G" sound, now the letter "G" will have
the "G" sound and the letter "C" will
only have the "K" sound. A more logical
system would be to not add any letter
"G", and to use the letter "C" only as
"G", "K" for all "K" sounds, but this
simple one letter equals one sound only
system is not recognized. This
confusion about how to pronounce the
letter "C" will continue for thousands
of years, persisting even today. Later
the letter "C" will also take on an "S"
and "CH" sound and "G" will take on the
"J" sound, adding to a simple and
unnecessary confusion.
The letter G is added to
the Latin alphabet in Rome, by Spurius
Carvilius Ruga, according to Plutarch.
The letter G is created by the Romans
because they feel that C is not an
adequate letter to represent both the k
and g (as in "good") sounds as is the
practice before this letter is
invented. So the letter "G" is created
by adding a stroke to the letter "C".
[230 BCE]
BCE 273-232), an Indian emperor, who
ruled the Maurya Empire across the
Indian subcontinent, establishes a
chain of hospitals in Hindustan around
this time.
Asoka founds hospitals for humans and
the other species and supplies medicine
to the public.
Asoka creates orders stopping violence
against animals.
[1] Ashoka the Great Mauryan
emperor Modern reconstruction of
Ashoka's portrait. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ashoka2.jpg
[2] A poltical map of the Mauryan
Empire, including notable cities, such
as the capital Pataliputra, and site of
the Buddha's enlightenment. Dark blue
represents the extend of the Mauryan
Empire under Emperor Ashoka, light blue
represents possible tributary states,
vassals or allies. Green blue
represents notable rivers, black
represetns modern political borders,
and brown represents the border of
South Asia. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mauryan_Empire_Map.gif
[212 BCE]
soldier during the sack of Syracuse
during the Second Punic War, despite
orders from the Roman general Marcellus
that he was not to be harmed. The
Greeks said that he was killed while
drawing an equation in the sand;
engrossed in his diagram and impatient
with being interrupted, he is said to
have muttered his famous last words
before being slain by an enraged Roman
soldier: Μη
μου
τους
κύκλου`
2;
τάραττ^
9; ("Do not disturb my circles").
[205 BCE]
scholars organized games, festivals,
and library comptetitions. It remained
a cult center directed by a Priest.
The main shrine of Apollo is in Delphi,
for Zeus in Olympus, and for the Muses
in Alexandria.
[204 BCE]
(c237-180bce) (different from
dramatist) replaces Eratosthenes as
fourth Head Librarian in Alexandria
from 204 to 189 BCE. Aristophanes is a
capable grammarian who introduces the
use of accents into the Greek Language.
Aristofanes seems to have less
magnetism on fellow scholars than
Eratosthenes did. After a 20
uneventful years, he will be succeeded
by the last recorded librarian,
Aristarchos of Samothrace (not to be
confused with Aristarchos of Samos, the
astronomer). Aristofanes grows up in
Egypt, and is head Librarian under
Ptolemy 4 Philopator (reigns 221-205
BCE). Vitruvius will write that
Aristophanes systematically read each
book in the library. As a judge in
poetry competitions Aristophanes could
recognize any borrowed lines in
addition to identifying the original
work. Aristophanes writes many
"hypotheseis", which are short
summaries that preface works. Much
information of lost works will reach
ppl of the future through these
hypotheseis. In his great
lexicographical work "Lexeis", he
separates words thought to be used by
ancient ppl (Palaioi) and words unknown
to ancient people, or new words
(Kainoterai).
[189 BCE]
librarian of Alexandria Library from
189-175 BCE.
[186 BCE]
(算數書) or "Writings
on Reckoning" is the earliest know
Chinese mathematical text.
This text was
found in the tomb of an anonymous civil
servant that consists of 1200 bamboo
strips written in ink that date to this
year. The Suà n shù shū consists
of 190 strips of bamboo written in ink.
They consist of 69 mathematical
problems from a variety of sources, two
of the authors were Mr Wáng and Mr
Yáng. Each problem has a question,
answer and a method. The problems cover
elementary arithmetic; fractions;
geometric progressions, in particular
interest rate calculations and
handelling of errors; conversion
between different units; the false
position method for finding roots and
the extraction of approximate square
roots; calculation of the volume of
various 3-dimensional shapes; relative
dimensions of a square and its
inscribed circle; Calculation of
unknown side of rectangle, given area
and one side. All the calculations
involving circles are aproximate,
equivilent to taking π = 3.
China
[1] The Nine Chapters on the
Mathematical Art Source:
http://www.chinapage.com/jiuzhang.gif P
D
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:%E4%B9%9D%E7%AB%A0%E7%AE%97%E8%A1%93.
gif
[175 BCE]
(Samothrace) (Greek:
Σαμοθρ^
0;κη, Samothraki) (not
Aristarchos of Samos the astronomer),
is the 6th Head Librarian in the
Alexandria Library from 175-145 BCE.
Aristarcos of Samothrake, is appointed
by Ptolemy VI Philometor, and is a
Homeric scholar. Alexandrian
scholarship is dominated by literary
criticism. Aristarchos of Samothrake's
work "Life" in the Suidas Lexicon shows
that he had 40 pupils, and wrote 800
books of commentary, probably covering
most Greek classics.
[173 BCE]
Πολυβι_
9;ς, c.203 BCE - 120 BCE) was a
Greek historian of the Mediterranean
world famous for his book called "The
Histories" or "The Rise of the Roman
Empire", covering the period of 220 BCE
to 146 BCE.
Polybius writes "It is no difficult
task to write from books provided one
resides in a city well equipped with
achives and a library". This is
evidence that public libraries were a
feature of most Hellenistic cities.
[160 BCE]
Ἳππαρχ
59;ς) (Nicaea {now Iznik in NW
Turkey} 190 BCE - 120 BCE), astronomer
in the Mouseion in Alexandria, uses a
solar eclipse to determine the distance
from the Earth to the Moon. Hipparchos,
is the first person to make a
trigonometric table, and is probably
first to develop a reliable method to
predict solar eclipses. Hipparchos
compiles a star catalog with 850 stars
and their relative brightness, and
probably invents the astrolabe.
Hipparchos does not use the
sun-centered system of Aristarchos, but
instead the mistaken earth-centered
system Anaxamander and the vast
majority of others chose to support.
Hipparchos
compares the position of the moon
compared to the sun during a solar
eclipse in Syene and in Alexandria to
determine the distance from the Earth
to the Moon.
Hipparchos recognizes precession
(how positions of stars appear to
change over centuries) perhaps from
Kidinnu of Babylonia, or from
previously recorded star positions.
Hipparchus
wrote at least fourteen books, but only
his commentary on a popular
astronomical poem by Aratus has been
preserved.
Most of what is known about Hipparchus
comes from Ptolemy's (2nd century AD)
Almagest, with additional references to
him by Pappus of Alexandria and Theon
of Alexandria (4th century) in their
commentaries on the Almagest; from
Strabo's Geographia ("Geography"), and
from Pliny the Elder's Naturalis
historia ("Natural history") (1st
century).
calculates a range of the distance of
the earth moon from earth is 60.3x.
worked in
Rhodes, an island in SE Aegean. used
aristarchus luner eclipse method (?)
and also measured parallax of earth
moon. Hipparchus measured distance from
earth to moon to be 30 times diameter
of earth. parallax of other planets can
only be measured with a telescope so
this distance was only distance
known/learned/remembered until
telescope.
Pliny will claim, in his
"Natural History", that Hipparchos
compiled his catalog of stars so that
future astronomers can detect changes
in positions and the possible
appearance of novae. Lucio Russo writes
that Edmund Halley, "probably without
realizing that he was completing an
experiment ... started two thousand
years earlier" will be the first to
notice this difference in 1718.
In the 2nd and 3rd centuries coins were
made in his honour in Bithynia that
bear his name and show him with a
globe; this confirms the tradition that
he was born there.
Hipparchus is believed to
have died on the island of Rhodes,
where he spent most of his later
life--Ptolemy attributes observations
to him from Rhodes in the period from
141 BC to 127 BC.
Hipparchus is recognized
as the originator and father of
scientific astronomy. He is believed to
be the greatest Greek astronomical
observer, and many regard him as the
greatest astronomer of ancient times,
although Cicero gave preferences to
Aristarchus of Samos. Some put in this
place also Ptolemy of Alexandria.
Hipparchus' writings had been mostly
superseded by those of Ptolemy, so
later copyists have not preserved them
for posterity.
Earlier Greek astronomers and
mathematicians were influenced by
Babylonian astronomy to a limited
extent, for instance the period
relations of the Metonic cycle and
Saros cycle may have come from
Babylonian sources. Hipparchus seems to
have been the first to exploit
Babylonian astronomical knowledge and
techniques systematically. He was the
first Greek known to divide the circle
in 360 degrees of 60 arc minutes
(Eratosthenes before him used a simpler
sexagesimal system dividing a circle
into 60 parts). He also used the
Babylonian unit pechus ("cubit") of
about 2° or 2½°.
Hipparchus also studied the motion of
the Moon and confirmed the accurate
values for some periods of its motion
that Chaldean astronomers had obtained
before him. The traditional value (from
Babylonian System B) for the mean
synodic month is 29 days;31,50,8,20
(sexagesimal) = 29.5305941... d.
Expressed as 29 days + 12 hours +
793/1080 hours this value has been used
later in the Hebrew calendar (possibly
from Babylonian sources). The Chaldeans
also knew that 251 synodic months = 269
anomalistic months. Hipparchus extended
this period by a factor of 17, because
after that interval the Moon also would
have a similar latitude, and it is
close to an integer number of years
(345). Therefore, eclipses would
reappear under almost identical
circumstances. The period is 126007
days 1 hour (rounded). Hipparchus could
confirm his computations by comparing
eclipses from his own time (presumably
27 January 141 BCE and 26 November 139
BCE according to {Toomer 1980}), with
eclipses from Babylonian records 345
years earlier (Almagest IV.2; {Jones
2001}).
Before Hipparchus, Meton, Euctemon, and
their pupils at Athens had made a
solstice observation (i.e., timed the
moment of the summer solstice) on June
27, 432 BC (proleptic Julian calendar).
Aristarchus of Samos is said to have
done so in 280 BC, and Hipparchus also
had an observation by Archimedes.
Hipparchus himself observed the summer
solstice in 135 BC, but he found
observations of the moment of equinox
more accurate, and he made many during
his lifetime. Ptolemy gives an
extensive discussion of Hipparchus'
work on the length of the year in the
Almagest III.1, and quotes many
observations that Hipparchus made or
used, spanning 162 BCE to 128 BCE. At
the end of his career, Hipparchus wrote
a book called Peri eniausÃou
megéthous ("On the Length of the
Year") about his results.
Before Hipparchus the Chaldean
astronomers knew that the lengths of
the seasons are not equal. Hipparchus
made equinox and solstice observations,
and according to Ptolemy (Almagest
III.4) determined that spring (from
spring equinox to summer solstice)
lasted 94 + 1/2 days, and summer (from
summer solstice to autumn equinox) 92 +
1/2 days. This is an unexpected result
given a premise of the Sun moving
around the Earth in a circle at uniform
speed. Hipparchus' solution was to
place the Earth not at the center of
the Sun's motion, but at some distance
from the center. This model described
the apparent motion of the Sun fairly
well (of course today we know that the
planets like the Earth move in ellipses
around the Sun, but this was not
discovered until Johannes Kepler
published his first two laws of
planetary motion in 1609). It's not
clear if Hipparchos or Ptolemy found
these values.
Hipparchus also undertook to find
the distances and sizes of the Sun and
the Moon. He published his results in a
work of two books called Peri megethoon
kai 'apostèmátoon ("On Sizes and
Distances") by Pappus in his commentary
on the Almagest V.11; Theon of Smyrna
(2nd century) mentions the work with
the addition "of the Sun and Moon".
Hipparchus measured the apparent
diameters of the Sun and Moon with his
diopter. Like others before and after
him, he found that the Moon's size
varies as it moves on its (eccentric)
orbit, but he found no perceptible
variation in the apparent diameter of
the Sun. He found that at the mean
distance of the Moon, the Sun and Moon
had the same apparent diameter
Like others before and after him, he
also noticed that the Moon has a
noticeable parallax, i.e., that it
appears displaced from its calculated
position (compared to the Sun or
stars), and the difference is greater
when closer to the horizon. He knew
that this is because the Moon circles
the center of the Earth, but the
observer is at the surface - Moon,
Earth and observer form a triangle with
a sharp angle that changes all the
time. From the size of this parallax,
the distance of the Moon as measured in
Earth radii can be determined. For the
Sun however, there was no observable
parallax (we now know that it is about
8.8", more than ten times smaller than
the resolution of the unaided eye).
In the first book, Hipparchus assumes
that the parallax of the Sun is 0, as
if it is at infinite distance. He then
analyzed a solar eclipse, presumably
that of 14 March 190 BC. Alexandria and
Nicaea are on the same meridian.
Alexandria is at about 31° North, and
the region of the Hellespont at about
41° North; authors like Strabo and
Ptolemy had fairly decent values for
these geographical positions, and
presumably Hipparchus knew them too. So
Hipparchus could draw a triangle formed
by the two places and the Moon, and
from simple geometry was able to
establish a distance of the Moon,
expressed in Earth radii. Because the
eclipse occurred in the morning, the
Moon was not in the meridian, and as a
consequence the distance found by
Hipparchus was a lower limit. In any
case, according to Pappus, Hipparchus
found that the least distance is 71
(from this eclipse), and the greatest
81 Earth radii.
In the second book, Hipparchus starts
from the opposite extreme assumption:
he assigns a (minimum) distance to the
Sun of 470 Earth radii. This would
correspond to a parallax of 7', which
is apparently the greatest parallax
that Hipparchus thought would not be
noticed (for comparison: the typical
resolution of the human eye is about
2'. In this case, the shadow of the
Earth is a cone rather than a cylinder
as under the first assumption.
Hipparchus observed (at lunar eclipses)
that at the mean distance of the Moon,
the diameter of the shadow cone (of the
earth) is 2+½ lunar diameters. That
apparent diameter is, as he had
observed, 360/650 degrees (of the sky).
With these values and simple geometry,
Hipparchus could determine the mean
distance; because it was computed for a
minimum distance of the Sun, it is the
maximum average distance possible for
the Moon. With his value for the
eccentricity of the orbit, he could
compute the least and greatest
distances of the Moon too. According to
Pappus, he found a least distance of
62, a mean of 67+1/3, and consequently
a greatest distance of 72+2/3 Earth
radii. With this method, as the
parallax of the Sun decreases (i.e.,
its distance increases), the minimum
limit for the mean distance is 59 Earth
radii - exactly the mean distance that
Ptolemy will later derive.
Hipparchus therefore had the
problematic result that his minimum
distance (from book 1) was greater than
his maximum mean distance (from book
2). He was intellectually honest about
this discrepancy, and probably realized
that especially the first method is
very sensitive to the accuracy of the
observations and parameters (in fact,
modern calculations show that the size
of the solar eclipse at Alexandria must
have been closer to 9/10 than to the
reported 4/5).
Ptolemy later measured the lunar
parallax directly (Almagest V.13)
(presumable against the position of a
star?), and used the second method of
Hipparchus' with lunar eclipses to
compute the distance of the Sun
(Almagest V.15). He will criticize
Hipparchus for making contradictory
assumptions, and obtaining conflicting
results (Almagest V.11): but apparently
he will fail to understand Hipparchus'
strategy to establish limits consistent
with the observations, rather than a
single value for the distance.
Hipparchos' results are the best until
his time: the actual mean distance of
the Moon is 60.3 Earth radii, within
his limits from book 2.
Pliny (Naturalis Historia II.X) tells
us that Hipparchus demonstrated that
lunar eclipses can occur five months
apart, and solar eclipses seven months
(instead of the usual six months); and
the Sun can be hidden twice in thirty
days, but as seen by different nations.
Ptolemy discussed this a century later
at length in Almagest VI.6. The
geometry, and the limits of the
positions of Sun and Moon when a solar
or lunar eclipse is possible, are
explained in Almagest VI.5. Hipparchus
apparently made similar calculations.
The result that two solar eclipses can
occur one month apart is important,
because this can not be based on
observations: one is visible on the
northern and the other on the southern
hemisphere - as Pliny indicates -, and
the latter was inaccessible to the
Greek.
Prediction of a solar eclipse, i.e.,
exactly when and where it will be
visible, requires a solid lunar theory
and proper treatment of the lunar
parallax. Hipparchus must have been the
first to be able to do this. A rigorous
treatment requires spherical
trigonometry, but Hipparchus may have
made do with planar approximations. He
may have discussed these things in Peri
tes kata platos meniaias tes selenes
kineseoos ("On the monthly motion of
the Moon in latitude"), a work
mentioned in the Suda.
Hipparchus is credited with the
invention or improvement of several
astronomical instruments, which were
used for a long time for naked-eye
observations. According to Synesius of
Ptolemais (4th century) he made the
first astrolabion: this may have been
an armillary sphere (which Ptolemy
however says he constructed, in
Almagest V.1); or the predecessor of
the planar instrument called astrolabe
(also mentioned by Theon of
Alexandria). With an astrolabe
Hipparchus was the first to be able to
measure the geographical latitude and
time by observing stars. Previously
this was done at daytime by measuring
the shadow cast by a gnomon, or with
the portable instrument known as
scaphion.
Ptolemy mentions (Almagest V.14) that
he used a similar instrument as
Hipparchus, called dioptra, to measure
the apparent diameter of the Sun and
Moon. Pappus of Alexandria described it
(in his commentary on the Almagest of
that chapter), as did Proclus
(Hypotyposis IV). It was a 4-foot rod
with a scale, a sighting hole at one
end, and a wedge that could be moved
along the rod to exactly obscure the
disk of Sun or Moon.
Hipparchus also observed solar
equinoxes, which may be done with an
equatorial ring: its shadow falls on
itself when the Sun is on the equator
(i.e., in one of the equinoctial points
on the ecliptic), but the shadow falls
above or below the opposite side of the
ring when the Sun is south or north of
the equator. Ptolemy quotes (in
Almagest III.1 (H195)) a description by
Hipparchus of an equatorial ring in
Alexandria; a little further he
describes two such instruments present
in Alexandria in his own time.
Contributions to geography: Hipparchus
applied his knowledge of spherical
angles to the problem of denoting
locations on the Earth's surface.
Before him a grid system had been used
by Dicaearchus of Messana, but
Hipparchus was the first to apply
mathematical rigor to the determination
of the latitude and longitude of places
on the Earth. Hipparchus wrote a
critique in three books on the work of
the geographer Eratosthenes of Cyrene
(3rd century BC), called Pròs tèn
'Eratosthénous geografÃan ("Against
the Geography of Eratosthenes"). It is
known to us from Strabo of Amaseia, who
in his turn criticised Hipparchus in
his own Geografia. Hipparchus
apparently made many detailed
corrections to the locations and
distances mentioned by Eratosthenes. It
seems he did not introduce many
improvements in methods, but he did
propose a means to determine the
geographical longitudes of different
cities at lunar eclipses (Strabo
Geografia 7). A lunar eclipse is
visible simultaneously on half of the
Earth, and the difference in longitude
between places can be computed from the
difference in local time when the
eclipse is observed. His approach would
give accurate results if it were
correctly carried out but the
limitations of timekeeping accuracy in
his era made this method impractical.
Previously, Eudoxus of Cnidus in the
4th century B.C. had described the
stars and constellations in two books
called Phaenomena and Entropon. Aratus
wrote a poem called Phaenomena or
Arateia based on Eudoxus' work.
Hipparchus wrote a commentary on the
Arateia - his only preserved work -
which contains many stellar positions
and times for rising, culmination, and
setting of the constellations, and
these are likely to have been based on
his own measurements.
Hipparchus made his measurements with
an equatorial armillary sphere, and
obtained the positions of maybe about
850 stars. It is disputed which
coordinate system he used. Ptolemy's
catalogue in the Almagest, which is
derived from Hipparchus' catalogue, is
given in ecliptic coordinates.
Hipparchus' original catalogue has not
been preserved today. However, an
analysis of an ancient statue of Atlas
(the so-called Farnese Atlas) published
in 2005 shows stars at positions that
appear to have been determined using
Hipparchus' data..
As with most of his work, Hipparchus
star catalogue has been adopted and
expanded by Ptolemy. It has been
strongly disputed how much of the star
catalogue in the Almagest is due to
Hipparchus, and how much is original
work by Ptolemy. Statistical analysis
(e.g. by Bradly Schaeffer, and others)
shows that the classical star catalogue
has a complex origin. Ptolemy has even
been accused of fraud for stating that
he re-measured all stars: many of his
positions are wrong and it appears that
in most cases he used Hipparchus' data
and precessed them to his own epoch
three centuries later, but using an
erroneous (too small) precession
constant.
In any case the work started by
Hipparchus has had a lasting heritage,
and has been worked on much later by Al
Sufi (964), and by Ulugh Beg as late as
1437. It was superseded only by more
accurate observations after invention
of the telescope.
Hipparchus (is the first?) ranks stars
in six magnitude classes according to
their brightness: he assignes the value
of one to the twenty brightest stars,
to weaker ones a value of two, and so
forth to the stars with a class of six,
which can be barely seen with the naked
eye. A similar system is still used
today (perhaps a system based on number
of photons received/second will be
next).
Hipparchus is perhaps most famous for
having discovered the precession of the
equinoxes. His two books on precession,
On the Displacement of the Solsticial
and Equinoctial Points and On the
Length of the Year, are both mentioned
in the Almagest of Claudius Ptolemy.
According to Ptolemy, Hipparchus
measured the longitude of Spica and
other bright stars. Comparing his
measurements with data from his
predecessors, Timocharis and
Aristillus, he realized that Spica had
moved 2° relative to the autumnal
equinox. He also compared the lengths
of the tropical year (the time it takes
the Sun to return to an equinox) and
the sidereal year (the time it takes
the Sun to return to a fixed star), and
found a slight discrepancy. Hipparchus
concluded that the equinoxes were
moving ("precessing") through the
zodiac, and that the rate of precession
was not less than 1° in a century.
Ptolemy followed up on Hipparchus' work
in the 2nd century AD. He confirmed
that precession affected the entire
sphere of fixed stars (Hipparchus had
speculated that only the stars near the
zodiac were affected), and concluded
that 1° in 100 years was the correct
rate of precession. The modern value is
1° in 72 years.
As far as is known, Hipparchus never
wrote about astrology, i.e. the
application of astronomy to the
(fraudulent albeit nonviolent and
legal) practice of divination.
[1] image of Hipparchos from coin?
http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/hist
ory/Mathematicians/Hipparchus.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hipparchos_1.jpeg
[2] hipparchos stamp UNKNOWN
source: http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac
.uk/history/PictDisplay/Hipparchus.html
[150 BCE]
SeLYUKuS, t: SeLYUKOS) of Seleucia (on
the Tigris River) (190BCE-?), agrees
with the sun-centered theory of
Aristarchos.
Seleukos views the universe as infinite
in size.
Seleukos may have used changes in
tides as evidence for a sun-centered
theory.
Seleukos lives in Babylonia and is
probably called "Chaldean" or
"Babylonian", but was probably part
Greek, and lives during the same time
as Hipparchos.
Strabo will explain that
Seleukos understood the yearly changes
of the tides from season to season,
revealing the fact that tides show a
maximum change in height with each
consecutive high tide (diurnal
inequality) during the solstice, and
minimum change of height difference of
consecutive high tides during the
equinox. This phenomenon is explained
by the fact that the earth is tilted to
the sun, during the solstice, but is
not tilted to the sun during the
equinox {add image}, although this
could be explained with a tilted sun in
an earth-centered theory. This
phenomenon will not be understood again
until G. H. Darwin in 1898.
Plutarch writes: Was {Timaeus} giving
the earth motion ..., and should the
earth ... be understoof to have been
designed not as confined and fixed but
as turning and revolving about, in the
way expounded later by Aristarchos and
Seleukos, the former assuming this as a
hypothesis and the latter proclaiming
it?"
Aetius will write, "Seleucus the
mathematician (also one of those who
think the earth moves) says that the
moon's revolution counteracts the
whirlpool motion of the earth".
[145 BCE]
Physcon, the last distinguished
librarian of the Alexandria Library
Aristarchos of Samothrace goes into
exile in the company of other scholars,
replaced by "Cydas of the spearmen"
(145-116? BCE ).
[143 BCE]
Chinese:石室中学
，文翁石室
，pinyin: shÃshì
zhōngxúe,wén wēng
shÃshì), founded during the Han
Dynasty by Wen Weng is the first local
Chinese public school, and is the
oldest middle school on earth today.
[140 BCE]
without writing) is made of hemp fibers
and comes from a tomb in China.
Before this
bamboo and silk are written on in
China.
The method of making paper by pouring
wood pulp mixed in water into a flat
mold and drying the sediment will take
over 1000 years to be understood in
Europe, although it will reach India in
the 600s CE.
Paper is considered one of the most
important inventions in history, since
it enabled China to develop its
civilization much faster than with
earlier writing materials (primarily
bamboo), and it did the same with
Europe when it was introduced in the
12th century or the 13th century.
[01/01/134 BCE]
(supernova) in Scorpio (according to
Pliny), around age 56, and decides to
make a star map of more than 1000 of
the brighter stars. His interest in the
fixed stars may have been inspired by
the observation of this supernova
(according to Pliny), or by his
discovery of precession (according to
Ptolemy, who will write that Hipparchos
could not reconcile his data with
earlier observations made by Timocharis
and Aristyllos). This map is better
than any previous star maps (including
those of Eudoxus and Eratosthenes).
Hipparchus uses the lines of latitude
and longitude of Dicaearchus 150 years
before to map the stars. In comparing
the current location of stars with
earlier recorded locations, Hipparchos
finds that there is a uniform shift
from west to east, and recognizes that
the north celestial pole moves in a
slow circle, completing 1 cycle in
26,700 years. This results in the
equinox arriving earlier each year and
is called the "precession of the
equinoxes". Not until Copernicus was
this explained as the slow "wobble" of
the earth, not the movement of the
stars.
[127 BCE]
Cleopatra II, her brother Ptolemy VIII
Euergetes II (Greek:
Πτολεμ^
5;ίος
Ευεργέ`
4;ης) (c. 182 BC - 26 June
116 BC), nicknamed Physcon ("Potbelly"
or "Bladder") for his obesity, destroys
much of the city of Alexandria.
Athenaeus will write around 200 CE: "It
appears the scholars of the Museum, the
artists, and even the physicians,
shocked at the horrors and violence
perpetrated, left Alexandria, and that
the islands and mainland of Greece were
filled with refugee grammarians,
philosophers, geometers, musicians,
painters, physicians, and other learned
men, who, obliged by necessity to teach
what they knew, soon became
celebrated." Clearly the Mousaeion
recovers after this.
[120 BCE]
voyage from Egypt to India which opens
a new trade route. This happens only
after the Greek people in Alexandria
learn about the timing of the monsoon.
[01/01/105 BCE]
Ποσειδa
4;νιος)
(POSiDOnEuS) (135 BCE Apamea, Syria -
50 BCE) calculates the largest and most
accurate size for the sun, even larger
than Aristarchos' calculation. Ptolemy
will accept Poseidonios' inaccurate
smaller estimate for the size of the
earth, and reject the correct estimate
of Eratosthenes, and this inaccurate
value will last for 1500 years.
Poseidonios forms a school in Rhodes.
Poseidoni
os is a Greek Stoic philosopher,
politician, astronomer, geographer,
historian, and teacher. He is acclaimed
as the greatest polymath of his age.
None of his vast body of work can be
read in its entirety today as it exists
only in fragments.
Like Pytheas, Poseidonios thinks that
the moon causes the tides, and goes
west to the Atlantic ocean to study
tides. Poseidonios uses Canopus in
place of the sun in order to calculate
the size of the earth, but his
measurement is too small (as described
by Strabo the only source for this
data). Ptolemy will accept this lower
number, instead of accurate calculation
made by Eratosthenes, and this will be
the accepted value of the Earth's
circumference for the next 1,500 years,
and may influence Christopher Columbus
that the earth can be circumnavigated.
Poseidonius supports the pseudoscience
of astrology.
He attempted to measure the distance
and size of the Sun. In about 90 BCE
Posidonius estimated the astronomical
unit to be a0/rE = 9893, which was
still too small by half. In measuring
the size of the Sun, however, he
reached a figure larger and more
accurate than those proposed by other
Greek astronomers and Aristarchus of
Samos.
Posidonius also calculated the size and
distance of the Moon.
Posidonius constructed an orrery,
possibly similar to the Antikythera
mechanism. Posidonius's orrery,
according to Cicero, exhibited the
diurnal motions of the sun, moon, and
the five known planets.
[100 BCE]
BCE) is the first philosopher in
Alexandria of record. Antiochus is a
member of the Academy, and teaches
Cicero in Athens. Antiochus is
mentioned in Cicero's "Academica" as a
supporter of the Old Academy, in
opposition to the more skeptical trend
of the Middle and New Academy.
Antiochus tries to blend Plato,
Aristotle and Zeno, and this will
contribute to the rise of neoplatonism.
[100 BCE]
the waterwheel is mainly used to mill
flour but will be used for a variety of
purposes where a spinning motor can be
used.
[100 BCE]
establish hospitals (valetudinaria) for
the treatment of their sick and injured
soldiers.
Care of the soldiers is important
because the power of Rome is based on
the legions.
These hospitals are identified only
according to the layout of building
remains, and not by surviving records
or finds of health science tools.
[80 BCE]
μηχανι`
3;μός των
Αντικυ_
2;ήρων) used to
display the positions of astronomical
objects (like planets). This is the
oldest analog computer, and
differential gear (links two shafts in
a casing, constraining the sum of the
rotational angles of the shafts to
equal the rotational angle of the
casing) yet found. This object may be
evidence that the sun centered theory
first identified by Aristarcos of Samos
may have been more popular than
previously thought.
[76 BCE]
Cicero, Roman politician, and
philosopher writes many works, that
will be preserved by Christians, which
will help to understand the history of
Rome in this time.
[75 BCE]
is in the Chinese mathematics book "The
Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art"
(Jiu-zhang Suanshu). Negative numbers
are in read and positive numbers in
black.
"The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical
Art" lays out an approach to
mathematics that centers on finding the
most general methods of solving
problems, which may be contrasted with
the approach common to ancient Greek
mathematicians, who tended to deduce
propositions from an initial set of
axioms.
[1] The Nine Chapters on the
Mathematical Art Source:
http://www.chinapage.com/jiuzhang.gif P
D
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:%E4%B9%9D%E7%AB%A0%E7%AE%97%E8%A1%93.
gif
[70 BCE]
important Empiricist in the history of
the school practices human anatomy,
develops surgical techniques, while
maintaining the Empiricist experimental
method of curing. He writes a book on
drugs, dietics, and a history of the
Empirical school. Many of these
writing will only reach people of the
future from Arabic translations.
He was the most famous of the Empirical
physicians of his day. He made
experiments on the properties of opium.
[60 BCE]
BCE) is a Greek historian, born at
Agyrium in Sicily (now called Agira, in
the Province of Enna).
Diodorus' history,
which he named "Bibliotheca Historia"
("Historical Library"), consistes of
forty books, which were divided into
three sections. The first six books are
geographical in theme, and describe the
history and culture of Egypt (book I),
of Mesopotamia, India, Scythia, and
Arabia (II), of North Africa (III), and
of Greece and Europe (IV - VI). In the
next section (books VII - XVII), he
recounts the history of the World
starting with the Trojan War, down to
the death of Alexander the Great. The
last section (books XVII to the end)
concerns the historical events from the
successors of Alexander down to either
60 BCE or the beginning of Caesar's
Gallic War in 45 BCE. (The end has been
lost, so it is unclear whether Diodorus
reached the beginning of the Gallic War
as he promised at the beginning of his
work or, as evidence suggests, old and
tired from his labors he stopped short
at 60 BCE.)
[60 BCE]
as Philo of Alexandria and as Philo
Judeaus, is a Hellenized Jewish
philosopher born in Alexandria, Egypt.
Philo is thought to be the pre-cursor
to the Judeo-Christian school of
thought. Philo Judeaus believes in the
Old Testiment, and studies Greek
philosophy.
Philo's conception of the matter out of
which the world was created is similar
to that of Plato and the Stoics.
According to him, God does not create
the world-stuff, but finds it ready at
hand. God cannot create it, as in its
nature it resists all contact with the
divine. Sometimes, following the
Stoics, he designates God as "the
efficient cause,"and matter as "the
affected cause." He seems to have found
this conception in the Bible (Gen. i.
2) in the image of the spirit of God
hovering over the waters ("De Opificio
Mundi," § 2 ).
Philo, again like Plato and the Stoics,
conceives of matter as having no
attributes or form; this, however, does
not harmonize with the assumption of
four elements. Philo wrongly views
matter as evil, on the ground that no
praise is meted out to it in Genesis
("Quis Rerum Divinarum Heres Sit," §
32 ). As a result, he rejects an actual
Creation, but accepts only a formation
of the world, as Plato holds.
Philo frequently compares God to an
architect or gardener, who formed the
present world (the
κόσμος
ἀισϑητ
72;ς) according to a pattern, the
ideal world
(κόσμος
νοητός).
Philo takes the details of his story of
the Creation entirely from Gen. i. A
specially important position is
assigned here to the Logos, which
executes the several acts of the
Creation, as God cannot come into
contact with matter, actually creating
only the soul of the good.
Philo's works will be enthusiastically
received by early Christians, some of
whom see a Christian in him.
Eusebius will later speculate that the
Therapeutae, the Jewish group of
ascetic hermits in the Egyptian desert
that Philo describes in De vita
contemplativa ("Contemplative Life") is
in fact a Christian group, but being
written in 10 CE they cannot be,
although they may be similar to early
christian monastic groups.
Philo himself claims in his Embassy to
Gaius to have been part of an embassy
sent by the Alexandrian Jews to the
Roman Emperor Gaius. Philo says he was
carrying a petition which described the
sufferings of the Alexandrian Jews, and
which asked the emperor to secure their
rights.
His account of the Creation is almost
identical with that of Plato; he
follows the latter's "Timaeus" closely
in his exposition of the world as
having no beginning and no end. Like
Plato, he places the creative activity
as well as the act of creation outside
of time, on the Platonic ground that
time begins only with the world. The
influence of Pythagorism appears in
number-symbolism, to which Philo
frequently refers.
[56 BCE]
light as being made of tiny atoms that
move very fast.
Lucretius describes light as
being made of tiny atoms that move very
fast.
Lucretius describes light and heat as
being made of tiny atoms that move very
fast.
Heat, itself relates to the velocity of
atoms over a given volume of space,
however, light particles in the
infrared contribute to that motion and
therefore are particles that contribute
to the phenomenon of heat.
Lucretius (LYUKREsEuS), Titus Lucretius
Carus, Roman poet and philosopher,
writes "De Natura Rerum" (On the Nature
of things) which describes a mechanical
Epikourean view of universe in a
(longer than average) poem. Influenced
by Democritus, Lucretius supports the
idea that all things are made of atoms
including souls and even gods. Like
Epikouros, Lucretius thinks that the
Gods are not concerned with the lives
of humans, and death is not to be
feared. In addition Lucretius thinks
that there is no after life, only
peaceful nothingness. Lucretius is the
first to divide human history in to the
stone age, bronze age, and iron age.
Lucretius is the boldest person of this
time to speak out against religion,
superstition and mysticism.
[50 BCE]
[48 BCE]
Caesar may have burned only some
storehouses of books, or may have
partially or completely burned the
Royal Library too, but in any event,
the Royal Mouseion (which possibly
housed the Royal Library) and Sarapeion
survived undamaged.
In the Roman civil war,
defeated Roman general Pompey came to
Egypt seeking refuge from his pursuing
rival Julius Caesar. Initially, the 13
year old Ptolemy XIII Philopator
(Greek:
Πτολεμ^
5;ίος
Θεός
Φιλοπά`
4;ωρ, 62 BCE/61 BCE - January
13, 47? BCE, reign 51 BCE- 47? BCE) and
his regent Pothinus pretended to have
accepted his request, but on September
29, 48 BCE, Pothinus himself murders
the general, in hopes of winning favor
with Caesar when the victorious general
arrives. When Caesar did arrive he was
presented with the head of his deceased
rival and former ally, but reportedly,
instead of being pleased, reacted with
disgust and ordered that Pompey's body
be located and given a proper Roman
funeral. Cleopatra 7, suspicious of her
brother Ptolemy XIII, hides inside a
rolled carpet and is brought to see
Caesar. Caesar is attracted to
Cleopatra 7 and sides with her against
her brother Ptolemy XIII. Caesar
arranges the execution of Pothinus and
the official return to the throne of
Cleopatra VII, though she never
officially ends her marriage to Ptolemy
XIII.
Civil war starts in Egypt between
Ptolemy XIII, who is 13 and Caesar
allied with Cleaopatra VII. Caesar
himself describes what happens. At sea
his ships are outnumbered by Ptolemy
XIII's ships, and on land Caesar and
his troops are cut off from fresh
water. 50 additional warships join
Ptolemy XIII and Caesar might lose
control of the harbor and sea and
therefore be cutoff from any help he
might be able to get. Caesar orders
his troops to set fire to all P13's
ships at sea and the ships that lay in
the dockyards. Caesar lands his troops
on the Isle of Pharos. In "Alexandrian
War", Caesar never mentions destroying
the library, and a lieutenant follows
after the writing of Caesar by saying
that none of the buildings in
Alexandria burned because they were
made of stone, although at least one
source claims that both Caesar and the
lieutenant sound apologetic. In
addition, the author of "Alexandrian
War" later describes how the
Alexandrians, in their attempt to
rebuild their ships, were short of oars
and resorted to lifting the roofs from
porticos, gymnasia, and public
buildings to use their beams as oars,
revealing that some buildings had
wooden roofs.
Livy writes that the Library has over
400,000 scrolls at this time. One wall
of the palace (with Julius Caeser
trapped inside) faces the sea, this
wall is the side Achillas' (a Roman
General in charge of the Egyptian army)
ships launch an unsuccessful attack on.
Luciano Canfora speculates that "from
this wing pitch-soaked torches are
thrown onto the ships". Fire burns
buildings adjacent to the harbor.
Warehouses and depots where 'grain and
books' are stored. These buildings
contain 'by chance' some 40,000 scrolls
of excellent quality {this may be where
books from the ships were temporarily
stored, or may have been scrolls ready
for import or export as part of a large
trade in hand written scroll copies,
many of which may yet be found
sometime, although perhaps decayed by
now, although the 40,000 may have been
only a small portion of the royal
library, perhaps prepared to be moved
to Rome by Caesar. The key words in the
description of Orosius are "by
chance"}. This important info comes
from Dion Cassius and Orosius, both who
drew material from Livy, as did Lucan.
By the accounts of Dion Cassius and
Orosius, the scrolls burned are clearly
unconnected to the Library collection.
Orosius would never have paraphrased
Livy as describing books there "by
chance". Clearly books were export
goods, perhaps on their way to Rome, or
other cultered cities whose needs are
supplied by the industrious Alexandrian
booksellers.
Lucan (executed by Nero in 65 CE)
states that "beyond the ships the fire
spread into other quarters of the
city...The buildings close to the sea
caught fire; the wind lent force to the
powers of disaster; the flames...ran
over the roofs at meteoric speed.'
Senaca the
Stoic philosopher (also executed by
Nero in 65 CE), states that "40,000
books were burnt in Alexandria during
Caesar's war."
By the end of the 1st century
CE Plutarch (of Chaeronea) writes in
"Life of Caesar" (49.3): "When the
enemy tried to cut off his fleet,
Caesar was forced to repel the danger
by using fire, which spread from the
dockyards and destroyed the "Great
Library" {megale bibliotheke}".
Plutarch will visit Alexandria probably
after his education in Athens, and so
probably will visit the Mouseion and
find out for himself that its "Great
Library" is no longer in existence
since its destruction in Caesar's war.
Aulus
Gellius will write in the second
century CE that nearly 700,000 books
are "all burned during the sack of the
city in our first war in Alexandria,
not intentionally or by anyone's order,
but accidentally by the auxiliary
soldiers."
Ammianus Marcellinus in the fourth
century writes "burning down by fire of
a priceless library 700,000 books
during the Alexandrian war when the
city was destroyed in the time of
Caesar, the dictator".
Seneca indicates 40,000
scrolls lost, but Aulus Hirtius write
nothing, Cicero, a bibliophile and
gossip critical of Julius Caesar writes
nothing, even eyewitness Strato does
not mention Caesar's fire destoying the
Library.
(delete?
The Mousaeion flourishes until 3rd cent
CE. Plutarch is anti-cesar, Cesar ends
with fire, general states alexandria
didn't burn made of stone, dio
cassius=only docks and storehouses for
grain and books {copies for export}
burned
)
Dio Cassius in early third century, in
his account of the Alexandrian war,
states "many places were set on fire,
so that among others were also burned
to ashes, the arsenal {neorion, a
building of weapons}, the storehouses
{apothecae} of the grain, and of the
books, which are said to be of great
number and excellence". "Apothecae" is
also used by Galen to mean book stacks
of the Royal Library. Galen will write
that "the assistants used to inscribe
the name of the owner or supplier
before the books were deposited in the
book-stacks {apothecae}". To start
they lay books in heaps in certain
houses (accession rooms), and from
there they then "take them for use in
the libraries {bibliothecae}". The
Greek word
αποθήκ_
1; currently translates to "storehouse"
and "deposit". Some people translate
this statement as "many places were set
on fire, with the result that the docks
and storehouses of grain among other
builds were burned, and also the
library, whose volumes, it is said,
were of the greatest number and
excellence."
Plutarch may confuse the reference to
"bibliothekas"
βιβλιο_
2;ήκας, taken to
mean "deposits of books" (Dion Cassius
uses the same phrase) also used to mean
Libraries, although Plutarch appears to
have visited Alexandria.
Livy's "History of Rome" text is
probably the source for the report of
40,000 or 400,000 books burned by
Caesar's fire. This book was lost by
641 CE, but in Senaca's "On tranquility
of the soul", Senaca will state "of
what use are books without number and
complete collections if their owner
barely finds time in the course of his
life even to read their titles? At
Alexandria, 40,000 books were burned.
Let someone else praise this finest
monument of royal wealth, as Livy did,
who says that it was the outstanding
achievement of the good taste and care
of kings.", Orosius probably will read
the same Livy passage Seneca here
attacks. This part is probably based on
Livy's "History of Rome", the relevent
part has not yet been found.
Dio Cassius, a
historian of the early third century
AD, writes "After this many battles
took place between them {the armies of
Caesar and Cleopatra with the armies of
Ptolemy XIII} by day and night, and
many parts were set on fire, so that
among other places the docks and the
grain warehouses were burnt, and also
the books, which were, they say, very
many and excellent.".
Ammianus Marcellinus (~330 to
~393), a historian of the 4th century
CE, states: "In addition there are {in
Alexandria} temples with elevated
roofs, among which the Serapeum stands
out. Although it cannot be done justice
with an inadequate description, it is
so adorned with great columned halls,
and statuary which seems almost alive,
and a great number of other works,
that, apart from the Capitolium, by
which the venerable city of Rome claims
eternal renown, nothing more
magnificent can be seen in the whole
world. In this temple were libraries
beyond calculation, and the trustworthy
testimony of ancient records agrees
that 700,000 books, brought together by
the unsleeping care of the Ptolemaic
kings, were burned in the Alexandrian
war, when the city was sacked under the
dictator Caesar." Here, Ammianus
clearly has mistaken the Serapeum for
the main library in the Brucheion
district, which makes this account
suspect. His figure of 700,000 scrolls
agrees with Aulus Gellius.
Orosius, a Christian
chronicler of the 5th century CE,
writes "In the course of the battle,
the royal fleet, which happened to have
been hauled onto the shore, was ordered
to be set on fire, and that fire, when
it had spread also to a part of the
city, burned 400,000 {one copy of this
text has 40,000, the best copies have
40,000} books which happened to be
stored in a nearby building, a
remarkable record of the zeal and
efforts of our forebearers, who had
collected so many great works of human
genius."
Caesar states at the time of the fire
that he is in one of the palaces.
Knowing that, it is doubtful that just
the Library would have burned without
the rest of the royal area being burned
too. Enemies of Caesar, in particular
Cicero, never mention Caesar burning
the great library. Strabo gives an
eyewitness account of the Mousaeion 20
years later which does not include
descriptions of any damage. It's
possible the story grew from a
warehouse of books to the Royal
Library, or simply a mistake of similar
words. Livy's "History of Rome" is
perhaps first to have the story, then
Seneca in the 1st century ce has 40,000
books burned, Plutarchs version is
next in the first century CE and has
the Library being destroyed, Dio
Cassius in late 200s has storehouses of
grain and books on the docks being
burned, Ammianus in the 300s has the
Library, in the 400s Orosius has 40,000
(or 400,000) books stored in nearby
buildings.
Strabo, 20 years after Caesar's death,
visits Alexandria, and provides the
best description of the ancient city:
the harbor, the temples, the theatre,
the Sema, and the Mouseion, but not one
word about the Library (although Strabo
also does not mention the Sarepeum).
It is unusual for the Library to be on
fire but not the Mouseion which Strabo
clearly indicates is intact after the
time of Caesar. There appears to be no
interruption in scholarly work at the
Museum; Didymus Chalcenterus (ca. 63 BC
to AD 10), worked before Caesar to the
time of Augustus with no apparent
interruption.
There is some evidence that the fire
did destroy a separate Royal Library
building from Strabo in the passage:
"For Eratosthenes takes all these as
matters actually established by the
testimony of the men who had been in
the regions, for he has read many
treatises with which he was well
provided having at his disposal such a
very large library as Hipparchus
himself asserts it was." indicating
that the library available to
Eratosthenes which Hipparchus described
is no more and so Strato cannot check
for himself the many original
geographical reports, or perhaps Strabo
means that the library then was somehow
bigger or better then the library now,
or that many of those reports have
since been lost for some other reason
(age, decay, replacement) besides the
Caesar fire. Possibly, the reason
Strabo does not mention the loss of the
royal library is because of an imposed
ban on the subject under the
Julio-Claudian family.
Even if the Royal Library was
destroyed, the Royal Mouseion probably
had a large collection of scrolls, the
Serapeum, and the Caesareion also had
considerable amounts of scrolls.(?)
The continued existence of the Library
is also supported by an ancient
inscription found in the early 20th
century, dedicated to Tiberius Claudius
Balbillus of Rome (d. AD 56). As noted
in the "Handbuch der
Bibliothekswissenschaft" (Georg Leyh,
Wiesbaden 1955):
"We have to understand the
office which Ti. Claudius Balbillus
held {...}, which included the title
'supra Museum et ab Alexandrina
bibliotheca', to have combined the
direction of the Museum with that of
the united libraries, as an academy."
Athenaeus (c. AD 200) wrote in detail
in the Deipnosophistai about the wealth
of Ptolemy II (309-246 BC) and the type
and number of his ships. When it came
to the Library and Museum, he wrote:
"Why should I now have to point to the
books, the establishment of libraries
and the collection in the Museum, when
this is in every man's memory?"
Athenaeus views both places to be so
famous that it is not necessary to
describe them in detail, so certainly
some of the Alexandrian libraries were
still in operation at the time.
Clearly the Mouseion survives and if
many original scrolls were burned, the
library must have been rebuilt
(although perhaps missing some precious
original writings), because Philostraus
in the third century, describes people
receiving the privilege of free meals
at the Mouseion from Hadrian (76 CE-138
CE).
[45 BCE]
philosopher) of Augustus in Athens (not
to be confused with Alexandrian
historian Didymus Chalcenterus), writes
a summary (compendium, epitome) of the
four leading philosophic schools, the
Peripatetic, Academic, Stoic, and
Epicurean. Arius Didymus continues the
blending of the major philosophies
started by Antiochus of Ascalon. In
Alexandria this new fusion of
philosophies will result in two major
groups, one which develops within the
religious thought of Jewish and later
Christian philosophers, and the other
formulated by Pagan philosophers.
[45 BCE]
Julius Caesar adopts this calendar on
the advice of he astronomer Sosigenes
of Alexandria. This calendar has 365
days divided into 12 months, with a
leap day added to February every four
years. This calendar will last until
1582 when replaced by the Gregorian
calendar.
Caesar changes the previous calendar
which is based on lunar months and the
cycle of Meton to a solar calendar
(like the calendar used in Egypt) based
on 365 day years (plus a 366 day year,
unlike Egypt, every fourth year)
Little is known about Sosigenes. There
are only 2 mentions of him by Pliny the
Elder:
"... There were three main schools,
the Chaldaean, the Egyptian, and the
Greek; and to these a fourth was added
in our country by Caesar during his
dictatorship, who with the assistance
of the learned astronomer Sosigenes
brought the separate years back into
conformity with the course of the
sun."
In Pliny book 2, 8, indicates that
Sosigenes thought that Mercury goes
around the Sun:
(get modern translation)
"Next upon it,
but nothing of that bignesse and
powerful efficacie, is the starre
Mercurie, of some cleped Apollo: in an
inferiour circle hee goeth, after the
like manner, a swifter course by nine
daies: shining sometimes before the
sunne rising, otherwhiles after his
setting, never farther distant from him
than 23 degrees, as both the same
Timæus and Sosigenes doe shew."
[45 BCE]
100-44), is declared dictator for life
by the Roman Senate. Some historians
consider this to be the end of the
Roman Republic, a representative
democracy and the start of the Roman
Empire, a monarchy. From this time on,
Julius Caesar's family name "Caeser"
will be used as a title for a supreme
ruler, which is the meaning of the word
"Kaiser" in German, "tsar" in the
Slavonic languages, and "qaysar" in
Arabic languages.
[1] Description: Büste des Gaius
Iulius Caesar PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Giulio-cesare-enhanced_1-800x1450.jpg
[2] Julius Caesar PD
source: http://www4.vjc.edu/ENG36002Sp02
/discuss/msgReader$35
[41 BCE]
Chaeronea) in the first century CE, at
this time, Marcus Antonius sends
scrolls from the Pergamum library to
Cleaopatra VII, theoretically to make
good on the loss of scrolls from the
Caesar fire.
Plutarch will write in "Life of
Antony": "Calvisius, who was a
companion of Caesar, brought forward
against Antony the following charges
also regarding his behaviour towards
Cleopatra: he had bestowed upon her the
libraries from Pergamum, in which there
were two hundred thousand volumes;" and
then goes on to write "However, most of
the charges thus brought by Calvisius
were thought to be falsehoods", so this
shipment of books is doubtful. This
claim that Marc Antony sent the
Pergamum library to Clepoatra VII is
evidence, even if untrue, that a
library (although perhaps the Serapeum
or Mousaeion) is still in existence in
the first century CE, which leaves only
the Christian destruction and the
Islamic destruction.
[40 BCE]
Vitruvius Pollio, Roman engineer and
writer, writes a book "De
architectura", 10 books on
architecture.
Vitruvius is the author of "De
architectura", known today as "The Ten
Books of Architecture", a treatise in
Latin on architecture, dedicated to the
emperor Augustus. It is the only
surviving major book on architecture
from classical antiquity.
Vitruvius speaks highly
of the Greek Engineer Ctesibius. The
books of Vitruvius deal with astronomy,
acoustics, and contruction of different
kinds of sundials and water-wheels.
Vitruvius thinks the axis of the earth
is set in bearings. Vitruvius uses 3
1/8 for pi, which is less accurate than
the value given by Archimedes only 200
years before.
Vitruvius is the first Roman
architect to have written in the field
of Architecture. He himself cites older
works. He is a codifier of existing
architectural practice.
Vitruvius describes lifting platforms
that use pulleys and capstans, or
windlasses, operated by human, animal,
or water power.
[08/01/33 BCE]
Στράβω_
7;) (63 BCE/64 BCE - c. 24 AD), a
historian, geographer and philosopher.
Strabo is mostly remembered for his
17-volume work Geographica
("Geography"), which presents a
descriptive history of people and
places from this time. Strabo's
History is nearly completely lost.
Although Strabo quotes it himself, and
other classical authors mention that it
existed, the only surviving document is
a fragment of papyrus now in possession
of the University of Milan.
Strabo lives in Alexandria from 25-20
BCE, and works in the Mousaeion. Strabo
documents q parade from India with
gifts which include a huge snake for
Augustus, then in Samos. Strabo
studies the mystery of why the Nile
River flows from inland to the
Mediterranean Sea, which had baffled
Greek science since Thales and
Herodotus. With no more battles
between Ptolemies, peace results in a
renaissance in Alexandria.
Strabo writes of the Mousaeion in
Alexandria: "The Museum, too, is part
of the royal palace. It comprises the
covered walk, the exedra or portico,
and a great hall in which learned
members of the Museum take their meals
in common. Money, too, is held in
common in this community; (I can't
understand if this means that they
don't have their own money?) they also
have a priest who is head of the
Museum, formerly appointed by the
sovereigns and now appointed by
Augustus." Strabo decribes the "Soma"
(the body), a circular structure,
chosen by Ptolemy I as the site for
Alexander's tomb, which holds bodies of
the Ptolemys too. The Soma is part of
the royal palace. Alexander's body is
still in Alexandria, but not in a
golden but alabaster sarcophagus, as a
result of Ptolemy 'the clandestine'
attempting to profane the tomb. Many
people interpret Strabo not mentioning
the library because it may not be a
separate room or building.
"Strabo" ("squinter") is a term given
by Romans of this time to anyone whose
eyes are distorted or crooked. The
fathers of Julius Caesar and Pompey the
Great were called "Gaius Julius Caesar
Strabo" and "Pompeius Strabo".
[08/01/33 BCE]
AD 10), was a Greek scholar and
grammarian who worked in the Mousaeion
in Alexandria and in Rome.
He is chiefly important as having
introduced Alexandrian learning to the
Romans. He was a follower of the school
of Aristarchus, upon whose recension of
Homer he wrote a treatise, fragments of
which have been preserved in the
Venetian scholia. He also wrote
commentaries on many other Greek poets
and prose authors.
Didymus' son Apion, whom Roman Emperor
Tiberius will call 'cymbal of the
world' implying that his fame resounds
everywhere, will write an Egyptian
history, and 'Against the Jews',
reflecting a growing mood of
anti-semitism which Philo deplored, and
which was to lead to the eventual
destruction of the Jewish quarter.
His surname
(meaning brazen-bowelled) came from his
indefatigable industry: he was said to
have written so many books (more than
3,500) that he was unable to recollect
their names.
[33 BCE]
historian, geographer, and philosopher,
makes 17 volumes (16 that have been
found), of geography based on
Eratosthenes' work and accepts
Eratosthenes' estimate for the size of
earth. Strabo writes a long history of
Rome not yet found. Strabo recognizes
that Vesuvius is a volcano (which will
erupt 50 years after Strabo's death).
Strabo
was born in a wealthy family from
Amaseia, which is in modern Amasya,
Turkey, within Pontus; which had
recently become part of the Roman
Empire. He studies under various
geographers and philosophers; first in
Nysa, later in Rome. He is
philosophically a Stoic and politically
a proponent of Roman imperialism. Later
he will make extensive travels to Egypt
and Ethiopia, among others. It is not
known when his Geography is written,
though comments within the work itself
place the finished version within the
reign of Emperor Tiberius. Some place
its first drafts at around 7 CE, others
around 18 CE. Mention is given to the
death in 23 CE of Juba, king of
Maurousia.
Strabo's History is nearly completely
lost. Although Strabo quotes it
himself, and other classical authors
mention that it existed, the only
surviving document is a fragment of
papyrus now in possession of the
University of Milan (renumbered
{Papyrus} 46).
Impressed by the size of the unmapped
parts of earth, Strabo suggests that
there are other continents.
Strabo wrongly accepts
Homer's geographic descriptions over
the more accurate data of Herodotus.
Strabo writes
about the Mouseion in Alexandria in
addition to the original papyri of
Aristotle's writing.
Strabo's conversion from a
sphere to plane in inaccurate.
Strabo's "Geography" is an important
source for information about the
Mouseion of Alexandria. In book 17,
Strabo writes: "The Museum is also a
part of the royal palaces; it has a
public walk, an Exedra {a semi-circular
room} with seats, and a large house, in
which is the common mess-hall of the
men of learning who share the Museum.
This group of men not only hold
property in common, but also have a
priest in charge of the Museum, who
formerly was appointed by the kings,
but is now appointed by Caesar."
Turkey}
[1] The Greek geographer Strabo in a
16th century engraving. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Strabo.jpg
[08/01/30 BCE]
was a Greek grammarian who lived and
worked in the Mousaeion in Alexandria.
He was a contemporary of Didymus
Chalcenterus.
Tryphon wrote several specialized works
on aspects of language and grammar,
from which only a handful of fragments
now survive. These included treatises
on word-types, dialects, accentuation,
pronunciation, and orthography, as well
as a grammar (Tekhné grammatiké) and
a dictionary. The two extant works that
bear his name, "On Meters" and "On
Tropes", may or may not be by him.
[01/06/27 BCE]
(63 BCE - 14 CE) the title "Augustus".
Some historians consider this the end
of the Roman Republic, a representative
democracy, and the Roman Empire, a
monarchy.
[1] Bust of Emperor Augustus. An old,
beginning of the 20th century photo
plate. Digitally cleaned up (both the
photo and the and slightly colored. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aug11_01.jpg
[2] Description Portrait of Caesar
Augustus. Marble, head: ca. 30-20 BC,
body: middle of the 2nd century
CE. Dimensions H. 1.96 m (6 ft. 5
in.) Credit line Borghese Collection;
purchase, 1807 Accession number Ma
1278 (MR 99) Location Department of
Greek, Etruscan and Roman antiquities,
Denon wing, ground floor, room
23 Photographer/source English
Wikipedia, original upload 4 June 2004
by ChrisO under same filename PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Caesar_augustus.jpg
[27 BCE]
("Temple of all the Gods"), is a
building in Rome which is originally
built as a temple to the seven deities
of the seven planets in the state
religion of Ancient Rome. It is the
best-preserved of all Roman buildings
and the oldest important building in
the world with its original roof
intact. It has been in continuous use
throughout its history. Although the
identity of the Pantheon's primary
architect remains uncertain, it is
largely assigned to Apollodorus of
Damascus. The Pantheon will be
destroyed in 80 CE, but rebuilt by
Hadrian in 125 CE. In 609 the Byzantine
emperor Phocas will give the building
to Pope Boniface IV, who will
reconsecrate it as a Christian church,
the Church of Mary and all the Martyr
Saints, which title it still retains.
[1] An image of Pantheon in Rome,
Italy. Image taken by Martin Olsson
(mnemo on wikipedia and commons,
martin@minimum.se), 2nd of May 2005.
GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pantheon_rome_2005may.jpg
[8 BCE]
writing, has at least 20 ancient
Chinese characters in an ancient
garrison near the Yumen Pass at
Dunhuang in northwest China used during
the Western Han Dynesty (206 BCE-25
CE).
This is more than 100 years before Tsai
Lun, the person traditionally thought
to have invented paper.
China
[08/01/20 CE]
who lives during the reigns of Augustus
and Tiberius, and teaches in Rome,
writes a book on the Mousaeion that
would probably give a good description
and perhaps explain the origins of the
Mouseion, but has not yet been found.
[20 CE]
50 CE), a Roman encyclopedist, makes 8
books in Latin describing Greek
learning.
This Celsus is different from the
Celsus of the 2nd Century CE who will
write "The True Word", a book critical
of Christianity.
His only extant work, the De Medicina,
is the only surviving section of a much
larger encyclopedia, and is a primary
source on diet, pharmacy and surgery
and related fields. The lost portions
of his encyclopedia likely included
volumes on agriculture, law, rhetoric,
and military arts. Celsus' De Medicina
is one of the best sources on
Alexandrian medical knowledge.
In "Of Medicine", Celsus describes the
preparation of numerous ancient
medicinal remedies including the
preparation of opioids. In addition, he
describes many 1st century Roman
surgical procedures which include
treatment for bladder stones,
tonsillectormy, and the setting of
fractures.
Celsus is the first to discuss heart
attacks. Celsus writes on dentistry and
describes the use of a dental mirror.
He describes a "cataract", a condition
where the lens of the eye grows opaque,
in addition to a procedure for removing
the clouding. Asimov claims that Celsus
is the first to write about insanity
(although I think there must be
somebody before this), which is an
abstract label and is the source of
many human rights abuse and much
pseudoscience.
Celsus probably copied
much of his writings from the writings
of Hippocrates.
Celsus expresses his (in my view,
mistaken) belief in the ethicalness of
experimentation on humans, writing in
"De Medicina": "It is not cruel to
inflict on a few criminals sufferings
which may benefit multitudes of
innocent people through all
centuries."
Celsus' work was rediscovered by Pope
Nicholas V and published in 1478. His
work became famous for its elegant
Latin style.
France
[20 CE]
Galilee), probably a monotheist
believer in Judaism lives in this time.
Jesus leaves no writings, and the
earliest record of Jesus' life is
recorded in the sayings of the "Gospel
Q", a number of saying attributed to
Jesus similar to those found in the
Gospel of Thomas. Some scholars
characterize Jesus from these earliest
sayings as being Cynic-like, similar to
Diogenes of Sinope, living voluntarily
in poverty, begging, criticizing
conventional values and wealth,
speaking boldly, engaging in
troublesome public behavior, etc. In
addition, there is an element of belief
and focus on a God. The traditional
belief by many scholars has been that
Jesus was killed as the four main
gospels of the New Testament state,
however, others argue that the idea
that Jesus was killed will be created
by the author of the Mark gospel around
80 CE.
Followers of Jesus will go on to
form one of the largest religions on
earth, Christianity which will last for
more than 2000 years. Shockingly, the
popularity of this average preacher of
Judaism, believed to be unfairly killed
like many trillions of humans
throughout the history of earth, will
grow to dominate much of the earth,
replacing the older polytheistic
religion of Greece and Rome. The rise
of the Christian religion, with violent
intolerant conformity, will terribly
slow the tradition of science growing
on earth. Christians will destroy,
close or take over all the
non-Christian libraries and schools,
destroying many valuable books of
tremendous scientific and historical
value. The rise of Christianity will
also slow the natural development of
atheism, the new religious fanatacism
being more intolerant of atheism than
the older polytheism/paganism, although
clearly the persecution of Anaxagoras
and Socrates for atheism is evidence of
a continuous intolerance of those who
reject the claims of religions.
[1] Mural painting from the catacomb of
Commodilla. Bust of Christ. This is one
of first bearded images of Christ,
during the 4th century Jesus was
beginning to be depicted as older and
bearded, in contrast to earlier
Christian art, which usually showed a
young and clean-shaven Jesus. *
Date: Late 4th century *
Commodilla catacombs Christ from
http://drwagnernet.com/40a/lecture-view.
cfm?lecture=5&image=10 Cristo barbato
(dettaglio), affresco 60x72, fine
IV-inizio V secolo, Catacombe di
Commodilla, Roma PD
source: http://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki
/Image:Christ_with_beard.jpg
[2] This image of what Jesus may have
looked like is on the cover of Popular
Mechanics this month. Israeli and
British forensic anthropologists and
computer programmers got together to
create the face featured in the
1.2-million circulation magazine [t
knowing the dishonesty of Popular
Mechanics' 9/11 ''debunking'', I have
serious doubts about anything they
funded, but I don't see a head like
this as being unlikely. Roman
depictions have no beard until later,
would beard not be
longer?] COPYRIGHTED
source: http://archives.cnn.com/2002/TEC
H/science/12/25/face.jesus/
[41 CE]
alongside the old one in Alexandria
from 41-54 CE.
[43 CE]
geographer, makes a small book (less
than 100 pages), a compilation of
geography, "De situ orbis libri III"
for popular reading by humans in Rome.
Except for Pliny this is the only
existing book on geography written in
classic Latin. Mela copies the Greek
geographers that went before him. Mela
divides the earth in to 5 zones, North
Frigid, North Temperate, Torrid, South
Temperate and South Frigid. Mela
incorrectly believes that only the
temperate zones are livable in, and
also incorrectly believes that the
torrid zone was too hot to be passed by
humans to the South Temperate zone.
In
western Europe his knowledge (as was
natural in a Spanish subject of
Imperial Rome) was somewhat in advance
of the Greek geographers. He defines
the western coast-line of Spain and
Gaul and its indentation by the Bay of
Biscay more accurately than
Eratosthenes or Strabo, his ideas of
the British Isles and their position
are also clearer than his
predecessors.
The first edition of Mela was published
at Milan in 1471.
[50 CE]
Ήρων ο
Αλεξαν^
8;ρεύς) (c.10 CE -
c.70 CE), a Greek engineer in
Alexandria, makes the first recorded
steam engine.
The potential of the steam
engine will not be understood until the
late 1600s.
Heron invents an aeopile, which is a
hollow metal sphere that rotates from
the power of steam jets that escape
through open tubes on each side of the
sphere.
Heron describes the lever, pulley,
wheel, inclined plane, screw, and
wedge. Understands and uses syphons,
syringes and gears. Hero uses gears to
change the wheel rotations of a chariot
to the rotations of a pointer that
indicate the number of wheel rotations,
which is the first odometer (meter that
indicates distance traveled). Hero
writes a book on air, which shows that
air is a substance and will not enter a
container already filled with air,
unless air is allowed to escape and be
replaced. Hero reasons that because air
can be compressed, air must be made of
particles separated by space. Hero made
a "book" on mirrors and on light.
Hero
describes a generalized version of the
law of levers by Archimedes.
Hero was either the son or pupil of
Ctesibius. Hero's inventions recorded
in his work "Pneumatics" are mostly
frivolous, many connected to religious
ceremonies in order to deceive
worshippers with what appear to be
supernatural events. Among Hero many
inventions are: a mechanical singing
bird, a device that opens a temple door
when a fire is lit on an alter, a
device that emits a small jet of steam
which supports a small sphere, a
trumpet sounded by compressed air, a
syringe, an alter organ blown by a
windmill. Hero invents a steam boiler,
which forces a hot air blast to be
driven into a pipe, by pouring cold
water into the boiler. This is the
principle behind the "Roman bath"
introduced around the same time, and is
also the principle behind "central
heating" still in use today.
It is almost certain that Hero taught
at the Museum which included the famous
Library of Alexandria, because most of
his writings appear as lecture notes
for courses in mathematics, mechanics,
physics and pneumatics.
Hero probably agreed with the Atomists,
accepting the theory of atoms as the
most accurate.(needs citation: ancient
biography of Heron?)
Hero wrongly thinks light
comes from the eyes and moves at
infinite velocty, but was accurate in
saying that the angle of light that
touches a surface is equal to the angle
the light reflects from surface.
Works known to be by Hero:
* Pneumatica, a
description of machines working on air,
steam or water pressure.
* Automata, a
description of machines which enable
wonders in temples by mechanical or
pneumatical means (e.g. automatic
opening or closing of temple doors,
statues that pour wine, etc.).
* Mechanica,
written for architects, containing
means to lift heavy objects.
* Metrica, a
description of how to calculate
surfaces and volumes of diverse
objects.
* On the Dioptra, a collection of
methods to measure lengths. In this
work the odometer is described, and
also an apparatus which resembles a
theodolite.
* Belopoeica, a description of war
machines.
* Catoptrica, about the progression of
light, reflection and the use of
mirrors.
Pappos (c.330 ) will describe the
contribution of Heron in Book VIII of
his Mathematical Collection. Pappos
will write:
"The mechanicians of Heron's
school say that mechanics can be
divided into a theoretical and a manual
part; the theoretical part is composed
of geometry, arithmetic, astronomy and
physics, the manual of work in metals,
architecture, carpentering and painting
and anything involving skill with the
hands."
"... the ancients also describe as
mechanicians the wonder-workers, of
whom some work by means of pneumatics,
as Heron in his Pneumatica, some by
using strings and ropes, thinking to
imitate the movements of living things,
as Heron in his Automata and
Balancings, ... or by using water to
tell the time, as Heron in his Hydria,
which appears to have affinities with
the science of sundials."
Heron's formula defines the area of a
triangle. A proof of this formula can
be found in his book "Metrica". It is
now believed that Archimedes already
knew this formula, and it is possible
that it was known long before.
[1] Hero's aeolipile From Knight's
American Mechanical Dictionary, 1876.
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Aeolipile_illustration.JPG
[2] Heron's formula can also be
written this way. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Her
on%27s_formula
[50 CE]
Museum built next to the original
Museum.
[75 CE]
ending 3000 years of cuneiform
writing.
Cuneiform is replaced by Aramaic.
Legal, literary and astronomical texts
are the last written in cuneiform.
[77 CE]
Cecilius Secundus") (PlinE) (23 CE
Novum Comum (now Como), Italy - August
24, 79 CE near Mount Vesuvius, Italy)
completes his major work titled
"Natural History" in 37 volumes.
"Natural
History" is made from copying text of
500 other earlier people and contains
astronomy, geology and zoology. Pliny
shows wisdom in rejecting the idea of
immortality.
In addition to "Natural
History", Pliny writes a "History of
his Times" in thirty-one books, which
has yet to be found.
Pliny takes a keen
interest in nature, and in the natural
sciences, studying them in a way that
was then new in Rome, where studies of
these kind are regarded as useless(N.H.
xxii.15).
One of Pliny's lost works "History of
his Times" possibly extending from the
reign of Nero to that of Vespasian, and
deliberately reserves it for
publication after his death (N. H.,
Praef. 20). Perhaps Pliny may have been
frightened of punishment for sharing
his experiences, but I think this shows
Pliny's selfless concern and care for
humanity and it's future. It will be
quoted by Tacitus (Ann. xiii.20, xv.53;
Hist. iii.29), and is one of the
authorities that will be followed by
Suetonius and Plutarch.
He also virtually
completes his great work, the
"Naturalis Historia" (Natural History),
an encyclopedia into which Pliny
collected much of the knowledge of his
time. He dedicates "Naturalis Historia"
to the emperor Titus Flavius
Vespasianus, the son of Vespasian in
77.
In Zoology, Pliny accepts a number of
false stories as being true, for
example, unicorns, mermaids, and flying
horses.
Pliny's nephew and aire, Pliny the
Younger will sends a letter with an
account of his uncle's writings and his
manner of life (iii.5) where he will
write:
"He began to work long before
daybreak. He read nothing without
making extracts; he used even to say
that there was no book so bad as not to
contain something of value. In the
country it was only the time when he
was actually in his bath that was
exempted from study. When travelling,
as though freed from every other care,
he devoted himself to study alone. In
short, he deemed all time wasted that
was not employed in study."
His only writings to have survived to
modern times is the "Naturalis
Historia", and this will be used as an
authority over the following centuries
by countless scholars.
[80 CE]
(DEOSKORiDEZ), Greek physician,
pharmacologist and botanist who
practises in Rome during the reign of
Nero writes "De Materia Medica" in 5
books. "De Materia Medica" is the first
encyclopedia of medical plants and
drugs, and describes 600 plants almost
1000 drugs.
These descriptions are accurate
and free from superstition.
[1] Dioscorides from www.nlm.nih.gov PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Dioscorides.jpg
[2] Dioscorides: Materia Medica.
(Arabic copy) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Arabic_herbal_medicine_guidebook.jpeg
[81 CE]
starts his reign with an effort to
"rebuild the libraries that had been
burned" {in the fire under Nero}, "had
the whole empire searched for copies of
works that had disappeared", and "sent
emissaries to Alexandria charged with
copying and correcting the texts" {yet
more evidence that the royal library in
Alexandria is intact at this time}
[97 CE]
(FroNTInuS) (30 CE - 104 CE), a Roman
soldier, politician, engineer and
author, is put in charge of water
system of Rome by Emperor Nerva.
Frontinus writes a two volume work, "De
aquis urbis Romae" containing a history
and description of the water supply
system (aquaducts) of Rome. In his
writing Frontius boasts how the Roman
aquaducts are better than those of
Egypt and Greece.
[105 CE]
Kueiyang, Kweichow - c.118 CE) is
thought by many to have invented paper
from matter like tree bark, hemp, silk
and fishing net, but artifacts of paper
have been found that date to before Lun
by more than 100 years.
Tsai Lun is a eunuch
person, usually a male that is
castrated (testicles are removed)
viewed as a safer (less aggressive)
servant for royal people.
[1] Cai Lun (traditional Chinese:
蔡倫; simplified Chinese:
蔡伦; pinyin: Cà i Lún;
Wade-Giles: Ts'ai Lun) (ca. AD 50-121),
courtesy name Jingzhong
(敬仲), was a Chinese
eunuch, who is conventionally regarded
as the inventor of paper, in forms
recognizable in modern times as paper
(as opposed to Egyptian papyrus). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cai_Lun.jpg
[01/01/120 CE]
will write (between 230 and 238) that
"Great honors were paid to {Dionysius
of Miletus, a contemporary philosopher}
by the cities that admired his talent,
but the greatest was from the Emperor.
For Hadrian (January 24, 76 CE - July
10, 138 CE, Roman emperor 117-138)
appointed him satrap {prefect} over
peoples by no means obscure, and
enrolled him in the order of the
knights and among those who had free
meals in the Museum. (By the Museum I
mean a dinning-table in Egypt to which
are invited the most distinguished men
of all countries.)" Philostratos also
describes membership into the Mouseion,
granted by the emperor Hadrian, for
Polemo, another philosopher, writing:
"...and Hadrian ... also enrolled
{Polemo} in the circle of the Museum,
with the Egyptian right of free meals."
Clearly, this is evidence that the
Mouseion was still functioning as usual
after the Cesar fire, and likely up to
the time of this writing (c230), since
there is no mention of a later
destruction of the Mouseion. In
addition to indicating that these meals
may have been quite expensive to be a
privilege that might be appointed by a
Roman Emperor. The "free meals" are
clearly of note in the memory of
Philostratus.
[120 CE]
Ptolemaios) (Greek:
Κλαύδι_
9;ς
Πτολεμ^
5;ῖος; c.90 - c.168 CE)
(Ptolemy, an astronomer, no known
relation to Ptolemy royal family)
writes a 13-volume "The Great
Treatise", later named "Almagest",
systematizes Alexandrian knowledge of
astronomy and catalogs a thousand
stars. Ptolemy creates an elegant
mathematics of epicycles to explain the
apparent motions of the stars and
planets based on the incorrect
geocentric cosmology derived from the
texts of Aristotle. This work will be
influential in Europe until the 16th
century.
Claudius Ptolemaeus (Greek:
Κλαύδι_
9;ς
Πτολεμ^
5;ῖος; c. 90 - c. 168),
known in English as Ptolemy, was a
Greek-speaking geographer, astronomer,
and astrologer who lived in the
Hellenistic culture of Roman Egypt. He
may have been a Hellenized Egyptian but
no description of his family background
or physical appearance exists, though
it is likely he was born in Egypt.
Ptolemy was the author of several
scientific treatises, three of which
have been of continuing importance to
later Islamic and European science. The
first is the astronomical treatise that
is now known as the Almagest (in Greek
Η
μεγάλη
Σύνταξ_
3;ς, "The Great Treatise"). The
second is the Geography, which is a
thorough discussion of the geographic
knowledge of the Greco-Roman world. The
third is the astrological treatise
known as the Tetrabiblos ("Four books")
in which he attempted to adapt
horoscopic astrology to the
Aristotelian natural philosophy of his
day.
[150 CE]
Κλαύδι_
9;ς
Πτολεμ^
5;ῖος), (c.90 - c.168)
writes "Mathematike Syntaxis ("The
Mathematical Arrangement") which
supports an Earth-centered cosmology.
Ptolemy,
(ToLomE), Claudius Ptolemaeus, (Greek:
Κλαύδι_
9;ς
Πτολεμ^
5;ῖος), (c.90 - c.168),
a Greek-speaking Astronomer, Geographer
and Astrologer, in the Museum in
Alexandria, writes an astronomy book
"Mathematike Syntaxis ("The
Mathematical Arrangement"), called by
later people "Almagest" (The Greatest),
in which Ptolemy names the 48
constellations still used today, and
also includes a star catalog (star
names and locations) based on the work
of Hipparchus. Sadly Ptolemy supports
the erroneous earth-centered theory and
this theory will persist until
Copernicus in the 1500s. Ptolemy writes
a book on optics that describes
refraction, reflection and color of
light, and a book on geography.
[162 CE]
Γαληνό`
2; Galinos, Latin: Claudius Galenus of
Pergamum) (129-200 CE), is a Greek
physician. Sadly and shockingly,
Galen's views will dominate the science
of health in Europe for more than one
thousand years.
Galen is the first to
understand that blood flows through
veins, and is first to study nerve
function. Galen is the first to
identify many muscles and to decribe
the movement of urine through ureters
to the bladder.
Galen is the first person to
use a pulse in solving a problem.
Galen also
argues that the mind is in the brain,
not in the heart as Aristotle claimed.
Galen
does not recognize blood circulation
and wrongly thinks that venous and
arterial systems are separate. Galen
recpgnizes that blood must get from one
half of the heart to the other half,
and theorizes that there are tiny holes
too small to see in the thick muscular
wall separating the two halves. This
view will not change until, 1500 years
later, with William Harvey's work in
the 17th century. Since most of his
knowledge of anatomy is based on
dissection of pigs, dogs, and Barbary
apes, he also presumes wrongly that
"rete mirabile", a blood vessel plexus
of ungulates (hooved animal and
whales), also existed in the human
body. He also resists the idea of
tourniquets to stop bleeding and
tragically vigorously spreads the
inaccurate opinion of blood letting as
a treatment.
Galen's authority will dominate health
science all the way to the 16th
century. With the rise of Christianity,
people will not experiment and studies
of physiology and anatomy will stop.
Blood letting becomes a standard
medical procedure. Vesalius
(1514-1564), more than 1300 years
later, will present the first serious
challenge to the dominance of Galen's
views.
Galen is attracted to Alexandria
because of the reputation of the health
profession there. Galen will be the
last great physician of this time.
Galen writes numerous works.
Interestingly, those who practice
healing through science and the temple
priests who practice the pseudoscience
of religious healing both coexist
together in the Serapeum.
Galen will be court
physician under emperor Marcus Aurelius
for some time.
According to Isaac Asimov, Galen's best
work is in anatomy. Dissection of
humans is viewed as bad in Rome and
Galen could only dissect other species,
including dogs, goats, pigs, and
monkeys. Galen is describes anatomy in
meticulous detail. Galen writes that
muscles work in groups. Galen cuts the
spinal cord of many species at various
levels and writes on the resulting
paralysis (loss of movement of the body
part). Galen uses the three fluid
theory of Erasistratus.
Galen regards wounds as "windows into
the body". Galen performed many
audacious operations that were not
again used for almost two millennia,
including brain and eye surgery. To
perform cataract surgery, Galen would
insert a long needle-like instrument
into the eye behind the lens. He would
then pull it back slightly and remove
the cataract. The slightest slip could
cause permanent blindness. Galen had
set the standard for modern medicine in
many different ways.
In Rome, Galen writes extensively,
lectures and publicly demonstrates his
knowledge of anatomy. Galen gains a
reputation as an experienced physician
and his practice had a widespread
clientèle. One of them is the consul
Flavius Boethius who introduces him to
the Imperial court where Galen becomes
a court physician to Emperor Marcus
Aurelius. Later he will also treat
Lucius Verus, Commodus and Septimius
Severus. Reputedly, he speaks mostly
Greek, which in the field of medicine
is a more highly respected language
than Latin at the time.
Galen spends the rest of his life in
the Imperial court, writing and
experimenting. He performs vivisections
of numerous animals to study the
function of the kidneys and the spinal
cord.
Galen transmitted Hippocratic medicine
all the way to the Renaissance. His "On
the Elements According to Hippocrates"
describes the philosopher's inaccurate
system of four bodily humours, blood,
yellow bile, black bile and phlegm,
which were mystically identified with
the four classical elements, and in
turn with the seasons. He created his
own theories from those principles, and
much of Galen's work can be seen as
building on the Hippocratic theories of
the body, rather than being new. Galen
mainly ignores the Latin writings of
Celsus, but accepts the ancient works
of Asclepiades.
Amongst Galen's own major works is a
seventeen-volume "On the Usefulness of
the Parts of the Human Body". Like
Pliny, Galen wrongly thinks that
everything in the universe is made by a
God for some purpose. He also writes
about philosophy and philology (the
study of words and language), as well
as extensively writing on anatomy. His
collected works total twenty-two
volumes, and he writes a line a day for
most of his life.
Galen's own theories, in accord with
Plato's, emphasizes purposeful creation
by a single Creator ( "Nature", in
Greek "phusis") - a major reason why
later Christian and Muslim scholars
will be able to accept his views and
will preserve his writings. His
fundamental principle of life was
pneuma (air, or breath) that later
writers will connect with the erronius
ancient idea of a "soul". These
writings on philosophy are a product of
Galen's well rounded education, and
throughout his life Galen is keen to
emphasise the philosophical element to
medicine. Galen maintained the
inaccurate opinions that "Pneuma
physicon" (animal spirit) in the brain
is responsible for movement,
perception, and senses, that "Pneuma
zoticon" (vital spirit) in the heart
controls blood and body temperature,
and that "Natural spirit" in the liver
handled nutrition and metabolism.
However, he correctly rejects the
Pneumatic theory that air passes
through the veins rather than blood.
Galen expands his knowledge partly by
experimenting with live animals (in a
way that is clearly painful to the
animal and which I vote against,
although science was advanced by such
experimentation). One of his methods is
to publicly dissect a living pig,
cutting its nerve bundles one at a
time. Eventually he cuts a laryngeal
nerve (now also known as Galen's Nerve)
and the pig stops squealing. He also
ties the ureters of living animals,
swelling the kidneys, therefore showing
that urine comes from the kidneys, and
severes spinal cords to demonstrate
paralysis. In addition to working with
pigs, Galen also experiments with
barbary apes and goats, but emphasizes
that he practises on pigs due to the
fact that, in some respects, they are
anatomically similar to humans. Public
dissections are also a highly valuable
way of disputing and disproving the
biological theories of others, and are
one of the main methods of academic
medical learning in Rome. It is quite
common for large numbers of medical
students to attend these public
gatherings, which will sometimes turn
into debates where learning is
increased.
Galen's books will be the standard book
of healing through science until
Vesalius.
It is very possible that Galen excelled
in part from use of the Pergamum public
library, a library second only to that
of Alexandria.{check in Galen
writings}
Galen, through his works, will transmit
the Greek knowledge of healing into the
future.
[03/31/173 CE]
himself as "ex-vice librarian and
member of the Museum" which shows the
Mousaeion in Alexandria still has
members.
[178 CE]
Word" against the Christian religion.
Celsus is
thought to live in Rome, however his
familiarity with the Jewish religion
and knowledge of Egyptian ideas makes
some historians think he belonged to
the Eastern part of the empire. But
perhaps he acquires this knowledge
either by travelling, or by mingling
with the foreign population of Rome.
Celsus writes his only work of record
"True Discourse" (or, "True Reason")
against Christianity in approximately
178 CE. Celsus divides the work into
two sections, the first in which
objections are explained from a
fictional Jewish person and the other
in which Celsus speaks as the Pagan
philosopher that he is. Celsus
ridicules Christians because they
advocate blind faith instead of reason.
Around 60 years after it is first
published, the book written by Celsus
will inspire a rebuttle written by
Origen titled "Contra Celsum", which is
the only source for Celsus' book, who
will be later condemned along with
other critics of Christianity such as
Porphyry.
[03/31/180 CE]
Christian (catechetical) school in
Alexandria from 180-200 CE. He teaches
Clement. This school claims as its
founder the Evangelist St Mark.
Christianity is now a powerful
movement, whose danger is felt by the
Imperial government. Christian people
now have their own teachers and school
in Alexandria in competition with the
Mouseion school of philosophy,
associated with the traditional
Hellenic and Roman polytheistic
religion.
[215 CE]
Alexandria youth and punishes the
Mousaeion.
Gibbon writes "from a secure post in
the Temple of Serapis, {Caracalla}
viewed and directed the slaughter of
many thousand citizens, as well as
strangers...". After the massacre,
Caracalla stops the public games and
abolishs funding and stipends of
members (called "syssitia", the public
subsidy given for the maintenance of
scholars at the Museum) and expels all
foreign members of the Mousaeion.
[232 CE]
confused with Ammonius of Alexandria,
the Christian philosopher), often
called the founder of the neoplatonic
school, teaches Platonic philosophy at
Alexandria from 232-243 CE. Ammonius
teaches Plotinus and Origen.
Ammianus writes
that Alexandria "now lost the quarter
called Bruchion which had long been the
dwelling of the foremost men".
[245 CE]
Πλωτίν_
9;ς)(c.205 Lycopolis, Upper
Egypt-270), thought by many to be
(along with Ammonius Saccas) the father
of Neoplatonism, teacher of
Neo-Platonism, the last phase of
ancient philosophy, writes 9 books
called "Enneades". Plotinus views a
dual nature of the universe based on a
sharp contrast between reason and
matter, believing in a God as
indivisible and an absolute one, in
"evil" matter and in "non-evil" matter.
The allowance of "non-evil matter" is
opposed to the anti-nature view of the
early christians. As a Pagan person
clearly the one God idea is clear in
Plotinus' description of a God as an
absolute one. His
(scientifically-useless) metaphysical
writings will inspire centuries of
Christian, Jewish, Muslim, and Gnostic
metaphysicians and mystics.
Asimov writes that Plotinus is a Roman
philosopher who modifies the system of
Plato, adding mysticism in order to
compete with eastern religions, gaining
popularity in Rome at this time.
[250 CE]
Διόφαν`
4;ος ὁ
Ἀλεξαν
48;ρεύς) (c.210 CE
- c.290 CE), a mathematician working in
the Museum in Alexandria, uses
equations with variables that must be
integers. These equations will come to
be called "Diophantine equations",
named after Diofantos.
Diofantos' most famous work is the
"Arithmetica" originally thirteen Greek
books, of which only six survive today
in Greek manuscripts.
Diophantus also wrote a treatise on
polygonal numbers, of which part
survives.
The "editio princeps" of Diofantos will
be published in 1575 by Xylander, and
editions of Arithmetica will exert a
profound influence on the development
of algebra in Europe in the late
sixteenth through eighteenth centuries.
[1] Work by Diophantus (died in about
280 B.C.), translated from Greek into
Latin by Claude Gaspard Bachet de
Méziriac. This edition of the book was
published in 1621. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Diophantus-cover.jpg
[2] Work by Diophantus (died in about
280 B.C.), with additions by Pierre de
Fermat (died in 1665). This edition of
the book was published in 1670. p. 61
contains Diophantus' problem II.VIII,
with the famous note added by Fermat
which became known as Fermat's last
theorem. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Diophantus-II-8-Fermat.jpg
[262 CE]
304 AD) (Greek:
Πορφυρ^
3;ου) writes "Adversus
Christianos" (Against the Christians)
in 15 books, of which only fragments
remain.
Porfurios also advocates rights for the
other species.
(reduce and check is exact from
wiki)
Porphyry (c.232-c. 304 AD) was a
Neoplatonist philosopher. He was born
Malchus ("king") in Tyre, but his
teacher in Athens, Cassius Longinus,
gave him the name Porphyrius (clad in
purple), a punning allusion to the
color of the imperial robes. Under
Longinus he studied grammar and
rhetoric. In 262 he went to Rome,
attracted by the reputation of
Plotinus, and for six years devoted
himself to the study of Neoplatonism.
Having injured his health by overwork,
he went to live in Sicily for five
years. On his return to Rome, he
lectured on philosophy and completed an
edition of the writings of Plotinus
(who had died in the meantime) to
gether with a biogrpahy of his teacher.
Iamblichus is mentioned in ancient
Neoplatonic writings as his pupis, but
this most likely means only that he was
the dominant figure in the next
generation of philosophers. The two men
differed publicly on the issue of
theurgy. In his later years, he married
Marcella, a widow with seven children
and an enthusiastic student of
philosophy. Little more is known of his
life, and the date of his death is
uncertain.
Porphyry is best known for his
contributions to philosophy. Apart from
writing the Aids to the Study of the
Intelligibles, a basic summary of
Neoplatonism, he is especially
appreciated for his Introduction to
Categories (Introductio in
Praedicamenta), a commentary on
Aristotle's Categories. The
Introduction describes how qualities
attributed to things may be classified,
breaking down the philosophical concept
of substance as a relationship
genus/species.
As Porphyry's most influential
contribution to philosophy, the
Introduction to Categories incorporated
Aristotle's logic into Neoplatonism, in
particular the doctrine of the
categories interpreted in terms of
entities (in later philosophy,
"universal"). Boethius' Isagoge, a
Latin translation of the Introduction,
became a standard medieval textbook in
the schools and universities which set
the stage for medieval
philosophical-theological developments
of logic and the problem of universals.
In medieval textbooks, the
all-important Arbor porphyriana
("Porphyrian Tree") illustrates his
logical classification of substance. To
this day, taxonomists benefit from
Porphyry's Tree in classifying
everything from plants to animals to
insects to whales.
Porphyry is also known as a violent
opponent of Christianity and defender
of Paganism; of his Adversus
Christianos (Against the Christians) in
15 books, only fragments remain. He
famously said, "The Gods have
proclaimed Christ to have been most
pious, but the Christians are a
confused and vicious sect."
Counter-treatises were written by
Eusebius of Caesarea, Apollinarius (or
Apollinaris) of Laodicea, Methodius of
Olympus, and Macarius of Magnesia, but
all these are lost. Porphyry's
identification of the Book of Daniel as
the work of a writer in the time of
Antiochus Epiphanes, is given by
Jerome. There is no proof of the
assertion of Socrates, the
ecclesiastical historian, and
Augustine, that Porphyry was once a
Christian.
Porphyry was also opposed to the
theurgy of his disciple Iamblichus.
Much of Iamblichus' mysteries is
dedicated to the defense of mystic
theurgic divine possession against the
critiques of Porphyry.
Porphyry was, like Pythagoras, known as
an advocate of vegetarianism on
spiritual or ethical grounds. These two
philosophers are perhaps the most
famous vegetarians of classical
antiquity. He wrote the De Abstinentia
(On Abstinence) and also a De Non
Necandis ad Epulandum Animantibus
(roughly On the Impropriety of Killing
Living Beings for Food) in support of
abstinence from animal flesh, and is
cited with approval in vegetarian
literature up to the present day.
Porphyry also wrote widely on
astrology, religion, philosophy, and
musical theory; and produced a
biography of his teacher, Plotinus.
Another book of his on the life of
Pythagoras, named Vita Pythagorae or
Life of Pythagoras, is not to be
confused with the book of the same name
by Iamblichus.
In "On Abstinence from Animal Food",
Porfurios advocates rights for the
other species, saying "he who forbids
men to feed on animals, and thinks it
is unjust, will also say that it is not
just to kill them, and deprive them of
life". In this work, Porfurios also
argues against sacrificing animals,
writing: "Pythagoreans themselves did
not spare animals when they sacrificed
to the gods. ... I intend to oppose
these opinions, and those of the
multitude".
[267 CE]
among the first of the major libraries
to be attacked. Hadrian's Library is
destroyed by the Herulians (also called
Heruli, nomatic Germanic people), who
encountered little resistance.
[272 CE]
by Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, Emperor
Aurelian attacks in the royal quarter
result in so much destruction that
members of the Mouseion either flee the
country or take refuge in the
Serapeum.
Ammianus Marcellinus records: "But
Alexandria itself was extended, not
gradually, like other cities, but at
its very beginning, to great
dimensions, and for a long time was
exhausted with internal disputes, until
finally, after many years, when
Aurelian was emperor, the civic
quarrels escalated into deadly strife.
Its walls were torn down and it lost
the greater part of the area which was
called the Brucheion, and which had
long been the dwelling place of its
most distinguished men."
Possibly scrolls are
transfered to the Serapeum, Kaisareion
or Claudianum annexes.
Epiphanius will write
about the Brucheion a few after
Ammianus, that where the library had
once been, "there is now a desert"
(Patrologia Graeca, 43, 252)
Clearly if the
Museum was destroyed it was rebuilt
after, because The Suidas lists Theon
(335-405 CE) as a member, and Synesios
(c370-413 CE) writes about the Museum
in the early 5th century.
[290 CE]
Panopolis {now Akhmim}, Egypt - ?), is
a Greek alchemist who summarizes 300
hundred writings on alchemy, the
beginnings of Chemistry, in an
encyclopedia of 28 books. The books
contain a majority of mysticism.
Zosimus may have been aware of arsenic,
describes the forming of lead acetate,
and the sweet taste of lead acetate.
The 4 element (fire, air, earth, water)
Greek theory will last until
Lavoisier.
Zosimus related the story of the first
alchemist, Chemes, who wrote the
teachings of the fallen angels
(supposedly angels who fell to earth in
order to seduce human women) in a book
called Chema. "Chemia" (Greek
χημεία)
is the Greek word for chemistry, to
which the Arabs added the article, al
for "alchemy", from their own language.
[297 CE]
Alexandria, appearing in person, and
many citizens are brutally slaughtered.
Men of learning are not spared, and
their books, in particular those on
alchemy, are collected and burnt. Soon
after this time the largest persecution
of the Christians begins.
[305 CE]
called the Meletian schism, concerning
the treatment of those people who have
lapsed in church discipline (the
lapsi). Peter, the Bishop of
Alexandria, represents the more
tolerant view, Meletius, Bishop of
Lycopolis (assiut), the more rigid
school. This division centers on the
amount of time until a person is
re-admited and then their status after
being readmited. This tolerant and
ridgid division will last for many
years. Another issue of conflict is
whether to include ancient Greek
learning in basic education or to only
strictly teach a purely Christian
course.
[315 CE]
will note later in his "Prosgymnasmata"
that although a library still exists in
the Serapeum complex, only those
alcoves containing philosophical works
were accessible, and the stacks
associated with the cult of pagan
deities had been closed.
[320 CE]
Πάππος)
(Pappus) (c.290 CE Alexandria - ??
c.350 CE Alexandria) is one of the most
important Hellenistic mathematicians of
this time, known for his work
"Synagoge" or "Collection" (written
c.340). Pappos is a Hellenized Egyptian
born in Alexandria, Egypt. Although
very little is known about his life,
the written records suggest he is a
teacher.
"Synagoge", his best-known work,
(thought to be written around 340) is a
compendium of Greek mathematics in
eight volumes, the first volume is
missing while the other 7 volumes have
missing parts. "Synagoge" (means
"Collection") covers a wide range of
topics, including geometry,
recreational mathematics, doubling the
cube, polygons and polyhedra (three
dimensional shapes made of a finite
number of polygons). Pappus writes in
detail on the astronomical system
credited to Ptolomy.
Pappos is a likely a member of the
Mouseion with access to many works, and
in his own work "Synagoge" in which he
outlines the history of the Mouseion
and its scientists {check}.
[350 CE]
direction finder is in the Chinese book
"Book of the Devil Valley Master".
[357 CE]
Library in Byzantium. Themistius, a
Pagan Roman Senator praises
Constantius' initiative to found this
library.
[362 CE]
(the Apostate), (Greek:
Ιουλια_
7;ός o
Παραβά`
4;ης) (331-June 26, 363)
issues a "tolerance edict" which
reopens the Pagan temples, and calls
back exiled Christian bishops. Julian
writes "Against the Galileans" which
has only been preserved from the
writings of Cyril of Alexandria, in his
rebuttal "Against Julian".
[06/26/363 CE]
(Greek:
Ιουλια_
7;ός o
Παραβά`
4;ης; 331-June 26, 363) dies
as a result of a spear wound. Julian
will be the last "Pagan" (or believer
in Hellenic religion) Emperor. After
Julian, there will be little protection
for the Libraries in Alexandria, Greece
and the rest of the Roman Empire which
are stored in temples dedicated to the
traditional Greek Gods.
[363 CE]
Antioch - c393), Roman soldier and
historian writes about Alexandria:
"There are besides in the city temples
pompous with lofty roofs, conspicuous
among them the Serapeum, which, though
feeble words merely belittle it, yet is
so adorned with extensive columned
halls, with almost breathing statues,
and a great number of other works of
art, that next to the Capitolium, with
which revered Rome elevates herself to
eternity, the whole world beholds
nothing more magnificent. In this were
invaluable libraries, and the unanimous
testimony of ancient records declares
that 700,000 volumes {voluminum},
brought together by the unremitting
energy of the Ptolemaic kings, were
burned in the Alexandrine war, when the
city was sacked under the dictator
Caesar {Rolfe comments that 'Ammonius
confuses two libraries, that of the
Bruchion and that of the Serapeum. The
former was founded by Ptolemy Soter
(322-282 BCE) and in the time of
Callimachus contained 400,000 volumes;
the Serapeum, founded by Ptolemy
Philadelphus (285-247 BCE), contained
42,800. At the time of the battle of
Pharsalia the total number was 532,800
and it may have reached 700,000 by the
time of the Alexandrine war. One rumor
reported by Plutarch relates how Antony
gave Cleopatra 200,000 volumes that had
been collected at Pergamum.}
{Ammianus continues}
...
But Alexandria herself, not gradually
(like other cities), but at her very
origin, attained her wide extent; and
for a long time she was greviously
troubled by internal dissensions, until
at last, many years later under the
rule of Aurelian {in 272 CE}, the
quarrels of the citizens turned into
deadly strife; then her walls were
destroyed and she lost the greater part
of the district called the Bruchion {at
least a fourth of the city and contains
the royal palace}, which had long been
the abode of distinguished men. From
there came Aristarchus, eminent in
thorny problems of grammatical lore,
and Herodian, a most accurate
investigator in science and Saccas
Ammonius, the teacher of Plotinus, and
numerous other writers in many famous
branches of literature. Among these
Didymus Chalcenterus {means of brazen
guts, for his tireless industry} was
conspicuous for the abundance of his
diversified knowledge, although in
those six books in which he sometimes
unsuccessfully criticises Cicero,
imitating the scurrilous writers of
Silli {Satirical poems}, he makes the
same impression on learned ears as a
puppy-dog barking from a distance with
quavering voice around a lion roaring
awfully. And although very many writers
flourished in early times as well as
these whom I have mentioned,
nevertheless not even today is learning
of various kinds silent in that same
city; for the teachers of the arts show
signs of life, and the geometrical
measuring-rod brings to light whatever
is concealed, the stream of music is
not yet wholly dried up among them,
harmony is not reduced to silence, the
consideration of the motion of the
universe and of the stars is still kept
warm with some, few though they be, and
there are others who are skilled in
numbers; and a few besides are versed
in the knowledge which reveals the
course of the fates. Moreover, studies
in the art of healing, whose help is
often required in this life of ours,
which is neither frugal nor sober, are
so enriched from day to day, that
although a physician's work itself
indicates it, yet in place of every
testimony it is enough to commend his
knowledge of the art, if he has said
that he was trained in Alexandria. But
enough on this point. If one wishes to
investigate with attentive mind the
many publications on the knowledge of
the divine, and the origin of
divination, he will find that learning
of this kind has been spread abroad
from Egypt through the whole world.
There, for the first time, long before
other men, they discovered the cradles,
so to speak, of the various religions,
and now carefully guard the first
beginnings of worship, stored up in
secret writings. Trained in this
wisdom, Pythagoras, secretly honoring
the gods, made whatever he said or
believed recognized authority, and
often showed his golden thigh at
Olympia {wishing to represent himself
as the equal of Apollo}, and let
himself be seen from time to time
talking with an eagle. From here
Anaxagoras foretold a rain of stones,
and by handling mud from a well
predicted an earthquake. Solon, too,
aided by the opinions of the Egyptian
priests, passed laws in accordance with
the measure of justice, and thus gave
also to Roman law its greatest support
{Herodotus 1,30 states Solon went to
Egypt after making laws, see also
Aristotle "Constitution of Athens". The
Romans are said to have made use of
Solon's code in compiling the XII
Tables}. On this source, Plato drew
and after visiting Egypt, traversed
higher regions {of thought}, and
rivaled Jupiter in lofty language,
gloriously serving in the field of
wisdom." (Again. for me, it is unusual
that Plato is so revered, for a person
having no significant scientific
contributions. Perhaps once the
celebrity of Plato was established, his
fame and name recognition overcame any
criticism or doubts about the value of
Plato's contribution to science and
knowledge.)
[364 CE]
even Rome is virtually devoid of books.
All libraries in Rome are closed.
Ammianus Marcellinus relates that there
are certain people in Rome who 'hated
learning like poison', and "libraries
were closed for ever like tombs"
[364 CE]
of the Trajanum Temple in Antioch
burned.
[366 CE]
Alexandria with a library is plundered
and destroyed by Christian people.
[370 CE]
Caesarea, (CE c330-379) (Greek:
Άγιος
Βασίλε_
3;ος ο
Μέγας), Bishop
of Caesarea, establishes a religious
foundation that includes a hospital, an
isolation unit for those suffering from
leprosy, and buildings to house the
poor, the elderly, and the sick.
Following this example similar
hospitals will be built in the eastern
part of the Roman Empire.
[1] Archbishop of Caesarea in
Cappadocia PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:BASIL.jpg
[375 CE]
visit the Serapeum a few years before
it's destruction, mentions the
storerooms for books attached to the
colonnades (rows of columns), and
claims that the books were open to all
who desired to study, and attracted the
whole city to master wisdom.
[375 CE]
Alexandria: "The city lost the greater
part of the Brucheion which was the
residence of the most distinguished
men" and "Even now in that city the
various branches of learning make their
voices heard: for the teachers of the
arts are still alive, the geometer's
rod reveals hidden knowledge, the study
of music has not yet completely dried
up there, harmony has not been silenced
and some few still keep the fires
burning in the study of the movement of
the earth and stars in addition to them
there are a few men learned in the
science which reveals the ways of fate.
But the study of medicine...grows
greater from day to day."
[380 CE]
last recorded scholar-member of the
Mouseion in Alexandria.
[386 CE]
Alexandria almost deserted and the
center of city life conglomerates in
the Egyptian quarter around the
Serapeum. The royal quarter has become
"a site near Alexandria called
Kourchon" (i.e. Brucheion).
[389 CE]
379-395 CE) releases a series of
decrees which declare among other
things that any Pagan feast that has
not yet been transfered to a Christian
feast is now to be a workday.
[391 CE]
Serapis (the Serapeum) in Alexandria is
violently destroyed by Christian people
and the temple is converted to a
church.
(summarize quotes from historians)
The Serapeum is an acropolis with a
central temple building in the center
and other buildings surrounding the
border of the acropolis. Alfred Butler
relates that there were 2 chambers set
apart for the library, both within the
temple, concluding: "...if the Library
was part of the temple building, and if
the temple building was utterly
destroyed, how can it be argued that
the Library did not perish? The
destruction of the temple was complete:
it was thrown down to the foundations.
Eunapius says that 'they wrought havoc
with the Serapeum and made war on its
statues....The foundations alone were
not removed owing to the difficulty in
moving such huge blocks of stone.'
Theodoret, speaking of the same events,
says, 'The sanctuaries of the idols
were uprooted from their foundations.'
Socrates says that the Emperor's order
was for the demolition of all the
heathen temples in Alexandria, and that
'Theophilus threw down the temple of
Serapis': and again, 'The temples were
overthrown, and the bronze statues
melted down to make domestic vessels.'
The same writer records the discovery
of stones with hieroglyphic
inscriptions during the demolistion of
the temple of Serapis: and similar
language is used by Sozomen, who
describes the Christians as having
uninterruptedly occupied the Serapeum
from its capture by Theophilus to his
own time....Rufinus...speaks of the
exterior range of buildings round the
edge of the plateau as practically
uninjured, though void of its former
pagan occupiers: but he makes it clear,
that while this outer range remained,
with its lecure rooms and
dwelling-rooms, not only the great
temple of Serapis, but the colonnades
about it, had been levelled to the
ground.". Much of the Serapeum lasts as
late as the 12th century.
There are several
accounts of the destruction of the
Serapeum from Rufinus, Socrates
Scholasticus, Sozimen, Theodoret,
Eunapius and John of Nikiou.
The earliest description of the sack of
the Serapeum is from Sophronius, a
Christian scholar, called "On the
Overthrow of Serapis", but this text
has not yet been found.
Tyrannius Rufinus (who dies in 410 CE),
an orthodox Latin Christian, lives much
of his life in Alexandria, translates
Eusebius's History of the Church into
Latin and then adds his own books X and
XI, which takes the book up until this
time. Book XI has a description of the
sacking of the Serapeum.
Rufunus of Aquila will
write in 399 CE: "I suppose that
everyone has heard of the temple of
Serapis in Alexandria, and that many
are also familiar with it. The site was
elevated, not naturally but
artificially, to a height of a hundred
or more steps, its enormous rectangular
premises extending in every direction.
All the rooms up to the floor on top
were vaulted, and being furnished with
ceiling lights and concealed inner
chambers separate from one another,
were used for various services and
secret functions. On the upper level,
furthermore, the outermost structures
in the whole circumference provided
space for halls and shrines and for
lofty apartments which normally housed
either the temple staff of those called
hagneuontes, meaning those who keep
themselves pure. Behind these in turn
were porticoes {a porch with columns in
front of a door} arranged in rectangles
which ran around the whole
circumference of the inside. In the
middle of the entire area rose the
sanctuary with priceless columns, the
exterior fashioned of marble, spacious
and magnificent to behold. In it there
was a statue of Serapis so large that
its right hand touched one wall and its
left the other; this monster is said to
have been made of every kind of metal
and wood. The interior walls of the
shrine were believed to have been
covered with plates of gold overlaid
with silver and then bronze, the last
as a protection for the more precious
metals.
There were also some things cunningly
devised to excite the amazement and
wonder of those who saw them. There was
a tiny window so oriented toward the
direction of sunrise that on the day
appointed for the statue of the sun to
be carried in to greet Serapis, careful
observation of the seasons had ensured
that as the statue was entering, a ray
of sunlight coming through this window
would light up the mouth and lips of
Serapis, so that to the people looking
on it it would seem as though the sun
was greeting Serapis with a kiss. (this
is possible, perhaps on the longest day
of the year. comments from Amidon: The
existence of the window is confirmed by
Alexandrian coinage, and the same
arrangement for sun and window is found
in other Egyptian temples. The image of
the sun kissing Serapis is found on
coins and lamps of the period.)
There was
another like trick. Magnets, it is
said, have the power to pull and draw
iron to themselves. The image of the
sun had been made by its artisan of the
finest sort of iron with this in view:
that a magnet, which, as we said,
naturally attracts iron, and which was
set in the ceiling panels, might by
natural force draw the iron to itself
when the statue was placed so directly
beneath it, that statue appearing to
the people to rise and hang in the air.
(the levitating statue is a doubtful
story, although perhaps a small metal
statue could be thrown up and stuck to
the ceiling, but even that is doubtful
given the weak strength of natural
magnets of the time. Amidon: The use of
magnets in temple ceilings for the
purpose Rufinus describes is well
attested; cf. Claudiusn "Magnes" 22-39;
Pliny "Natural History" 34-42 (a magnet
in the ceiling of an Alexandrian
temple);Ausonius "Mosella" 315-317;
Augustine "City of God" 21.6; Thelamon
PC 182,184. still, only perhaps with
enough strength to hold metal objects,
but I serious doubt levitating is
anything other than unwitnessed
fantasical stories, a similar story is
told about wind blowing back arrows
after a prayer to a God, Rufinus
conceeds 'the impious may find this
hard to believe')... Now as we started
to say, when the letter had been read
our people were ready to overthrow the
author of {the} error, but a rumor had
been spread by the Pagans that if a
human hand touched the statue, the
earth would split open on the spot and
crumble into the abyss, while the sky
would crash down at once. This gave the
people pause for a moment, until one of
the soldiers, armed with faith rather
than weapons, seized a double-headed
axe, drew himself up, and struck the
old fraud on the jaw with all his
might. A roar went up from both sides,
but the sky did not fall, nor did the
earth collapse. Thus with repeated
strokes he felled the smoke-grimed
diety of rotten wood, which upon being
thrown down burned as easily as dry
wood when it was kindled. After this
the head was wrenched from the neck,
the bushel having been taken down, and
dragged off; then the feet and other
members were chopped off with axes and
dragged apart with ropes attached, and
piece by piece, each in a different
place, the decrepit dotard (DOTeRD,
somebody whose age has impaired their
intellect) was burned to ashes before
the eyes of the Alexandria which had
worshipped him. Last of all the torso
which was left was put to the torch in
the amphitheater, and that was the end
of the vain superstition and ancient
error of Serapis.
...
Once the very pinnacle of idolatry had
been thrown down, all of the idols, or
one should rather say monsters,
throughout Alexandria were pilloried
{ridiculed and abused} by a like
destruction and similar disgrace
through the efforts of its most
vigilant priest. The mind shutters to
speak of the snares laid by the demons
for wretched mortals, the corpses, the
crimes uncovered in what they call
"shrines," the number of decapitated
babies' heads found in gilded urns, the
number of pictures of excruciating
deaths of poor wretches. When these
were brought to light and displayed to
public view, even though their very
confusion and shame scattered the
pagans, still those who could bear to
remain were amazed at how they had been
enmeshed for so many centuries in such
vile and shameful deceptions. Hence
many of them, having condemned this
error and realized its wickedness,
embraced the faith of Christ and the
true religion.
(interesting that compared to
child sacrifice, Christianity may have
looked more civilized, but Christian
people murdered many people, and have
just as many unrealistic beliefs as
Pagan/polytheist people did.)
...
but nothing was done which resulted in
the place becoming deserted. The dens
of iniquity and age-worn burial grounds
were demolished, and lofty churches,
temples of the true God, were put up.
For on the site of Serapis' tomb the
unholy sanctuaries were leveled, and on
the one side there rose a {Christian}
martyr's shrine, on the other a
church.
...
But after the death of Serapis, who had
never been alive, what temples of any
other demon could remain standing? It
would hardly be enough to say that all
the deserted shrines in Alexandria, of
whatever demon, {no doubt including
"the Muses"} came down almost column by
column. In fact, in all the cities of
Egypt, the settlements, the villages,
the countryside everywhere, the
riverbanks, even the desert, wherever
shrines, or rather graveyards, could be
found, the persistence of the several
bishops resulted in their being wrecked
and razed to the ground {that is to say
completely and permanently demolished},
so that the countryside, which had
wrongly been given over to the demons,
was restored to agriculture.
Another thing was done
in Alexandria: the busts of Serapis,
which had been in every house in the
walls, the entrances, the doorposts,
and even the windows, were so cut and
filed away that not even a trace or
mention of him or any other demon
remained anywhere. In their place
everyone painted the sign of the Lord's
cross on doorposts, and even the
windows, were so cut and filed away
that not even a trace or mention of him
or any other demon remained anywhere.
In their place everyone painted the
sign of the Lord's cross on doorposts,
entrances, windows, walls, and
columns."{I think this shows the
thoroughness of this transition}
Socrates Scholasticus, in his "Historia
Ecclesiastica" describes the
destruction of the Serapeum this way:
"Demoli
tion of the Idolatrous Temples at
Alexandria, and the Consequent Conflict
between the Pagans and Christians.
At the request
of Theophilus, Bishop of Alexandria,
the Emperor issued an order at this
time for the demolition of the heathen
temples in that city; commanding also
that it should be put in execution
under the direction of Theophilus.
Seizing this opportunity, Theophilus
exerted himself to the utmost to expose
the pagan mysteries to contempt. And to
begin with, he caused the Mithreum {an
often underground or partially
underground temple dedicated to the
worship of Mithras, a Persian God , see
Socrates 3.2 for more detail} to be
cleaned out, and exhibited to public
view the tokens of its bloody
mysteries. Then he destroyed the
Serapeum, and the bloody rights of the
Mithreum he publicly caricatured {to
imitate in an exaggerated, distorted
manner }; the Serapeum also he showed
full of extravagant superstitions, and
he had the phalli {penises} of Priapus
carried through the midst of the forum.
The Pagans of Alexandria, and
especially the professors of
philosophy, were unable to repress
their rage at this exposure, and
exceeded in revengeful ferocity their
outrages on a former occasion: for with
one accord, at a preconcerted signal,
they rushed impetuously upon the
Christians, and murdered every one they
could lay hands on. The Christians also
made an attempt to resist the
assailants, and so the mischief was the
more augmented. This desperate brawl
was prolonged until fulfillment of
enough bloodshed put an end to it. Then
it was discovered that very few of the
heathens had been killed, but a great
number of Christians had; while the
number of wounded on each side was
almost innumerable. Fear then possessed
the Pagans on account of what was done,
as they considered the Emperor's
displeasure. For having done what
seemed good in their own eyes, and by
their bloodshed having quenched their
courage, some fled in one direction,
some in another, and many quitting
Alexandria, dispersed themselves in
various cities. Among these were the
two grammarians Helladius and Ammonius,
whose pupil I was in my youth at
Constantinople. Helladius was said to
be the priest of Jupiter, and Ammonius
of Simius. Thus this disturbance having
been terminated, the governor of
Alexandria, and the commander-in-chief
of the troops in Egypt, assisted
Theophilus in demolishing the heathen
temples. These were therefore razed to
the ground, and the images of their
gods molten into pots and other
convenient utensils for the use of the
Alexandrian church; for the emperor had
instructed Theophilus to distribute
them for the relief of the poor. All
the images were accordingly broken to
pieces, except one statue of the god
before mentioned, which Theophilus
preserved and set up in a public place;
`Lest,' said he, `at a future time the
heathens should deny that they had ever
worshiped such gods.' This action gave
great offense to Ammonius the
grammarian in particular, who to my
knowledge was accustomed to say that
`the religcion of the Gentiles was
grossly abused in that that single
statue was not also melted, but
preserved, in order to render that
religion ridiculous.' Helladius however
boasted in the presence of some that he
had slain in that desperate onset nine
men with his own hand. Such were the
doings at Alexandria at that time."
Eunapios (Eunapius) (Ευνάπιος)
(346 Sardis - ~414 ) writes:
"Now, not long
after, an unmistakable sign was given
that there was in him {Antoninius} some
diviner element. For no sooner had he
left the world of men than the cult of
the temples in Alexandria and at the
shrine of Serapis {greek: Sarapei'on}
was scattered to the winds, and not
only the ceremonies of the cult but the
buildings as well, and everything
happened as in the myths of the poets
when the Giants gained the upper hand.
The temples at Canobus also suffered
the same fate in the reign of
Theodosius, when Theophilus {the
Christian bishop of Alexandria}
presided over the abominable ones like
a sort of Eurymedon.
Who ruled over the proud
Giants, (Odyssey Vii 59)
and Evagrius was
prefect of the city, and Romanus in
command of the legions in Egypt. For
these men, girding themselves in their
wrath against our sacred places as
though against stones and stone-masons,
made a raid on the temples, and though
they could not allege even a rumour of
war to justify them, they demolished
the temple of Serapis {Sarapei'w} and
war against the temple offerings,
whereby they won a victory without
meeting a foe or fighting a battle. In
this fashion they fought so strenuously
against the statues and votive
offerings {Given or dedicated in
fulfillment of a vow or pledge } that
they not only conquered but stole them
as well, and their own military tactics
were to ensure that the thief should
escape detection. Only the floor of the
temple of Searpis {Sarapei'on} they did
not take, simply because of the weight
of the stones which were not easy to
move from their place. Then these
warlike and honorable men, after they
had thrown everything into confusion
and disorder and had thrust out hands,
unstained indeed by blood but not pure
from greed, boasted that they had
overcome the gods, and viewed {was
reckoned} their sacrilege and impiety a
thing to glory in.
Next, into the sacred
places they imported monks, as they
called them, who were men in appearance
but led the lives of swine, and openly
did and allowed countless unspeakable
crimes. But this they accounted piety,
to show contempt for things divine. For
in those days every man who wore a
black robe and consented to behave in
unseemly fashion in public, possessed
the power of a tyrant, to such a pitch
of virtue had the human race advanced!
All this however I have described in my
'Universal History'. They settled these
monks at Canobus also, and thus they
fettered the human race to the worship
of slaves, and those not even honest
slaves, instead of the true gods. For
they collected the bones and skulls of
criminals who had been put to death for
numerous crimes, men whom the law
courts of the city had condemned to
punishment, made them out to be gods,
haunted their sepulchres {Christian
churches were built over the graves of
martyrs}, and thought that they became
better by defiling themselves at their
graves. 'Martyrs' the dead men were
called, and 'ministers' of a sort, and
'ambassadors' from the gods to carry
men's prayers, -these slaves in vilest
servitude, who had been consumed by
stripes {cars from whipping} and
carried on their phantom forms the
scars of their villainy. However these
are the gods that earth produces! {kind
of a funny statement showing kind of
comedic view of belief in gods} This
then, greatly increased the reputation
of Antoninus also for foresight, in
that he had foretold to all that the
temples would become tombs. Likewise
the famous Iamblichus, as I have handed
down in my account of his life, when a
certain Egyptian invoked Apollo, and to
the great amazement of those who saw
the vision, Apollo came: 'My friends,'
said he, 'cease to wonder; this is only
the ghost of a gladiator.' So great a
difference does it make whether one
beholds a thing with the intelligence
or with the deceitful eyes of the
flesh. But Iamblichus saw through
marvels that were present, whereas
Antoninus foresaw future events. This
fact of itself argues his superior
powers. his end came painlessly, when
he attained to a ripe old age free from
sickness. And to all intelligent men
the end of the temples which he had
prognosticated was painful indeed."
Theodoret (~380-~?) writes:
"The illustrious
Athanasius was succeeded by the
admirable Petrus, Petrus by Timotheus,
and Timotheus by Theophilus, a man of
sound wisdom and of a lofty courage. By
him Alexandria was set free from the
error of idolatry; for, not content
with razing the idols' temples to the
ground, he exposed the tricks of the
priests to the victims of their wiles.
For they had constructed statues of
bronze and wood hollow within, and
fastened the backs of them to the
temple walls, leaving in these walls
certain invisible openings. Then coming
up from their secret chambers they got
inside the statues, and through them
gave any order they liked and the
hearers, tricked and cheated, obeyed.
These tricks the wise Theophilus
exposed to the people.
Moreover he went up into
the temple of Serapis, which has been
described by some as excelling in size
and beauty all the temples in the
world. There he saw an image of which
the bulk struck beholders with terror,
increased by a lying report which got
abroad that if any one approached it,
there would be a great earthquake, and
that all the people would be destroyed.
The bishop looked on all these tales as
the mere drivelling of tipsy old women,
and in utter derision of the lifeless
monster's enormous size, he told a man
who had an axe to give Serapis a good
blow with it. No sooner had the man
struck, than all the people cried out,
for they were afraid of the threatened
catastrophe. Serapis however, who had
received the blow, felt no pain,
inasmuch as he was made of wood, and
uttered never a word, since he was a
lifeless block (clearly the effort to
win people over to their religion is
evident in this and other writings from
both the Christian and Pagan sides in
this time). His head was cut off, and
forthwith out ran multitudes of mice,
for the Egyptian god was a dwelling
place for mice. Serapis was broken into
small pieces of which some were
committed to the flames, buit his head
was carried through all the town in
sight of his worshippers, who mocked
the weakness of him to whom they had
bowed the knee.
Thus all over the world the
shrines of the idols were destroyed."
Salaminius Hermias Sozomen (c400-c450),
historian of the Christian church
writes:
"About this period, the bishop of
Alexandria, to whom the temple of
Dionysus had, at his own request, been
granted by the emperor, converted the
edifice into a church. The statues were
removed, the adyta were exposed; and,
in order to cast contumely on the pagan
mysteries, he made a procession for the
display of these objects; the phalli,
and whatever other object had been
concealed in the adyta (The sanctum, or
sacred place, in an ancient temple )
which really was, or seemed to be,
ridiculous, he made a public exhibition
of. The pagans, amazed at so unexpected
an exposure, could not suffer it in
silence, but conspired together to
attack the Christians. They killed many
of the Christians, wounded others, and
seized the Serapion, a temple which was
conspicuous for beauty and vastness and
which was seated on an eminence. This
they converted into a temporary
citadel; and hither they conveyed many
of the Christians, put them to the
torture, and compelled them to offer
sacrifice. Those who refused compliance
were crucified, had both legs broken,
or were put to death in some cruel
manner. When the sedition had prevailed
for some time, the rulers came and
urged the people to remember the laws,
to lay down their arms, and to give up
the Serapion. There came then Romanus,
the general of the military legions in
Egpyt; and Evagrius was the prefect of
Alexandria. As their efforts, however,
to reduce the people to submission were
utterly in vain, they made known what
had transpired to the emperor. Those
who had shut themselves up in the
Serapion prepared a more spirited
resistance, from fear of the punishment
that they knew would await their
audacious proceedings, and they were
further instigated to revolt by the
inflammatory discourses of a man named
Olympius, attired in the garments of a
philosopher, who told them that they
ought to die rather than neglect the
gods of their fathers. Perceiving that
they were greatly dispirited by the
destruction of the idolatrous statues,
he assured them that such a
circumstance did not warrant their
renouncing their religion; for that the
statues were composed of corruptible
materials, and were mere pictures, and
therefore would disappear; whereas, the
powers which had dwelt within them, had
flown to heaven. By such
representations as these, he retained
the multitude with him in the
Serapion.
When the emperor was informed of these
occurrences, he declared that the
Christians who had been slain were
blessed, inasmuch as they had been
admitted to the honor of martyrdom, and
had suffered in defense of the faith.
He offered free pardon30 to those who
had slain them, hoping that by this act
of clemency they would be the more
readily induced to embrace
Christianity; and he commanded the
demolition of the temples in Alexandria
which had been the cause of the popular
sedition. It is said that, when this
imperial edict was read in public, the
Christians uttered loud shouts of joy,
because the emperor laid the odium of
what had occurred upon the pagans. The
people who were guarding the Serapion
were so terrified at hearing these
shouts, that they took to flight, and
the Christians immediately obtained
possession of the spot, which they have
retained ever since. I have been
informed that, on the night preceding
this occurrence, Olympius heard the
voice of one singing hallelujah in the
Serapion. The doors were shut and
everything was still; and as he could
see no one, but could only hear the
voice of the singer, he at once
understood what the sign signified; and
unknown to any one he quitted the
Serapion and embarked for Italy. It is
said that when the temple was being
demolished, some stones were found, on
which were hieroglyphic characters in
the form of a cross, which on being
submitted to the inspection of the
learned, were interpreted as signifying
the life to come.31 These characters
led to the conversion of several of the
pagans, as did likewise other
inscriptions found in the same place,
and which contained predictions of the
destruction of the temple. It was thus
that the Serapion was taken, and, a
little while after, converted into a
church; it received the name of the
Emperor Arcadius.
There were still pagans in many cities,
who contended zealously in behalf of
their temples; as, for instance, the
inhabitants of Petraea and of
Areopolis, in Arabia; of Raphi and
Gaza, in Palestine; of Heriopolis in
Phoenicia; and of Apamea, on the river
Axius, in Syria. I have been informed
that the inhabitants of the last-named
city often armed the men of Galilee and
the peasants of Lebanon in defense of
their temples; and that at last, they
even carried their audacity to such a
height, as to slay a bishop named
Marcellus. This bishop had commanded
the demolition of all the temples in
the city and villages, under the
supposition that it would not be easy
otherwise for them to be converted from
their former religion. Having heard
that there was a very spacious temple
at Aulon, a district of Apamea, he
repaired thither with a body of
soldiers and gladiators. He stationed
himself at a distance from the scene of
conflict, beyond the reach of the
arrows; for he was afflicted with the
gout, and was unable to fight, to
pursue, or to flee. Whilst the soldiers
and gladiators were engaged in the
assault against the temple, some
pagans, discovering that he was alone,
hastened to the place where he was
separated from the combat; they arose
suddenly and seized him, and burnt him
alive. The perpetrators of this deed
were not then known, but, in course of
time, they were detected, and the sons
of Marcellus determined upon avenging
his death. The council of the province,
however, prohibited them from executing
this design, and declared that it was
not just that the relatives or friends
of Marcellus should seek to avenge his
death; when they should rather return
thanks to God for having accounted him
worthy to die in such a cause." Clearly
this is a period, under Theodosius
where most if not all Pagan temples are
destroyed.
John Malalas (490-~570 CE) will write:
"After
the reign of Arcadius, his brother
Honorius resigned in Rome for 31 years.
He was irascible and chaste.
This emperor
closed the temple of Serapis Helios in
Alexandria the Great."
The Church built over the ruins of the
Serapeum is named after Honorius, the
youngest son of the Emperor
Theodosius.
Aphthonius, a contemporary of the
destruction, writes in a "description
of the Acropolis of Alexandria" (the
Serapeum is commonly called the
Acropolis of Alexandria), "On the inner
side of the collonade were built rooms,
some of which served as books stores
(tameia tois biblios) and were open to
those who devoted their life to the
cause of learning. It was these
study-rooms that exalted the city to be
the first in philosophy. Some other
rooms were set up for the 'worship of
the old gods'." Aphthonius uses the
past tense to describe the rooms for
the worship of the old gods, and this
indicates that by the time of this
writing he knows that these features no
longer exist.
The writing of Eunapius, Theodoret and
others are strong evidence that the
Mouseion and Serapeum did not last past
391.
A Neoplatonic philosopher Olympius,
assumes leadership in the resistance in
the Serapeum; the pagans are joined by
Ammonius (a preist of Thoth {Egyptian
version of Greek God Hermes}) and
Helladius (a preist of Ammon {Egyptian
version of Greek God Zeus}), teachers
of Greek language and literature; and
by a poet Palladas and probably by the
poet Claudian. Theopilus also orders
the destruction of the temple of the
god Serapis in Canopus. Church
historians Rufinus, Sozomenos and
Damascius (in his "Life of Isidore")
relate how Olympius, in his philopher's
cloak, placed himself at the head of
the defenders, and calls for total
sacrifice in defense of the sacred
symbols of their ancestor's religion.
As the pagan defenders watched the
destruction of their statues of the
gods, Olympius repeatedly assures them
that the spirit inside the statues goes
to heaven and only their early form is
destroyed. Under the leadership of
Olympius the pagans reportedly capture,
torture and crucify some Christians.
Among those killed is the renowned
rhetor (teacher of rhetoric, the art of
the effective use of language) Gessius.
Helladius takes pride in killing 9
Christians in the street skirmishes.
After the fall of the Serapeum,
Olympius, Ammonius, Helladius,
Claudian, and other pagan left
Alexandria. Ammonius and Helladius flee
to Constantinople where they look back
with pain and lament at the defeat
dealt to Hellenic religion (there
really is no clear name, like
Christianity for this polytheistic
religion centered on Zeus, I guess
"Hellenic religion" is going to have to
be what I use}. Ammonius, in particular
despairs over the destruction of the
statues of the gods and the ridicule to
which they were subjected; on
Theophilus' order the status of the god
Thoth (with the head of a baboon) had
been exhibited to the mob, who had
mocked its sacredness. When the
emperor's edict ordering the
destruction of the temple was
proclaimed, and soldiers and Christians
began their occupation of the Serapeum,
Olypius escaped to Italy by sea.
Palladas {friend of Theon and author of
a poem about the young Hypatia}
remained in Alexandria but was deprived
of the salary allotted him by the city
for teaching Greek literature.
Just four months after issuing his
first edict, Theodosius needs to
reiterate the prohibition against pagan
worship {CTh. XVI.10.11}, this time
addressing it to the prefect and
military governor in Egypt.
The Serapeum was the most famous of the
temples in the East and had stood for
more than six centuries. Bands of monks
and Christian officials had long been
accustomed to take the law into their
own hands and destroy various centers
of Pagan worship, but the destruction
of the Serapeum seemed to confirm that
such actions enjoyed the Emperor's
tacit approval at least, and served to
encourage such action in the future.
[400 CE]
temples in Alexandria as "scattered to
the winds" in terms of cult
ceremonies.
Around this time Orosius reports that
Christians have already plundered the
contents of Alexandrian libraries.
Copy
ing and preservation by Christians of
only those philosophical treatises that
do not go against their religious
beliefs contribute to the loss of
thousands of manuscripts.
[400 CE]
Indian mathematics text, is one of the
earliest records of the use of the
number zero and negative numbers.
[1] The Nine Chapters on the
Mathematical Art Source:
http://www.chinapage.com/jiuzhang.gif P
D
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:%E4%B9%9D%E7%AB%A0%E7%AE%97%E8%A1%93.
gif
[400 CE]
Mayan people independently of Asia.
This
paper is called "Amatl" and is made by
boiling the inner bark of several
species of fig trees (genus Ficus) and
pounding the resulting fibers with a
stone (and allowed to dry). The paper
is light brown with corrugated lines,
is stretchy and delicate.
[1] Part of the Huexotzinco Codex,
printed on amatl Source URL:
http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/treasures/tr
t045.html Image made in 1531 by Nahua
Indians in legal case in Mexico and
Spain against Spanish administrators
who abused them. The Indians were part
of the Cortes estate. Cortes was a
co-plantiff against the administrators
who mismanaged his estate. Image taken
form a Library of Congress page. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Huex_codex_1a_loc.jpg
[409 CE]
who studies under Hypatia, describes
the pictures of philosophers in the
Mouseion. There is no later reference
to the Mouseion's existence in the
fifth century.
This is evidence that the Mouseion
survived intact after the destruction
of the Sarapeion in 391. Since Synesios
is thought to have died around 414, and
there are no other references after
Synesios, it is possible that the
Mouseion was destroyed a short time
before or after the murder of Hypatia.
This is
in Chapter 6 of "A Eulogy of Baldness",
Synesios writes: "You may look at the
pictures in the Museum, I mean those of
Diogenes and Socrates, and whomever you
please of those who in their age were
wise, and your survey would be an
inspection of bald heads." This is
evidence that there were pictures
{probably painted on papyrus} of famous
philosophers and scholars. We probably
would know what the famous scholars of
the Mouseion looked like, had the
Mouseion survived.
[10/15/412 CE]
by his nephew Cyril. Theophilus is
refered to as the "church's pharaoh".
Theophilus's harsh and authoritarian
conduct provokes anger among
Alexandrian Pagan people, monks of the
desert Nitria, the Bishop of
Constantinople, John Chrysostom, and
from various Christian groups in the
East.
Church historians of today express
great respect for Cyril, but his
contemporaries view Cyril differently
describing him as impetuous (in other
words forcefully impulsive), and
power-hungry. Cyril arouses strong
opposition in Egypt. There are three
days of fighting between supporters of
Timothy, Theophilus' archdeacon, and
supporters of Cyril.
[10/17/412 CE]
(Κυρίλλ
59;υ) win the three day battle and
Cyril is bishop.
Socrates Scholasticus, a Christian
historian, alive at this time, writes:
"Cyril
succeeds Theophilus Bishop of
Alexandria.
Shortly afterwards Theophilus bishop of
Alexandria having fallen into a
lethargic state, died on the 15th of
October,19 in the ninth consulate of
Honorius, and the fifth of Theodosius.
A great contest immediately arose about
the appointment of a successor, some
seeking to place Timothy the archdeacon
in the episcopal chair; and others
desiring Cyril, who was a nephew of
Theophilus. A tumult having arisen on
this account among the people,
Abundantius, the commander of the
troops in Egypt, took sides with
Timothy. (Yet the partisans of Cyril
triumphed.)20 Whereupon on the third
day after the death of Theophilus,
Cyril came into possession of the
episcopate, with greater power than
Theophilus had ever exercised. For from
that time the bishopric of Alexandria
went beyond the limits of its
sacerdotal functions, and assumed the
administration of secular matters.21
Cyril immediately therefore shut up the
churches of the Novatians at
Alexandria, and took possession of all
their consecrated vessels and
ornaments; and then stripped their
bishop Theopemptus of all that he had."
[03/??/415 CE]
Υπατία
and
Ὑπατία
62;) (c360 - 415), a popular female
philosopher, mathematician and
astronomer in Alexandria is murdered by
Christian people.
Many people site this as the
end of ancient science. Clearly, the
seed of science survived, as science
grows now, in the time we live in.
There
are 4 major sources for information
about Hypatia
1) A passage in the
"Ecclesiastical History" by a Christian
historian, Socrates Scholasticus (380
Constantinople -~450 CE)
2) A number of
letters by Hypatia's pupil, Synesius of
Cyrene (c370-413 CE)
3) An entry in the
Suda Lexicon, an 10th century CE
encyclopedia which mistakenly has
Hypatia as married and some people
think is a mixing of two texts, one
from a sixth-century encyclopedia, "the
Onomatologus of Hesychius the
Illustrious" and the other from a still
lost work, "The Life of Isidorus" by
the Neoplatonist philosopher Damascius.
(It's not clear if "The Philosophical
History" from Damaskios is taken
directly from a primary source.)
4) An excerpt
from The Chronicle of John, Coptic
Bishop of Nikiu who lives around 696
CE.
Socrates of Scholasticus, a Christian
historian alive at the time of the
murder of Hypatia writes:
"Conflict between the
Christians and Jews at Alexandria: and
breach between the Bishop Cyril
(Κυρίλλ
59;υ) and the Prefect Orestes.
About this same time it happened that
the Jewish inhabitants were driven out
of Alexandria by Cyril the bishop on
the following account. The Alexandrian
public is more delighted-with tumult
than any other people: and if at any
time it should find a pretext, breaks
forth into the most intolerable
excesses; for it never ceases from its
turbulence without bloodshed. It
happened on the present occasion that a
disturbance arose among the populace,
not from a cause of any serious
importance, but out of an evil that has
become very popular in almost all
cities, viz. a fondness for dancing
exhibitions.38 In consequence of the
Jews being disengaged from business on
the Sabbath, and spending their time,
not in hearing the Law, but in
theatrical amusements, dancers usually
collect great crowds on that day, and
disorder is almost invariably produced.
And although this was in some degree
controlled by the governor of
Alexandria, nevertheless the Jews
continued opposing these measures. And
although they are always hostile toward
the Christians they were roused to
still greater opposition against them
on account of the dancers. When
therefore Orestes the prefect was
publishing an edict-for so they are
accustomed to call public notices-in
the theatre for the regulation of the
shows, some of the bishop Cyril's party
were present to learn the nature of the
orders about to be issued. There was
among them a certain Hierax, a teacher
of the rudimental branches of
literature, and one who was a very
enthusiastic listener of the bishop
Cyril's sermons, and made himself
conspicuous by his forwardness in
applauding. When the Jews observed this
person in the theatre, they immediately
cried out that he had come there for no
other purpose than to excite sedition
among the people. Now Orestes had long
regarded with jealousy the growing
power of the bishops, because they
encroached on the jurisdiction of the
authorities appointed by the emperor,
especially as Cyril wished to set spies
over his proceedings; he therefore
ordered Hierax to be seized, and
publicly subjected him to the torture
in the theatre. Cyril, on being
informed of this, sent for the
principal Jews, and threatened them
with the utmost severities unless they
desisted from their molestation of the
Christians. The Jewish populace on
hearing these menaces, instead of
suppressing their violence, only became
more furious, and were led to form
conspiracies for the destruction of the
Christians; one of these was of so
desperate a character as to cause their
entire expulsion from Alexandria; this
I shall now describe. Having agreed
that each one of them should wear a
ring on his finger made of the bark of
a palm branch, for the sake of mutual
recognition, they determined to make a
nightly attack on the Christians. They
therefore sent persons into the streets
to raise an outcry that the church
named after Alexander was on fire. Thus
many Christians on hearing this ran
out, some from one direction and some
from another, in great anxiety to save
their church. The Jews immediately fell
upon and slew them; readily
distinguishing each other by their
rings. At daybreak the authors of this
atrocity could not be concealed: and
Cyril, accompanied by an immense crowd
of people, going to their
synagogues-for so they call their house
of prayer-took them away from them,and
drove the Jews out of the city,
permitting the multitude to plunder
their goods. Thus the Jews who had
inhabited the city from the time of
Alexander the Macedonian were expelled
from it, stripped of all they
possessed, and dispersed some in one
direction and some in another. One of
them, a physician39 named Adamantius,
fled to Atticus bishop of
Constantinople, and professing
Christianity, some time afterwards
returned to Alexandria and fixed his
residence there. But Orestes the
governor of Alexandria was filled with
great indignation at these
transactions, and was excessively
grieved that a city of such magnitude
should have been suddenly bereft of so
large a portion of its population; he
therefore at once communicated the
whole affair to theemperor. Cyril also
wrote to him, describing the outrageous
conduct of the Jews; and in the
meanwhile sent persons to Orestes who
should mediate concerning a
reconciliation: for this the people had
urged him to do. And when Orestes
refused to listen to friendly advances,
Cyril extended toward him the book of
gospels,40 believing that respect for
religion would induce him to lay aside
his resentment. When, however, even
this had no pacific effect on the
prefect, but he persisted in implacable
hostility against the bishop, the
following event afterwards occurred.
Chapter XIV.
The Monks of Nitria come down
and raise a Sedition against the
Prefect of Alexandria.
Some of the monks inhabiting the
mountains of Nitria, of a very fiery
disposition, whom Theophilus some time
before had unjustly armed against
Dioscorus and his brethren, being again
transported with an ardent zeal,
resolved to fight in behalf of Cyril.
About five hundred of them therefore
quitting their monasteries, came into
the city; and meeting the prefect in
his chariot, they called him a pagan
idolater, and applied to him many other
abusive epithets. He supposing this to
be a snare laid for him by Cyril,
exclaimed that he was a Christian, and
had been baptized by Atticus the bishop
at Constantinople. As they gave but
little heed to his protestations, and a
certain one of them named Ammonius
threw a stone at Orestes which struck
him on the head and covered him with
the blood that flowed from the wound,
all the guards with a few exceptions
fled, plunging into the crowd, some in
one direction and some in another,
fearing to be stoned to death.
Meanwhile the populace of Alexandria
ran to the rescue of the governor, and
put the rest of the monks to flight;
but having secured Ammonius they
delivered him up to the prefect. He
immediately put him publicly to the
torture, which was inflicted with such
severity that he died under the effects
of it: and not long: after he gave an
account to the emperors of what had
taken place. Cyril also on the other
hand forwarded his statement of the
matter to the emperor: and causing the
body of Ammonius to be deposited in a
certain church, he gave him the new
appellation of Thaumasius,41 ordering
him to be enrolled among the martyrs,
and eulogizing his magnanimity in
church as that of one who had fallen in
a conflict in defence of piety. But the
more sober-minded, although Christians,
did not accept Cyril's prejudiced
estimate of him; for they well knew
that he had suffered the punishment due
to his rashness, and that he had not
lost his life under the torture because
he would not deny Christ. And Cyril
himself being conscious of this,
suffered the recollection of the
circumstance to be gradually
obliterated by silence. But the
animosity between Cyril and Orestes did
not by any means subside at this point,
but was kindled afresh by an occurrence
similar to the preceding.
Chapter XV.
Of Hypatia the Female
Philosopher.
There was a woman at Alexandria named
Hypatia, daughter of the philosopher
Theon, who made such attainments in
literature and science, as to far
surpass all the philosophers of her own
time. Having succeeded to the school of
Plato and Plotinus, she explained the
principles of philosophy to her
auditors, many of whom came from a
distance to receive her instructions.
On account of the self-possession and
ease of manner, which she had acquired
in consequence of the cultivation of
her mind, she not unfrequently appeared
in public in presence of the
magistrates. Neither did she feel
abashed in coming to an assembly of
men. For all men on account of her
extraordinary dignity and virtue
admired her the more. Yet even she fell
a victim to the political jealousy
which at that time prevailed. For as
she had frequent interviews with
Orestes (the Roman Prefect or Governor
of Egypt at the time ), it was
slanderously reported among the
Christian populace, that it was she who
prevented Orestes from being reconciled
to the Bishop. Some of them therefore,
hurried away by a fierce and bigoted
zeal, whose ringleader was a reader
named Peter, waylaid her returning
home, and dragging her from her
carriage, they took her to the church
called Caesareum, where they completely
stripped her, and then murdered her
with tiles {the words are
οστράκ_
9;ις
ανείλο_
7;, oyster shells, but this word was
applied to brick ceiling tiles}. After
tearing her body in pieces, they took
her mangled limbs to a place called
Cinaron, and there burnt them. This
affair brought not the least disgrace
(in other words some amount of
disgrace), not only upon Cyril, but
also upon the whole Alexandrian church.
And surely nothing can be farther from
the spirit of Christianity than the
allowance of massacres, fights, and
transactions of that sort. This
happened in the month of March during
Lent, in the fourth year of Cyril's
episcopate, under the tenth consulate
of Honorius, and the sixth of
Theodosius."
A century later, Damaskios, the last of
the Neoplatonists, forced out of Athens
in 529 by Justinian, will write in "The
Philosophical History":
"Hypatia: she was born,
brought up and educated in Alexandria
and being endowed with a nobler nature
than her father, she was not content
with the mathematical education that
her father gave her, but occupied
herself with some distinction in the
other branches of philosophy. And
wraping herself in a philosopher's
cloak, she progressed through the town,
publicly interpreting the works of
Plato, Aristotle or any other
philosopher to those who wished to
listen. As well as being a gifted
teacher, she had reached the peak of
moral virtue and was just and prudent;
she remained a virgin, but as she was
remarkably beautiful and attractive one
of her students fell in love with her
and, not being able to control his
passion, he betrayed it to her as well.
Ignorant legend has it that Hypatia
cured him of his disease through music.
But the truth is that when music failed
to have any effect, she produced a rag
of the type used by women, stained with
blood and, showing him the symbol of
the impurity of birth she said: "This
is what you are in love with, young
man, and not a thing of beauty". His
soul was overcome by shame and
astonishment at the unseemly display
and he adopted a more rational
attitude.
Hypatia being of such a nature -skilled
and dialectical (arriving at the truth
through logical argument ) in speech,
wise and politic (using prudence,
shrewdness, proceeding from policy) in
behavior- the entire city naturally
loved her and held her in exceptional
esteem, while the powers-that-be paid
their respects first to her, as indeed
was the custom in Athens. Even if
philosophy itself was dead, its name at
least still seemed most honorable and
worthy of admiration to those who ran
the affairs of the city.
It happened one day
that Cyril, the man in charge of the
opposing sect, was passing Hypatia's
house and seeing a great crowd at the
door "a mix of men and horses", some
going, some coming and some standing
around, he asked what the crowd was and
why there was the commotion in front of
the house. His attendants told him that
honors were being paid to the
philosopher Hypatia and that this was
her house. When he heard this, envy so
gnawed at his soul that he soon began
to plot her murder -the most ungodly
murder of all. When she left her house
as usual, a crowd of bestial men -truly
abominable- those who take account
neither of divine vengeance nor of
human retribution- fell upon and killed
the philosopher; and while she still
gasped for air they cut out her eyes;
thus inflicting the greatest pollution
and disgrace on the city. And the
Emperor was angry {missing text is
probably to the effect "and would have
sought punishment"} ... had not
Aedesius been bribed. He removed the
punishment from the murderers and
brought it upon himself and his
offspring; it was his grandson who paid
the penalty."
John, Bishop of Nikiu, writes around
696 CE:
"AND IN THOSE DAYS there appeared
in Alexandria a female philosopher, a
pagan named Hypatia, and she was
devoted at all times to magic,
astrolabes and instruments of music,
and she beguiled many people through
(her) Satanic wiles. And the governor
of the city honored her exceedingly;
for she had beguiled him through her
magic. And he ceased attending church
as had been his custom. But he went
once under circumstances of danger. And
he not only did this, but he drew many
believers to her, and he himself
received the unbelievers at his house.
And on a certain day when they were
making merry over a theatrical
exhibition connected with dancers, the
governor of the city published (an
edict) regarding the public exhibitions
in the city of Alexandria: and all the
inhabitants of the city had assembled
there {in the theater}. Now Cyril, who
had been appointed patriarch after
Theophilus, was eager to gain exact
intelligence regarding this edict. And
there was a man named Hierax, a
Christian possessing understanding and
intelligence who used to mock the
Pagans but was a devoted adherent of
the illustrious Father the patriarch
and was obedient to his monitions
(warnings of imminent danger). He was
also well versed in the Christian
faith. (Now this man attended the
theater to learn the nature of this
edict.) But when the Jews saw him in
the theater they cried out and said:
"This man has not come with any good
purpose, but only to provoke an
uproar." And Orestes the prefect was
displeased with the children of the
holy church, and Hierax was seized and
subjected to punishment publicly in the
theater, although he was wholly
guiltless. And Cyril was wroth with the
governor of the city for so doing, and
likewise for his putting to death an
illustrious monk of the convent of
Pernodj (The Coptic word for the desert
of Nitria) named Ammonius, and other
monks (also). And when the chief
magistrate (This is apparently wrong.
It should be "Cyril" {a magistrate is a
civil officer with the authority to
enforce the law}) of the city heard
this, he sent word to the Jews as
follows: "Cease your hostilities
against the Christians." But they
refused to hearken to what they heard;
for they gloried in the support of the
Prefect who was with them, and so they
added outrage to outrage and plotted a
massacre through a treacherous device.
And they posted beside them at night in
all the streets of the city certain
men, while others cried out and said:
"The church of the apostolic Athanasius
is on fire: come to its succour, all ye
Christians." And the Christians on
hearing their cry came fourth quite
ignorant of the treachery of the Jews.
And when the Christians came forth, the
Jews arose and wickedly massacred the
Christians and shed the blood of many,
guiltless though they were. And in the
morning, when the surviving Christians
heard of the wicked deed which the Jews
had wrought, they betook themselves to
the patriarch. And the Christians
mustered all together and went and
marched in wrath to the synagogues of
the Jews and took possession of them,
and purified them and converted them
into churches. And one of them they
named after the name of St. George. And
as for the Jewish assassins they
expelled them from the city, and
pillaged all their possessions and
drove them forth wholly despoiled, and
Orestes the prefect was unable to
render them any help. And thereafter a
multitude of believers in God arose
under the guidance of Peter the
magistrate -- now this Peter was a
perfect believer in all respects in
Jesus Christ -- and they proceeded to
seek for the pagan woman who had
beguiled the people of the city and the
prefect through her enchantments. And
when they learnt the place where she
was, they proceeded to her and found
her seated on a (lofty) chair; and
having made her descend they dragged
her along till they brought her to the
great church, named Caesarion. Now this
was in the days of the fast. And they
tore off her clothing and dragged her
(till they brought her) through the
streets of the city till she died. And
they carried her to a place named
Cinaron, and they burned her body with
fire. And all the people surrounded the
patriarch Cyril and named him "the new
Theophilus"; for he had destroyed the
last remains of idolatry in the city."
John Malalas (490-~570 CE):
"At that time
the emperor Theodsius built the Great
Church of Alexandria, which is known to
the present day as the church of
Theodosius, for he favored Cyril the
bishop of Alexandria.
At that time the
Alexandrians, given free rein by their
bishop, seized and burnt on a pyre of
brushwood Hypatia the famous
philosopher, who had a great reputation
and who was an old woman."
Palladas, a poet, probably born around
319 CE, a contemporary of Theon, (and
mentioned as a defender of the
Serapeum), writes a poem about Hypatia
when she is young:
"Whenever I look upon you
and your words, I pay reverence,
As I look upon
the heavenly home of the virgin.
For your
concerns are directed at the heavens,
Revered
Hypatia, you who are yourself the
beauty of reasoning,
The immaculate star of wise
learning."
(the word "virgin" probably refers to
the constellation Virgo {not the
Christian Virgin Mary}).
Philostorgius (364-c425) in his History
of the Church, dedicates an entire
chapter to the murder of Hypatia, but
only a summary by Photius
(c820-2/6/893) has ever been found,
because Philostorgias, although
Christian was deemed a heretic because
of his support for Arian philosophy,
and his work was ostracized by the
intolerant orthodox Christian people
that followed. The summary of this
chapter by Photius is this:
"Philostorgius
says, that Hypatia, the daughter of
Theon, was so well educated in
mathematics by her father, that she far
surpassed her teacher, and especially
in astronomy, and taught many others
the mathematical sciences. The impious
writer asserts that (Photius clearly
shows fear in preserving such a text.
Much of this text is filled with
ridicule of Philostorgius.), during the
reign of Theodosius the younger, she
was torn to pieces by the Homoousian
party (those who follow the Nicene
Creed of Jesus as a part of their one
God and not as a different thing)."
According to a few sources, although
not all, Damaskios includes the story
that:
Hypatia was entrusted by the authories
of Alexandria with the direction of the
Neoplatonic school, for which office
she received a salary.
Hypatia spoke and wrote in Greek, like
many of the scholars in Alexandria,
even though they lived under Roman
rule, they were descended from Greek
people that settled in Alexandria after
Egypt was conquered by Alexander the
Great.
Many people site this as the end of
ancient science. However, others cite
the closing of the Academy in Athens as
the end in 529, or explain that by the
time of the destruction of the
Mouseion, Serapeion and murder of
Hypatia (all from 390 to 415) science
had already died, but I disagree with
this conclusion because the tradition
of the Mouseion lived on even if in
watered-down form and only a few
hundred years before are Galen and
Ptolemy, not necessarily the peak of
science, but firmly in the field of
science. Clearly, the seed of science
survived, as science grows now, in the
time we live in.
Being a female teaching
science, Hypatia is recognized for
contributing to women's rights and
equal opportunity.
[1] The one on the left is Claudius
Ptolemy's armillary astrolabon, and the
one on the right is the plane astrolabe
or astrolabium which was first
described by Theon in his treatise on
this device. Now I ask, do these two
instruments look like the same device
to you? COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.hypatia-lovers.com/pa
ge21.html
[416 CE]
permanently destroyed by Christian
people.
Paulus Orosius describes the temples
in Alexandria as having empty
bookshelves, the contents emptied "by
men of our time". Adding this together
with the Suda reference to Theon being
a member, and the last reference to the
Mouseion from Synesios in 409 with no
mention of any destruction before his
death in 414, and no mention of any
public library in Alexandria by people
writing in the 5th and 6th century, it
appears probable that the Mouseion
(including any remaining library) may
have been completely and permanently
destroyed in 415 or 416.
Orosius, writes
(originally in Latin), "During the
combat orders were issued to set fire
to the royal fleet, which by chance was
drawn on shore. The flames spread to
part of the city and there burned four
hundred thousand books stored in a
building which happened to be nearby.
So perished that marvelous monument of
the literary activity of our ancestors,
who had gathered together so many great
works of brilliant geniuses. in regard
to this, however true it may be that in
some of the temples there remain up to
the present time book chests, which we
ouselves have seen, and that, as we are
told, these were emptied by our own men
in our own day when these temples were
plundered - this statement is true
enough - yet it seems fairer to suppose
that other collections had later been
formed to rivel the ancient love of
literature, and not that there had once
been another library which had books
separate from the four hundred thousand
volumes mentioned, and for that reason
had escaped destruction."
This last sentence is the
source of controversy and is a
confusing statement. Alfred Butler
translates this last statment as "On
this point, however true it may be that
at the present day there are empty
bookshelves in some of the temples (I
myself have seen them), and that these
shelves were emptied and the books
destroyed by our own people in our own
time (which is the fact): still the
fairer opinion is that, subsequently to
the conflagration, other collections
had been formed to vie with the ancient
love of literature, and not that there
originally existed any second library,
which was separate from the 400,000
volumes and owed its preservation to
the fact of its separateness." Butler
interprets this as meaning that no part
of the great Ptolemaic Library was
rescued from the burning, but that
other books were collected in emulation
of the old Library after the fire. This
also combines well with Strabo
lamenting with the past tense about the
library that was available to
Hipparchos, apparently no longer in
existence, a library that had perhaps
lost many original works, but was then
replenished. The key point is that in
the Caesar fire some original valuable
scrolls may have been lost, but the
Mouseion and Library obviously and
clearly lived on until this time when
they were destroyed permanently by
Christian people, the Serapeum lasting
as a set of churches for sometime after
this.
evidently after a visit to Alexandria,
"Its (which?) walls were torn down..."
and "Therefore, although there are
still today book cases in the temples,
which we have seen, whose spoliation
(check exact word) reminds us that they
have been emptied by the men of our
age, yet it would be more worthy to
believe that other books had been
acquired to compete with the concerns
for studies in earlier times, than to
believe that there was some other
library separate from the 400,000
books, which in this way escaped the
latter's fate". It is a confusing
quote, and it is saying perhaps that
although there were recent efforts to
build up temple libraries in
Alexandria, there is no other library
contemporary with the main library that
survived its fate. Orosius writes
"There are temples nowadays, which we
have seen, whose book-cases have been
emptied by our men. And this is a
matter that admits no doubt."
Alfred Butler gives more detail about
the complete absence of any mention of
any public library in Alexandria in the
fifth or 6th century after the
description of Orosius in 416. Butler
writes: "Take one particular
instance...the visit of John Moschus
and his friend Sophronius to Egypt not
many years before the Arab conquest;
... the keen intellectual interest of
the two scholars and their fondness for
anything in the shape of a book (Supra
pp96 seq.)" and though they travelled
and resided a great deal in Egypt,
their pages will be searched in vein
for any allusion to other than private
libraries in the country. Two centuries
of silence, ending in the silence of
John Moschus and Sophronius, seem to
render it impossible that any great
public library can have existed when
the Arabs entered Alexandria."
[423 CE]
of their final edicts (CTh. XVI.10.22)
regarding pagans, they remark that "We
now believe that there are none." This
is solid evidence that all pagan
temples are destroyed.
[431 CE]
Porfurios' (and other) books against
Christianity to be burned (but does not
mention the emperor Julian's
anti-christian writings).
This is the first of 3
major book burnings that will remove
any and all writings that criticize the
Christian religion. The result will be
very effective, leaving the only
surviving works so far found to be
rebuttles of these works by Christian
writers.
[439 CE]
Constantinople - ~450 CE) completes his
"Historia Ecclesiatica" (Church
History), a history that covers 305-439
CE.
Socrates expresses an issue of conflict
in the new rising Christian religion:
whether to include ancient Greek
learning in basic education or to only
strictly teach a purely Christian
course. In his history, Socrates
identifies the common belief that "the
education of the Christians in the
philosophy of the heathens, in which
there is constant assertion of
Polytheism, instead of being conducive
to the promotion of true religion, is
rather to be deprecated as subversive
of it." Socrates then goes on to reject
this claim writing "First, Greek
learning was never recognized by either
Christ or his apostles as divinely
inspired nor, on the other hand, was it
wholly rejected as pernicious. Second,
there are many philosophers among the
Greeks who were not far from the
knowledge of God. Third, the divinely
inspired scriptures undoubtably
inculcate {implant,teach} doctrines
that are both admirable in themselves
and heavenly in character; they also
eminently tend to produce piety and
integrity of life in those who are
guided by their precepts...But they do
not instruct us in the art of
reasoning, by means of which we may be
enabled successfully to resist those
who oppose the truth. Besides
adversaries are more easily foiled when
we can turn their own weapons against
them."{3 166 Eccl Hist Chapter XVI}
[448 CE]
28, 450), Eastern Roman Emperor
(408-450) orders all non-christian
books burned. In fighting the ancient
Hellenic tradition, or "Paganism" as it
would be later called, the Christian
people destroy much of the science
learned and recorded in books stored in
temples to the traditional Greek Gods.
This
may be when many science books are
burned, and no doubt the lost books of
Kelsos ("The True Word") and Porfurios
("Against the Christians") that
criticise Christianity are all
destroyed. No remains have ever been
found from the books critical of the
Christian religion written by Kelsos,
Porfurios and others, although some of
these writings are preserved in
rebuttles by Christian writers that
have survived. According to Wilmer
Wright, with this law, the
anti-Christian writings of Porfurios
will be condemned but those of Julian
ignored.
[450 CE]
(Greek:
Πρόκλο`
2;) (410 CE Constantinople {now
Istanbul, Turkey} - 04/17/485 CE
Athens) is the last Pagan science
person recognized for any thing, at
this time, because of the intolerance
of the Christian people that now have a
majority, it is dangerous to be Pagan.
Proclus teaches at the Academy in the
last century of its existence and is
the head of that school. Proclus writes
a commentary of Ptolomy and Euclid.
Proklos writes about Euclid, Ktesibios,
and Pappos, all three who make
important contributions to science.
[489 CE]
scientific center in Edessa, is
transferred to the School of Nisibis,
also known as "Nisibīn", then
under Persian rule with its secular
faculties at Gundishapur, Khuzestan.
Here, scholars, together with Pagan
philosophers banished by Justinian from
Athens carried out important research
in Medicine, Astronomy, and
Mathematics".
Iran, not far from the Karun
river.)
[499 CE]
India describes a sun-centered
planetary model with the earth turning
on its own axis, and planets following
elliptical orbits in his book
"Aryabhatiya".
Aryabhata (Devanāgarī:
आर्यभé
5;) (CE 476 - 550), an Indian
astronomer and mathematician, writes
"Aryabhatiya", in which he describes a
star system model, the
śīghrocca, which is the basic
planetary period in relation to the
Sun, and this is seen by some
historians as a sign of an underlying
heliocentric model. Aryabhata defines
the sizes of the planets' orbits in
terms of these periods.
Aryabhata writes that the Moon and
planets shine by reflected sunlight. He
also correctly explains eclipses of the
Sun and the Moon, and presents methods
for their calculation and prediction.
Aryabhata has an elliptical model of
the planets, with which he accurately
calculates many astronomical constants,
such as the periods of the planets
around the Sun, and the times of the
solar and lunar eclipses.
[1] Español: Estatua de Aryabhata en
India This image of a public statue in
IUCAA Pune was photographed in May 2006
by myself, and I release all
rights. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:2064_aryabhata-crp.jpg
[500 CE]
[01/01/520 CE]
Severinus Boethius (c.480 CE Rome - 524
CE Ticinum (now Pavia), Italy), a high
ranking person in the the Roman
government under the Ostrogoth emperor
of Rome Theodoric, translates works of
Aristotle from Greek to Latin,
summarizes various science subjects, in
addition to writing "On he Consolation
of Philosophy" from prison, after
Theodoric arrests him for treason.
Boethius expressed ancient Hellenic
ideas of free will, and virtue, but
Boethius is thought to be Christian.
Boethius is one of the last Roman
people to understood Greek. The
writings of Boethius will be the only
source of Greek science for people in
Europe until Arabic writings are
translated to Latin 600 years later.
[1] Initial depicting Boethius teaching
his students from folio 4r of a
manuscript of the Consolation of
Philosophy (Italy?, 1385) MS Hunter
374 (V.1.11), Glasgow University
library Source URL:
http://special.lib.gla.ac.uk/exhibns/tre
asures/boethius.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Boethius_initial_consolation_philosop
hy.jpg
[2] Boethius: Consolation of
philosophy. This early printed book has
many hand-painted illustrations
depicting Lady Philosophy and scenes of
daily life in fifteenth-century Ghent
(1485). From English Wikipedia:
en:Image:Boethius.consolation.philosophy
.jpg Original sources:
http://www.loc.gov/rr/european/guide/hum
an.html and
http://www.loc.gov/rr/european/guide/ima
ges/eu025001.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Boethius.consolation.philosophy.jpg
[528 CE]
builds a hospital, as reward for
services given by a physician, Sampson
the Hospitable.
[1] Saint Sampson the
Hospitable COPYRIGHTED FAIR USE
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Saint_Samson_the_Hospitable.jpg
[529 CE]
the Academy in Athens.
The head of the
Academy, Damascus and 6 other
philosophers seek asylum in Persia.
Justinian also decrees that all
anti-Christian books are to be burned
in this year {exact date}. None of the
'True Doctrine" of Kelsos in the second
century, the 15 books of Porfurios'
"Against the Christians" in the third
century, and Julian's "Against the
Galileans" of the fourth century have
ever been found, however some of their
writing remains in rebuttles by
Christian writers, for example Origen's
"Against Kelsos" quotes Kelsos,
Macarius Magnes may possibly preserve
some of Porfurios' writing for which
even 3 major Christian rebuttles have
never been found, and Kurillos (Cyril)
of Alexandria's "Pro Christiana
Religione" reveals some of Julian's
writings.
[529 CE]
(reign 527-565) orders death by fire,
and confiscation of all possessions by
the State to be the punishment for
heresy against the Christian religion
in his Codex Iustiniani (CJ 1.5.).
[1] Mosaic of Justinian I, obtained
from the Macedonia FAQ website,
http://faq.Macedonia.org/ The mosiac
itself is in the San Vitale church in
en:Ravenna, Italy. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Justinian.jpg
[2] Alphabetical index on the Corpus
Juris (Index omnium legum et
paragraphorum quae in Pandectis, Codice
et Institutionibus continentur, per
literas digestus.), printed by Gulielmo
Rovillio, Lyon, 1571 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Digesto_01.jpg
[530 CE]
Grammarian), (CE c490â€"c570), a
Christian philosopher in Alexandria, in
a commentary on Aristotle's "Physics"
critisizes Aristotle's theory of motion
where air is thought to rush behind a
projectile to keep it moving, by
writing that a projectile moves on
account of a kinetic force which is
impressed on it by the mover and which
exhausts itself in the course of the
movement. Philoponus then evaluates the
medium, concluding instead of being
responsible for the continuation of a
projectile's motion, the medium is
actually an impediment to the
projectile's motion.
Concepts similar to Philoponus' impetus
theory appear in earlier writers such
as Hipparchos (2nd c. BCE) and Synesios
(4th c. CE)
[533 CE]
Justinian approve a treaty which
ensures the protection of the
philosophers who fled from prosecution.
These philosophers, for example
Damascius, the head of the Academy when
closed by Justinian, do not return to
Athens, but Alexandria instead.
[542 CE]
in Lyon, the oldest hospital in France
is founded.
In this and the Hotel-Dieu
in Paris, monks use religious-based
treatments more than trying to cure
health problems through science. The
monasteries have an infirmitorium, a
place where sick monks are taken for
treatment. The monasteries have a
pharmacy and frequently a garden with
medicinal plants. In addition to caring
for sick monks, the monasteries open
their doors to pilgrims and to other
travelers.
[1] Hospital Hôtel-Dieu : patio
interior
source: http://www.lyon.fr/vdl/sections/
es/tourisme/histoire/?aIndex=2
[589 CE]
this time. In this year the Chinese
scholar-official Yan Zhitui (531-591
AD) writes: "Paper on which there are
quotations or commentaries from Five
Classics or the names of sages, I dare
not use for toilet purposes".
[600 CE]
windmill has a vertical shaft. Made of
six to twelve sails covered in fabric
or palm leaves, they are used to grind
corn and draw up water.
[613 CE]
محمد) (full
name: Abu al-Qasim Muhammad ibn 'Abd
Allah ibn 'Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim),
begins to preach monotheistic religion
in Mecca. Muhammad claims that complete
"surrender" to a single god (the
literal meaning of the word
"islām") is man's religion
(dīn), and that he is a prophet
and messenger of God, in the same way
that Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, David,
Jesus, and other prophets were. This is
the beginning of the religion of Islam
which will grow to dominate all Arab
and Persian nations. All or most of the
Holy book of Islam, the Qur'an will
apparently be written down by
Muhammad's followers after supposedly
being revealed by the Angel Grabriel
while Muhammad was alive. The Qur'an is
primarily an orally related document,
and the written compilation of the
whole Qur'an in its definite form will
be completed early after the death of
Muhammad. Initially, Islam will promote
literacy and education, and much of the
science of Greece and other nations
being supressed and destroyed under
Christianity will be preserved by
Arabic people living under Islam,
however Islam, like many religions,
will violently enforce belief and
conformity which will slow the natural
growth of science and atheism in Arabic
nations for centuries.
Arabia)
[1] Muhammd solves a dispute over
lifting the black stone into position
at al-Ka'ba. Note from pp. 100-101 of
''The illustrations to the World
history of Rashid al-Din / David Talbot
Rice ; edited by Basil Gray. Edinburgh
: Edinburgh University Press, c1976.''
- In the center, Muhammad, with two
long hair plaits, places the stone on a
carpet held at the four corners by
representatives of the four tribes, so
that all have the honor of lifting it.
The carpet is a kelim from Central
Asia. Behind, two other men lift the
black curtain which conceals the doors
of the sancuary. This work may be
assigned to the Master of the Scenes
from the Life of the Prophet. Source
Jami' al-Tavarikh (''The Compendium of
Chronicles'' or ''The Universal
Histroy'') This illustration is in a
folio in the Oriental Manuscript
Section of the Edinburgh University
Library, Special Collections and
Archives Date 1315 Author Rashid
Al-Din The earliest surviving image
of Muhammad from Rashid al-Din's Jami'
al-Tawarikh, approximately 1315,
depicting the episode of the Black
Stone. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mohammed_kaaba_1315.jpg
[628 CE]
is the first person recorded to use the
number zero.
Brahmagupta (c.598 CE - c.668
CE), an Indian astronomer and
mathematician, is the head of the
astronomical observatory at Ujjain, and
while there writes two texts on
mathematics and astronomy: the "Brahma
Sputa Siddhanta" (The Opening of the
Universe) in 628, and the
"Khandakhadyaka" in 665.
The main work of Brahmagupta,
Brahmasphuta-siddhanta (The Opening of
the Universe), written in this year,
628, contains some remarkably advanced
ideas. Brahmasphuta-siddhanta is the
earliest known text to use zero as a
number, includes rules for using both
negative and positive numbers, a method
for computing square roots, methods of
solving linear and some quadratic
equations, and rules for summing
series, Brahmagupta's identity, and the
Brahmagupta"s theorem. The book is
written completely in verse.
Brahmagupta attempts to define division
by zero as equal to zero, however
division by 0 remains undefined in
modern mathematics.
Bramagupta wrongly denies the rotation
of the earth and uses algebra to solve
astronomical problems.
[1] Brahmagupta's identity, GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bra
hmagupta%27s_identity
[2] Diagram illustrating
Brahmagupta's theorem. Brahmagupta's
theorem states that AF = FD. More
specifically, let A, B, C and D be four
points on a circle such that the lines
AC and BD are perpendicular. Denote the
intersection of AC and BD by M. Drop
the perpendicular from M to the line
BC, calling the intersection E. Let F
be the intersection of the line EM and
the edge AD. Then, the theorem states
that F is in the middle of AD.[5] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Brahmaguptra%27s_theorem.svg
[633 CE]
Cartagena, Seville - 4/4/636 CE
Seville) writes an Encyclopedia called
"Etymologies" which describes the
accumulated learning from the Greek
tradition.
[1] Holy Isidor of Sevilla,
bishop between 1628 and
1682 Bartolomé Esteban Murillo [t
perhaps important to note that no
paintings or drawings exist of Isadore
(to my knowledge and I haven't
searched) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Isidor_von_Sevilla.jpeg
[2] Statue of Isidore of Seville,
outside of the Biblioteca Nacional de
España, in Madrid. San Isidoro. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:SanIsidoroBibNac.JPG
[640 CE]
fire was invented around 670 in
Constantinople by Kallinikos
(Callinicus), an architect from
Heliopolis in Syria (now Baalbek,
Lebanon). This is the first reported
use of a flame throwing weapon.
Many accounts
note that the fires it causes can not
put out by pouring water on the flames,
and that the water serves to spread the
flames, suggesting a complex
base-chemistry. Therefore, 'Greek fire'
must be a flammable liquid that can
float on water - it may have been
gasoline (petrol) or some other
flammable liquid hydrocarbon refined
from oil, as oil was known to eastern
chemists.
[1] Depiction of Greek fire in the
Madrid Skylitzes manuscript. Image
from an illuminated manuscript showing
greek fire in use. From the Skylitzes
manuscript in Madrid PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Greekfire-madridskylitzes1.jpg
[642 CE]
the events of the early Arab conquests
are recorded by historians from both
sides, by Arab, Copt and Byzantine
people, and that for more than five
centuries after the Arab invasion there
will be not one single reference to any
event connected with an Alexandrian
Library under Arab rule.
Not until the early
1200s will there be a report from an
Arab writer "Abdullatif of Bagdad"
around 1200 CE who will write a
confused statement upon seeing Pompey's
Piller that "I believe this was the
site of the stoa where Aristotle and
his successors taught; it was the
center of learning set up by Alexander
when he founded his city; in it was the
book-store which was burnt by Amr, by
order of Caliph Omar". Obviously, the
report about Aristotle is wrong,
placing Aristotle in the wrong school
in the wrong country, so clearly there
is a lot of erroneous info here. Many
of the Arab people will associate
Aristotle with the Greek learning in
Egypt. A much more detailed report will
be given by Ibn Al-Qifti in his
"History of Wise Men" written in the
1200s, which tells this story:
"There was at
that time a man named John the
Grammarian of Alexandria in Egypt; he
was a pupil of Severus, and had been a
Coptic priest, but was deprived of his
office owing to some heresy concerning
the Trinity, by a council held at
Babylon... He lived to see the capture
of Alexandria by the Arabs, and made
the acquaintance of Amr (also Amrou)
the Arab General in Egypt, whose clear
and active mind was no less astronished
then delighted with John's intellectual
acuteness and great learning.
Emboldened by Amr's favour, John one
day remarked, 'You have examined the
whole city, and have set your seal on
every kind of valuable. I make no claim
for anything that is useful to you, but
things useless to you may be of service
to us.'
'What are you thinking of?' asked
Amr.
'The books of wisdom', said John,
'which are in the royal treasuries.'
Amr asked, 'And
who collected these books?'
John answered,
'Ptolemy Philadephus, King of
Alexandria, was fond of learning....
His search for books went far and wide,
and he spared no costs in acquiring
them. He appointed Demetrios in charge.
He soon collected 54,000 books. One day
the king asked Demetrius, 'Do you think
there are still on earth books of
knowledge out of our hands?' 'Yes',
answered Demetrius, 'there are still
multitudes of them in Sind {North of
India}, India, Persia, Georgia,
Armenia, Babylonia, Music and Greece.'
The King was astonished to hear that,
and said, 'Continue gathering them.' In
that way he went on till he dies and
these books continued to be guarded and
preserved by the kings and their
successors till our day.'
Amr said, 'I cannot
dispose of these books without the
authority of Caliph.'
According to Al-Qifti, Amr
sends a letter to Omar, and Omar
responses with: 'Touching the books you
mention, if what is written in them
agrees with the Book of God, they are
not required; if it disagrees, they are
not desired. Destroy them therefore."'
Amr then ordered the books to be
distributed among the baths of
Alexandria and used as fuel for
heating; it takes six months to consume
them. 'Listen and wonder' concludes
Al-Qifti. El-Abaddi explains that the
main problems identified with this
story are identified by J.H. Butler,
who identified John the Grammarian with
John Philoponus who lived 100 years
before the Arab invasion, and that the
text can be divided into 3 parts, the
first part about John the Grammarian is
taken almost verbatim from a work of
the tenth century by Ibn Al-Nadim which
does not include anything about the
library. The second part probably came
from the second century BCE, Letter of
Aristias. The third part is probably a
12th century creation used to justify
the Sunni Saladin selling many valuable
books as being less of a crime than the
burning of books.
Luciano Canfora claims that at this
time the city's books are now mainly
Christian writings, Acts of Councils,
and "sacred literature" in general.
Canfora includes details about John
Philoponus and a friend, Philaretes, a
Jewish doctor arguing with Amr, and
trying to convince Amr that the library
was destroyed recently.
According to (get author name, one
author), Edward Gibbon debunks this
story. Alfred Butler in 1902 discusses
at length the Arabic and other sources
for this story. This story first
appears in Abu'l Faraj, an Arab
historian of the 13th century CE. The
story first appears more than 500 years
after the Arab conquest of Alexandria.
John the Grammarian appears to be the
Alexandrian philosopher John
Philoponus, who must have been dead by
the time of the conquest. It seems that
both the Alexandrian libraries were
destroyed by the end of the fourth
century, citing Orosius describing the
bookcases only, and then as spoiling.
The same exact response of 'destroy
everything' is recorded by Ibn Khaldun
relating to the destruction of another
library in Persia.
Alfred Butler summarizes the reasons to
doubt this report of Amr destroying the
books of the great library:
"1) that the story
makes its first appearance more than
five hundred years after the event to
which it relates;
2) that on analysis the
details of the stories resolve into
absurdities;
3) that the principal actor in the
story, ..John Philoponus, was dead long
before the Saracens invaded Egypt;
4) that of
the two great public Libraries to which
the story could refer, a) the Museum
Library perished in the conflagration
caused by Julius Caesar, of, if not,
then at a date not less than four
hundred years anterior to the Arab
conquest; while b) the Serapeum Library
either was removed prior to the year
391, or was then dispersed or
destroyed, so that in any case it
disappeared two and a half centuries
before the conquest;
5) that fifth, sixth, and
early seventh century literature
contains no mention of the existence of
any such Library;
6) that if, nevertheless, it
had existed when Cyrus set his hand to
the treaty surrendering Alexandria, yet
the books would almost certainly have
been removed-under the clause
permitting the removal of
valuables-during the eleven months'
armistice which intervened between the
signature of the convention and the
actual entry of the Arabs into the
city;
and 7) that if the Library had been
removed, or if it had been destroyed,
the almost contemporary historian and
man of letters, John of Nikiou, could
not have passed over its disappearance
in total silence."
[660 CE]
the oldest hospital in Paris, France is
established.
[1] Main entrance of the Hôtel-Dieu,
in 2007 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hotel_Dieu_Paris_P1200006.jpg
[680 CE]
distinguished member of the Omayyad
family, orders a group of Greek
philosophers living in Egypt to
translate medical books from Greek and
Coptic into Arabic, according to Ibn
Al-Nadim in the 900s, who indicates
that this is the 'beginning of
translation in Islam'.
[685 CE]
makes a special department for
translation. His son and successor,
Hisham Ibn Abdel-Malik continues this
work, the secretary of Hisham
translates Aristotle's "Letter to
Alexander", some 100 papers. These
efforts will be forgotten, however
until the early Abbassid Caliphs.
[700 CE]
China.
[704 CE]
Buddhist text on a Mulberry paper
scroll, from Bulguksa, South Korea.
Stamps used as seals, a form of block
printing was invented before this in
China. Initially, an entire page would
be carved on the wood block, later
movable wood blocks will be used.
[01/01/751 CE]
(Arabic: جابر
بن
حيان)
(c.721-c.815), with Latinised name
Geber, is the first of the important
Arab alchemists and introduces the
experimental method into alchemy. Jabir
is credited with being the first to
prepare and identify sulfuric and other
acids.
Abu Musa Jabir ibn Hayyan (Arabic:
جابر
بن
حيان)
(c.721-c.815), known also by his
Latinised name Geber, is the first of
the important Arab alchemists and
introduces the experimental method into
alchemy. Jabir takes the science of
chemistry farther than Zosimus had.
Ibn
Hayyan is widely credited with the
invention of numerous important
processes still used in modern
chemistry today, such as the syntheses
of hydrochloric and nitric acids,
distillation, and crystallisation.
Jabir gives accurate descriptions of
valuable chemical experiments. Jabir
describes ammonium chloride, shows how
to prepare white lead, prepares weak
nitric acid, and distills vinegar to
get strong acetic acid. Jabir works
with dyes and metals, and experiments
with methods for refining metals. Jabir
writes numerous works on alchemy,
although many people will later use his
name.
[1] Portrait of Jabir ibn Hayyan
http://histoirechimie.free.fr/Lien/Geber
.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Geber.jpg
[2] alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan, from
a 15th c. European portrait of
''Geber'', Codici Ashburnhamiani 1166,
Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana,
Florence, public domain PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jabir_ibn_Hayyan.jpg
[760 CE]
books of learning from Byzantium
including Euclid's "Elements" according
to Ibn Khaldun, a historian in the 14th
century, who claims that "Elements" is
the first Greek work to be translated
into Arabic under Islam.
[761 CE]
(Arabic: جابر
بن
حیان)
(c.721-c.815), known also by his
Latinised name Geber, is a prominent
Islamic alchemist, pharmacist,
philosopher, astronomer, and physicist.
[1] Jabir ibn Hayyan Portrait of Jabir
ibn Hayyan
http://histoirechimie.free.fr/Lien/Geber
.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Geber.jpg
[2] 15th-century European portrait of
''Geber'', Codici Ashburnhamiani 1166,
Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana,
Florence alchemist Jabir ibn Hayyan,
from a 15th c. European portrait of
''Geber'', Codici Ashburnhamiani 1166,
Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana,
Florence, PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jabir_ibn_Hayyan.jpg
[01/01/781 CE]
(oLKWiN) (c.732-May 19, 804) a scholar,
ecclesiastic, poet and teacher from
York, England, accepts an invitation
from Charlesmagne to be head of
education for Charlemagne's kingdom
which is most of Western Europe. In the
Palace School of Charlemagne, Alcuin
will revolutionize the educational
standards of the Palace School,
introducing Charlemagne to the liberal
arts and creates an atmosphere of
scholarship and learning. In Aachen,
Alcuin designs a method of writing
"Carolingian minuscule" to fit as much
text on the expensive parchment. This
symbol set is the ancestor of
lower-case letters. All writing before
this is done in capital (or majuscule)
letters. In my opinion, lower case has
complicated language, and people should
use a one letter for one sound phonetic
alphabet for all languages.
Alciun's teacher was
Egbert, a pupil of Bede, who with
brother and king Eadbert, stimulates
and reorganizes the English church with
an emphasis on the tradition of
learning Bede had begun.
The Palace School of Charlemagne had
been founded under the king"s ancestors
as a place for educating the royal
children, mostly in manners and the
ways of the court. From 782 to 790,
Alcuin will have as pupils Charlemagne
himself, his sons Pepin and Louis, the
young men sent for their education to
the court, and the young clerics
attached to the palace chapel. Alcuin
brings with him from York his
assistants Pyttel, Sigewulf and Joseph.
Charlemagne gathers many scholars of
every nation in his court such as Peter
of Pisa, Paulinus, Rado, and Abbot
Fulrad.
England
[1] Raban Maur (left), supported by
Alcuin (middle), dedicates his work to
Archbishop Otgar of Mainz
(Right) Hrabanus Maurus, von Alcuin
empfohlen, übergibt sein Werk dem
Erzbischof von Mainz,
Otgar Carolingian
Manuscript manuscriptum Fuldense ca.
831/40, Österreichische
Nationalbibliothek Wien PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Raban-Maur_Alcuin_Otgar.jpg
[2] Page of text (folio 160v) from a
Carolingian Gospel Book (British
Library, MS Add. 11848), written in
Carolingian minuscule. Taken from
http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/illuminatedm
anuscripts/record.asp?MSID=8614&CollID=2
7&NStart=11848 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:BritLibAddMS11848Fol160rText.jpg
[01/01/789 CE]
January 28, 814), as King of the
Franks, establishes schools where math
grammar and ecclesiastical subjects are
taught.
[1] No description from Charlemagne's
lifetime exists.[2] Charlemagne and
Pippin the Hunchback (Karl der Große
und Pippin der Bucklige) 10th
century copy of a lost original, which
was made back between 829 and 836 in
Fulda for Eberhard von Friaul PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Karl_der_Grosse_-_Pippin_der_Bucklige
.jpg
[2] A portrait of Charlemagne by
Albrecht Dürer that was painted
several centuries after Charlemagne's
death. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Charlemagne-by-Durer.jpg
[01/01/796 CE]
Tours where scribes are trained to
carefully copy manuscripts. The new
Carolingian miniscule alphabet letters
created by Alcuin will spread from text
copied here and ultimately develop into
the miniscule (or lower case) letters
used today (although I think a one
letter one sound phonetic alphabet for
all languages will ultimately be most
popular if not completely replaced by
recorded video and audio).
[1] Raban Maur (left), supported by
Alcuin (middle), dedicates his work to
Archbishop Otgar of Mainz
(Right) Hrabanus Maurus, von Alcuin
empfohlen, übergibt sein Werk dem
Erzbischof von Mainz,
Otgar Carolingian
Manuscript manuscriptum Fuldense ca.
831/40, Österreichische
Nationalbibliothek Wien PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Raban-Maur_Alcuin_Otgar.jpg
[2] Page of text (folio 160v) from a
Carolingian Gospel Book (British
Library, MS Add. 11848), written in
Carolingian minuscule. Taken from
http://www.bl.uk/catalogues/illuminatedm
anuscripts/record.asp?MSID=8614&CollID=2
7&NStart=11848 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:BritLibAddMS11848Fol160rText.jpg
[815 CE]
al-Hikma" (House of Wisdom) in Baghdad,
Iraq. (Some people argue that
al-Mamun's father al-Rashid founded the
Bayt al-Hikma). A library and
observatory are joined to this house.
In the House of Wisdom, many works will
be translated from Greek, Persian and
Indian into Arabic. Many original works
will be created here too. The House of
Wisdom recruits and supports the most
talented scholars.
There is some question about
if al-Mamun or his father Harun
al-Rashid founded the House of Wisdom.
The House of Wisdom is a state funded
school.
Al-Ma'mun gathers scholars of many
religions at Baghdad, whom he treats
very well and with tolerance. He sends
an emissary to the Byzantine Empire to
collect the most famous manuscripts
there, and has them translated into
Arabic. It is said that, victorious
over the Byzantine Emperor, Al-Ma'mun
makes a condition of peace be that the
emperor hand over of a copy of the
Almagest.
One famous translator, Hunayn Ibn
Ishaq, a high ranking physician in
Baghdad will be responsible for many
translations, in particular health
translations like those of Galen. The
main focus of translation is on health,
philosophy, mathematics, astronomy and
sciences, and less on poetry, drama,
religion, and history.
[1] Harun al-Rashid: (ca: 763-809) was
the fifth and most famous Abbasid
Caliph. Ruling from 786 until 809, his
reign and the fabulous court over which
he held sway are immortalized in The
Book of One Thousand and One Nights PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Harun_Al-Rashid_and_the_World_of_the_
Thousand_and_One_Nights.jpg
[2] Julius Köckert's painting of
Harun al-Rashid receiving the
delegation of Charlemagne demonstrates
the latter's recognition of
Hārūn ar-Rashīd as the
most powerful man of his
culture. The painting by Julius
Köckert (Koeckert) (1827-1918), dated
1864, is located at Maximilianeum
Foundation in Munich. It is Oil on
Canvas. This Image of the painting was
created and provided by Zereshk. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Harun-Charlemagne.jpg
[829 CE]
experiment of Eratosthenes to measure
the earth's arc by assembling a number
of scientists in the plain of Sinjar in
Mesopotamia, west of Mosul. Al-Ma-mun
divides the scientists into two groups
which move apart until they see a
change of one degree in elevation of
the pole (star). The distance travelled
is then measured and found to be
228,000 "black cubits", a measure of
length specially created for this
experiment, and another measurement of
234,000 black cubits. 2,500 black
cubits equals 1 km and 4,000 black
cubits equals 1 mile, so these
measurements, when multiplied by 360
degrees, since there are 360 degrees in
a full circle, equal a circumference of
around 33 km (the modern estimate is
around 40,000 km), or 21,000 mi (the
modern estimate is around 25,000 mi).
This estimate is just a few thousand km
or miles short of the actual
circumference.
Mosul
[830 CE]
محمد
بن
موسى
الخواž
5;زمي)
(oLKWoriZmE), as a scholar in the House
of Wisdom in Baghdad, translates and
extends the work of Diofantos in "Ilm
al-jabr wa'l muqabalah" (the science of
transposition and cancellation).
"Al-jabr" translates into Latin as
algebra. The symbols 1 through 9, the
Indian numerals will be transmitted to
Europe from Fibonacci's translation of
this work. These numerals are easier to
use than Roman numerals and will
replace the Roman numerals.
Muḥammad ibn
Mūsā al-Khwārizmī
(Arabic: محمد
بن
موسى
الخواž
5;زمي)
(oLKWoriZmE) translates and extends the
work of Diofantos in a book titled "Ilm
al-jabr wa'l muqabalah" (the science of
transposition and cancellation). The
word for transposition, "al-jabr" will
be called "algebra" in Latin and will
represent the science of solving
equations by using methods such as
transposition and cancellation started
by Diofantos. The symbols 1 through 9,
the Indian numerals will be transmitted
to Europe from Fibonacci's translation
of this work and will wrongly be called
"arabic numerals" instead of "hindu
numerals". These numerals are easier to
use than Roman numerals (for example in
division) and will replace the Roman
numerals. Al-Khwarizmi's name will lead
to the word "algorism" which will mean
"the art of calculating" now called
"arithmetic".
Al-Khwarizmi uses a zero symbol.
Al-Khwarizmi prepares a world geography
(map?) based on Ptolemy, but
overestimates the circumference of
earth as 40,000 miles.(units) This work
is the first extensive Arabic
geography. Al-Khwarizmi revises much of
the work of Ptolemy and draws new
geographical and celestial maps.
"Al-Jabr wa'l-muqabalah" is the first
Arabic work on Algebra.
[1] A page from
Al-Khwārizmī's al-Kitāb
al-mukhtaṣar fī
ḥisāb al-jabr
wa-l-muqābala. Source John L.
Esposito. The Oxford History of Islam.
Oxford University Press. ISBN
0195107993. Date c. 830 Author
al-Khwarizmi PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Al-Kitab_al-mukhtasar_fi_hisab_al-jab
r_wa-l-muqabala.jpg
[2] Muḥammad ibn Mūsā
al-Ḵwārizmī. (He is on
a Soviet Union commemorative stamp,
issued September 6, 1983. The stamp
bears his name and says ''1200 years'',
referring to the approximate
anniversary of his
birth). ПОЧТ
040; СССР 1983
POČTA SSSR 1983 Soviet Post
1983 4к 4k 4 kopeks 1200
ЛЕТ 1200 LET 1200
years Мухаl
4;мед
аль·Хо
088;езми
Muxammed al′·Xorezmi Muhammad
al-Khwarizmi Source:
http://jeff560.tripod.com/ specifically
http://jeff560.tripod.com/khowar.jpg
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Abu_Abdullah_Muhammad_bin_Musa_al-Khw
arizmi.jpg
[830 CE]
محمد
بن
موسى
الخواž
5;زمي)
(oLKWoriZmE) translates and extends the
work of Diofantos in "Ilm al-jabr wa'l
muqabalah" (the science of
transposition and cancellation).
"Al=jabr" translates into latin as
algebra. The symbols 1 through 9, the
hindu numerals will be transmitted to
Europe from Fibonacci's translation of
this work. These numerals are easier to
use than Roman numerals and will
replace the Roman numerals.
Muḥammad ibn
Mūsā al-Khwārizmī
(Arabic: محمد
بن
موسى
الخواž
5;زمي)
(oLKWoriZmE) translates and extends the
work of Diofantos in a book titled "Ilm
al-jabr wa'l muqabalah" (the science of
transposition and cancellation). The
word for transposition, "al-jabr" will
be called "algebra" in Latin and will
represent the science of solving
equations by using methods such as
transposition and cancellation started
by Diofantos. The symbols 1 through 9,
the Hindu numerals will be transmitted
to Europe from Fibonacci's translation
of this work and will wrongly be called
"arabic numerals" instead of "hindu
numerals". These numerals are easier to
use than Roman numerals (for example in
division) and will replace the Roman
numerals. Al-Khwarizmi's name will lead
to the word "algorism" which will mean
"the art of calculating" now called
"arithmetic".
Al-Khwarizmi uses a zero symbol.
Al-Khwarizmi participates in measuring
the degree of arc with other
astronomers commissioned by
alk-Ma'mun.
Al-Khwarizmi is the first outstanding
Arabic mathematician, and the beinning
of the story of Arabic mathematics.
Al-Khwarizmi
writes the first Arabic work on
geography revising much of Ptolemy and
drawing new geographical and celestial
maps.
Al-Khwarizmi's astronomical tables are
among the best in Arabic astronomy.
[1] A page from
Al-Khwārizmī's al-Kitāb
al-mukhtaṣar fī
ḥisāb al-jabr
wa-l-muqābala. Source John L.
Esposito. The Oxford History of Islam.
Oxford University Press. ISBN
0195107993. Date c. 830 Author
al-Khwarizmi PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Al-Kitab_al-mukhtasar_fi_hisab_al-jab
r_wa-l-muqabala.jpg
[2] Muḥammad ibn Mūsā
al-Ḵwārizmī. (He is on
a Soviet Union commemorative stamp,
issued September 6, 1983. The stamp
bears his name and says ''1200 years'',
referring to the approximate
anniversary of his
birth). ПОЧТ
040; СССР 1983
POČTA SSSR 1983 Soviet Post
1983 4к 4k 4 kopeks 1200
ЛЕТ 1200 LET 1200
years Мухаl
4;мед
аль·Хо
088;езми
Muxammed al′·Xorezmi Muhammad
al-Khwarizmi Source:
http://jeff560.tripod.com/ specifically
http://jeff560.tripod.com/khowar.jpg
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Abu_Abdullah_Muhammad_bin_Musa_al-Khw
arizmi.jpg
[833 CE]
major work is his Kitāb
ṣūrat al-Arḍ (Arabic:
كتاب
صورة
الأرض
"Book on the appearance of the Earth"
or "The image of the Earth" translated
as Geography), which is finished in
this year, 833. It is a revised and
completed version of Ptolemy's
Geography, consisting of a list of 2402
coordinates of cities and other
geographical features following a
general introduction.
There is only one surviving copy of
Kitāb ṣūrat
al-Arḍ, which is kept at the
Strasbourg University Library. A Latin
translation is kept at the Biblioteca
Nacional de España in Madrid. The
complete title translates as Book of
the appearance of the Earth, with its
cities, mountains, seas, all the
islands and rivers, written by Abu
Ja'far Muhammad ibn Musa
al-Khwārizmī, according to
the geographical treatise written by
Ptolemy the Claudian.
The book opens with the list of
latitudes and longitudes, in order of
"weather zones", that is to say in
blocks of latitudes and, in each
weather zone, by order of longitude.
This system allows many latitudes and
longitudes to be deduced where they are
illegible.
Neither the Arabic copy nor the Latin
translation include the map of the
world itself, however the map has been
reconstructed from the list of
coordinates (by Hubert Daunicht).
Al-Khwarizmi overestimates the
circumference of earth as (40,000
miles, actual is 25,000 miles).(units)
[1] Muḥammad ibn Mūsā
al-Ḵwārizmī. (He is on
a Soviet Union commemorative stamp,
issued September 6, 1983. The stamp
bears his name and says ''1200 years'',
referring to the approximate
anniversary of his
birth). ПОЧТ
040; СССР 1983
POČTA SSSR 1983 Soviet Post
1983 4к 4k 4 kopeks 1200
ЛЕТ 1200 LET 1200
years Мухаl
4;мед
аль·Хо
088;езми
Muxammed al′·Xorezmi Muhammad
al-Khwarizmi Source:
http://jeff560.tripod.com/ specifically
http://jeff560.tripod.com/khowar.jpg
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Abu_Abdullah_Muhammad_bin_Musa_al-Khw
arizmi.jpg
[2] Hubert Daunicht's reconstruction
of al-Khwārizmī's
planisphere COPYRIGHTED FAIR USE
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Al-Khwarizmi%27s_map.png
[841 CE]
Yaʻqūb ibn Isḥāq
al-Kindī) (Arabic:
يعقوب
بن
اسحاق
الكند¡
0;) (Latinized Alkindus), working in
the House of Wisdom in Baghdad,
oversees the translation of many Greek
texts into Arabic, and writes many
original treatises on mathematics,
phamacology, ethics, and others of
non-scientific nature (such as
metaphysics). Al-Kindi is the first of
the Arab peripatetic philosophers, and
is known for his efforts to introduce
Greek philosophy to people in Arab
lands.
Al-Kindi writes that all terrestrial
objects are attracted to the center of
the earth, which is the earliest
recorded form of a gravity law.
[1] Al-Kindi depicted in a Syrian Post
stamp. http://www.apprendre-en-ligne.ne
t/crypto/stat/Al-Kindi.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Al-Kindi.jpg
[2] Abū-Yūsuf Ya''qūb
ibn Ishāq
al-Kindī http://www.islamonline.co
m/cgi-bin/news_service/profile_story.asp
?service_id=982
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Al-kindi.jpeg
[850 CE]
China.
The earliest Chinese records of
gunpowder indicate that it was a
byproduct of Taoist alchemical efforts
to develop an elixir of immortality. A
book dating from c. 850 AD called
"Classified Essentials of the
Mysterious Tao of the True Origin of
Things" warns of one elixir:
"Some have heated together sulfur,
realgar and saltpeter with honey; smoke
and flames result, so that their hands
and faces have been burnt, and even the
whole house where they were working
burned down."
Gun powder is generally a mixture of
saltpeter (potassium nitrate or, less
often, sodium nitrate), charcoal and
sulfur with a ratio (by weight) of
approximately 15:3:2 respectively.
[850 CE]
حنين
بن
إسحاق
العباž
3;ي ) (Latin: Johannitius) (CE
810-877), an Arab Nestorian Christian
physician and scholar is appointed head
of the Bayt al Hikma (a college of
scholars supported by the Abbasids for
the purpose of translating Greek
texts). Hunayn ibn Ishaq with his
students, which include his son, make
the most exact translations from Greek
texts into Syriac and Arabic versions.
These translations will play a major
role in the rise of interest in
Hellenistic science by Arabic people.
Of particular value are Ibn Ishaq's
translations of Galen, because most of
the original Greek manuscripts will be
lost.
Ibn Ishaq translates many treatises of
Galen and the Galenic school into
Syriac, and thirty-nine into Arabic.
Hunayn also translates Aristotle's
"Categories", "Physics", and "Magna
Moralia"; Plato"s "Republic",
"Timaeus", and "Laws"; Hippocrates"
"Aphorisms", Dioscorides" "Materia
Medica", Ptolemy's "quadri-partition",
and the Old Testament from the
Septuagint Greek.
In addition to Hunain's work of
translation, he writes treatises on
general health and medicine and various
specific topics, including a series of
works on the eye which will remain
influential until 1400.
[850 CE]
Abbasid Caliph, Al-Mutawakkil applies a
discriminatory policy toward minority
groups like the Assyrian Christians and
Jews. In a decree of this year, the
caliph orders that these "Ahlu
dh-Dhimma" (أهل
الذمة) or
"Protected Peoples" be made to wear
various specific identifying marks and
honey-colored robes and even to make
their slaves immediately identifiable
in the marketplaces.
These decrees also force the
destruction of all churches and
synagogues built since Islam was
established and confiscate one out of
every ten Christian or Jewish homes
with the stipulation that, where
suitable, mosques should occupy the
sites or that the sites should be left
open. The doors of remaining buildings
are to be identified by wooden images
of devils that are to be nailed to
them.
The decree also stipulates that Jewish
and Christian graves should be flat
against the ground, which would
identify them as non-Muslim graves.
Al-Mutawakkil bars Jews and Christians
from ruling over Muslims, thus
effectively removing them from
government service, and limits their
schooling to that which is taught by
Jews and Christians, forbidding Muslims
from teaching them.
The aggregate of these rulings can very
plausibly be interpreted as a means of
identifying "infidels", their women and
even their slaves, the doorways of
their houses, and their graves, in
order to expose them to the wrath of
the mob.
[859 CE]
(Arabic:
جامعة
القرو¡
0;ين) is founded by Fatima
Al-Fihri, the daughter of a wealthy
merchant, and currently is the oldest
existing institution of higher learning
(in Arabic "Madrasah") on earth.
[1] Fes
(Maroc) Mosquee_El_Qaraouiyyine
(porte) Auteur : Fabos
1/4/05 Interior of the Al Karaouine
Mosque and University PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fes_Mosquee_El_Qaraouiyyine.jpg
[868 CE]
a Chinese "Diamond Sutra" text, which
will be found sealed in a cave in China
in the early 1900s, is created with
woodblocks. This book displays such a
maturity of design and layout that it
is probable woodblock printing had
already matured a great deal by that
time. A copy of this book is in the
British Library in London.
[1] A page from the Diamond Sutra,
printed in the 9th year of Xiantong Era
of the Tang Dynasty, i.e. 868 CE.
Currently located in a museum in
London. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jingangjing.gif
[876 CE]
Al-Sabi' Thabit ibn Qurra al-Harrani)
(arabic ثابت
بن قرة
بن
مروان)
(CE 836-901) an Arabian mathematician,
astronomer, and physician, in the House
of Wisdom in Bagdad, translates many
works of Greek scientists into Arabic
in addition to writing commentary on
them.
Thabit goes to Baghdad to work for
three wealthy brothers, known as the
Banu Musa, translating Greek
mathematical texts. Among the major
Greek mathematicians whose works Thabit
translates (or whose translations he
revises) are Euclid, Archimedes,
Apollonius of Perga, and Ptolemy. Ibn
Qurra also prepares summaries of the
works of the physicians Galen of
Pergamum and Hippocrates as well as the
philosophy of Aristotle. Ibn Qurra then
writes original works on geometry,
statics, magic squares, the theory of
numbers, music, astronomy, medicine,
and philosophy.
Thabit ibn Qurrah is a major
translator, almost as important as
Hunayn, for creating lasting works in
health and philosophy.
[1] None, COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.islam.org.br/Ibn_Qurr
a.gif
[2] None COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.renaissanceastrology.
com/thabit.html
[878 CE]
10/28/900), an english monarch,
establishes a court school after the
example of Charlemagne. and orders the
translation of Latin books into Old
English, translating some books from
Latin himself, for example, Boethius
and Bede.
southwestern England.
[1] Alfred the
Great Corbis-Bettmann COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-8295?articleTypeId=1
[2] Statue of Alfred the Great,
Wantage, Oxfordshire GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:KingAlfredStatueWantage.jpg
[890 CE]
created. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is a
chronological account of events in
Anglo-Saxon and Norman England, a
compilation of seven surviving
interrelated manuscript records that is
the primary source for the early
history of England.
southwestern England.
[1] The initial page of the
Peterborough Chronicle, marked
secondarily by the librarian of the
Laud collection. The manuscript is an
autograph of the monastic scribes of
Peterborough. The opening sections were
likely scribed around 1150. The section
displayed is prior to the First
Continuation. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Peterborough.Chronicle.firstpage.jpg
[2] A page from the C manuscript of
the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. It shows the
entry for the year 871. British
Library Cotton Tiberius B i. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:ASC_C_ms_871.jpg
[898 CE]
refines the length of the year to 365
days, 5 hours, 46 minutes and 24
seconds, the most accurate result for
the length of the year up to this time,
and this value will be used 700 years
later in the Gregorian reform of the
Julian Calendar.
al-Battānī (Latinized
as Albategnius) (oLBoTeGnEuS), Arab
astronomer and mathematician, refines
the existing values for the length of
the year (to 365 days, 5 hours, 46
minutes and 24 seconds (from?)), of the
seasons (give values), for the annual
precession of the equinoxes (the way
the equinoxes change position every
year because of wobbling of the earth
compared to its own axis)recording a
value of 54.5" (arc-seconds) a year,
the current estimate is 50.2
arc-seconds, and for the inclination of
the ecliptic (the plane the earth
rotates the sun in compared to the
plane earth rotates itself in) of 23
degrees and 35' (state previous
estimate).
Al-Battani shows that the
position of the Sun's apogee has
changed since the time of Ptolemy. The
Sun's apogee is the farthest point the
Sun gets from the earth, which is also,
more accurately, the aphelion, the
farthest point the earth gets from the
sun (as opposed to perihelion, the
closest point the sun gets to the
earth) since the earth goes around the
sun and not the other way around. More
generally, an apsis (plural: apsides)
is the point of greatest or least
distance of a mass around a center of
attraction, generally found, like the
sun for planets, at one focus of an
ellipse, the apoapsis being the
farthest point, the periapsis being the
closest point. Al-Battani finds that
this point, the aphelion, has changed
since the time of Ptolemy and therefore
is the first to identify the motion of
the solar apsides.
Al-Battani improves Ptolemy's
astronomical calculations by replacing
geometrical methods with trigonometry,
and is the first to use a table of
sines for astronomical calculation.
Starting in 877 Al-Battani records many
years of remarkably accurate
observations at ar-Raqqah in Syria.
Al-Battani is perhaps the greatest of
the Arab astronomers and will be the
best known Arab astronomer in Europe
during the Middle Ages.. Al-Battani's
primary written work, a compendium of
astronomical tables, will be translated
into Latin in about 1116 and into
Spanish in the 13th century. A printed
edition, under the title De motu
stellarum ("On Stellar Motion"), will
be published in 1537.
In Al-Battani's refinement of the
length of the year, he uses better
instruments than the Greek astronomers
had, and his result 365 days, 5 hours,
46 minutes and 24 seconds is the most
accurate result for the length of the
year up to this time, and this value
will be used 700 years later in the
Gregorian reform of the Julian
Calendar.
Al-Battani determines the time of
equinox to within an hour or two.
(الرقة,
also spelled Rakka), is a city in north
central Syria located on the north bank
of the Euphrates River, about 160 km
east of Aleppo.
[900 CE]
(medical) school, in Salerno, Italy,
grows from the dispensary of a
monastery founded in the 800s. (A
dispensary is a charitable or public
place where medicines are provided and
free or inexpensive health advice is
available.) Some people view this
medieval physician school as the first
university.
On the Amalfi Coast in Salern, Italy,
Christian, Islamic and Jewish health
science flow together and create a
health science renaissance.
The first recorded female medical
school faculty member named "trotula de
ruggiero" or "trocta salernitana"
learns in the school in Solerno.
[1] A miniature depicting the Schola
Medica Salernitana from a copy of
Avicenna's Canons PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:ScuolaMedicaMiniatura.jpg
[2] Hand colored wood cut illustration
depicting the medical school at
Salerno. De conservanda bona
valetudine opusculum scholae
Salernitanae, 1554. Galter Medical
Rare Books 613 R26 1554 PD
source: http://www.galter.northwestern.e
du/library_notes/40/woodcut_full.jpg
[904 CE]
[1] A Mongol bomb thrown against a
charging Japanese samurai during the
Mongol Invasions of Japan,
1281. Suenaga facing Mongol arrows and
bombs. From MokoShuraiEkotoba
(è’™å¤è¥²æ¥çµµè©ž), circa 1293, 13th
century. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mooko-Suenaga.jpg
[905 CE]
Muhammad ibn Zakarīya al-Rāzi
Latin: Rhazes), a Persian physician and
chemist, is the first to prepare
"plaster of paris" and describes how it
can be used to hold broken bones in
place, to identify and distinguish
between smallpox and measles, is the
first of record to divide all
substances into animal, vegtable and
mineral, accepts the atom theory,
dismisses miracles and mysticism,
thinks religion harmful and the cause
of hatred and wars.
Al-Razi (full name
Abū Bakr Muhammad ibn
Zakarīya al-Rāzi Rhazes), a
Persian physician and chemist, is the
first to prepare "plaster of paris" and
describes how it can be used to hold
broken bones in place, is the first of
record to identify and distinguish
between smallpox and measles in his
book "al-Judari wa al-Hasbah", is the
first of record to divide all
substances into animal, vegtable and
mineral, probably having access to the
writings of Leukippos and or
Demokritos, Al-Razi accepts the atom
theory interpretation of the universe,
dismisses miracles and mysticism,
thinks religion harmful and the cause
of hatred and wars.
Al-Razi writes over 100 books on health
science, and 33 books on natural
science (not including alchemy),
mathematics, and astronomy.
Al-Razi uses dry distillation (the
heating of solid materials to produce
liquid or gaseous products, which may
then condense into solids) to produce
sulfuric acid.
Al-Razi describes the purification of
ethanol and the use of ethanol in the
science of health.
Al-Razi studies and describes metallic
antimony.
Al-Razi subclassifies minerals as
metals, volatile liquids, stones,
salts, etc.
Al-Razi wrongly accepts Geber's
belief in mercury and sulfur being
primary elements and adds salt as a
third primary element.
The identification of sulfuric acid is
credited to the 8th century alchemist
Jabir ibn Hayyan, but sulfuric acid is
studied by Ibn Zakariya al-Razi
(Rhases), who obtains the substance by
dry distillation of minerals including
iron(II) sulfate heptahydrate, FeSO4 •
7H2O, and copper(II) sulfate
pentahydrate, CuSO4 • 5H2O. When
heated, these compounds decompose to
iron(II) oxide and copper(II) oxide,
respectively, giving off water and
sulfur trioxide, which combine to
produce a dilute solution of sulfuric
acid. This method will be popularized
in Europe through translations of
Arabic and Persian treatises and books
by European alchemists, such as the
13th-century German Albertus Magnus.
Al-Razi develops several chemical
instruments that remain in use to this
day. Al-Razi perfects methods of
distillation and extraction, which lead
to his identification of sulfuric acid
(by dry distillation of vitriol,
(al-zajat) and alcohol. These
discoveries will pave the way for other
Islamic alchemists, as did the
synthesis of other mineral acids by
Jabir Ibn Hayyam (known as Geber in
Europe).
Al-Razi offers harsh criticism
concerning religions, in particular
those religions that claim to have been
revealed by prophetic experiences
writing:
"On what ground do you deem it
necessary that God should single out
certain individuals {by giving them
prophecy}, that he should set them up
above other people, that he should
appoint them to be the people's guides,
and make people dependent upon them?"
Concernin
g the link between violence and
religion, Al-Razi expresses that God
must have known, considering the many
disagreements between different
religions, that "there would be a
universal disaster and they would
perish in the mutual hostilities and
fightings. Indeed, many people have
perished in this way, as we can see."
Al-Razi
is also critical of the lack of
interest among religious adherents in
the rational analysis of their beliefs,
and the violent reaction which takes
its place:
"If the people of this religion are
asked about the proof for the soundness
of their religion, they flare up, get
angry and spill the blood of whoever
confronts them with this question. They
forbid rational speculation, and strive
to kill their adversaries. This is why
truth became thoroughly silenced and
concealed."
Al-Razi believes that common people had
originally been duped into belief by
religious authority figures and by the
status quo. He believes that these
authority figures were able to
continually deceive the common people
"as a result of {religious people}
being long accustomed to their
religious denomination, as days passed
and it became a habit. Because they are
deluded by the beards of the goats, who
sit in ranks in their councils,
straining their throats in recounting
lies, senseless myths and "so-and-so
told us in the name of so-and-so..."
Al-Razi believes
that the existence of a large variety
of religions is, in itself, evidence
that they were all man made, saying,
"Jesus claimed that he is the son of
God, while Moses claimed that He had no
son, and Muhammad claimed that he
{Jesus} was created like the rest of
humanity." and also that "Mani and
Zoroaster contradicted Moses, Jesus and
Muhammad regarding the Eternal One, the
coming into being of the world, and the
reasons for the {existence} of good and
evil."
In relation to the Hebrew's God
asking of sacrifices, al-Razi writes
that "This sounds like the words of the
needy rather than of the Laudable
Self-sufficient One."
On the Quran, al-Razi
writes:
"You claim that the evidentiary miracle
is present and available, namely, the
Koran. You say: 'Whoever denies it, let
him produce a similar one.' Indeed, we
shall produce a thousand similar, from
the works of rhetoricians, eloquent
speakers and valiant poets, which are
more appropriately phrased and state
the issues more succinctly. They convey
the meaning better and their rhymed
prose is in better meter. ... By God
what you say astonishes us! You are
talking about a work which recounts
ancient myths, and which at the same
time is full of contradictions and does
not contain any useful information or
explanation. Then you say: "Produce
something like it"?!
Of the health works by al-Razi, the
most important one is "Continens"
(al-Hawi), which is the longest single
Arabic work on health. Al-Razi's work
"The Treatise on Smallpox and Measles"
(in Latin "De Pestilentia" or "De
Peste") will be read in the West until
the the modern period (more specific
time). Al-Razi's alchemical "Secret of
Secrets" will be well known. Al-Razi's
philosophical and ethical works will
not be known to the West (until modern
times), and in the East meet with
severe criticism from both the
theologians and Peripatetic
philosophers because of their
"anti-prophetic" sentiment. In my own
opinion, stories of a person known for
criticism of religion is generally
evidence of a human that is highly
intelligent or with at least above
average smartness.
[1] Al-Razi from a book cover
COPYRIGHTED FAIR USE
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Rhazes.jpg
[2] al-Razi AKA Abu Bakr Muhammad Ibn
Zakariya al-Razi COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/594/0
00114252/
[910 CE]
(full name: Abū Nasr Muhammad ibn
al-Farakh al-Fārābi)
(Persian: محمد
فاراب®
0;) (Latin: Alpharabius) (CE c870-c950)
writes many works on of mathematics,
philosophy and music. Al-Farabi is the
first Arab scholar to classify all the
sciences as Aristotle did. Of the 70
works credited to al-Farabi, half are
devoted to logic, including commentary
on the "Organon" of Aristotle.
Al-Farabi writes independent works on
physics, mathematics, music, ethics,
and political philosophy.
[1] Al-Farabi's imagined face appears
on the currency of the Republic of
Kazakhstan COPYRIGHTED
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:200TengeNote.jpg
[936 CE]
name: Abu al-Hasan Ali ibn al-Husayn
al-Masudi) (أبو
الحسن
، علي
بن
الحسي
6;
المسع
8;دي) (CE c896-956), writes
a world history, "Akhbar az-zaman"
("The History of Time") in 30 volumes.
[964 CE]
عبدالž
5;حمان
صوفی) (Latin:
Azophi) (CE 903-986), Persian
astronomer, publishes his "Book of
Fixed Stars", which describes much of
his work, both in textual descriptions
and pictures. This work contains the
first recorded description of the Large
Magellanic Cloud, and the earliest
recorded observation of the Andromeda
Galaxy.
(modern Iran)
[1] Persian Astronomer Al Sufi PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Al_Sufi.jpg
[2] The constellation Centaurus from
The Depiction of Celestial
Constellations. An image of Al Sufi
from the 'Depiction of Celestial
Constellations' PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Book_Al_Sufi.jpg
[969 CE]
الأزهž
5;
الشري
1;; al-Azhar al-Shareef, "the Noble
Azhar"), currently the second oldest
operating university on earth after the
University of Al Karaouine in Fez,
Morocco is founded.
Al-Azhar University was built by the
Shi'a Fatimid Caliphate (909-1171) who
established Cairo as their capital.
[1] Al-Azhar Mosque in Cairo
Egypt GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Al-Azhar_Mosque_.jpg
[975 CE]
encyclopedias is compiled, credited to
a person named Suidas.
In Latin, "Suda" means
"fortress" or "stronghold". The Suda is
an enecyclopedia lexicon with 30,000
entries, many drawing from ancient
sources that have since been lost.
Little is
known about the compilation of this
work, except that it must be before
Eustathius in the 12th century, who
frequently quotes it. under the heading
"Adam" the author of the lexicon,
described as "Suidas" in the preface,
gives a brief chronology of the world,
ending with the death of the emperor
John Zimisces in 975; under
"Constantinople" his successors Basil
II and Constantine VIII are mentioned.
So it then
appears that the Suda is compiled in
the latter part of the 10th century.
Passages refering to Michael Psellus
(end of 11th century) are considered
later interpolations. The lexicon is
arranged alphabetically with some
slight deviations; letters and
combinations of letters having the same
sound being placed together. The Suda
is both a dictionary and encyclopedia.
The Suda
includes numerous quotations from
ancient writers; the scholiasts
(commentary on the margin of a
manuscript) on Aristophanes, Homer,
Sophocles and Thucydides are also used
often. The biographical notices, the
author explains, are condensed from the
"Onomatologion" or "Pinax" of Hesychius
of Miletus; other sources were the
excerpts of Constantine
Porphyrogenitus, the chronicle of
Georgius Monachus, the biographies of
Diogenes Laertius and the works of
Athenaeus and Philostratus.
Most of the Suda was lost during the
crusader sacking of Constantinople and
the Ottoman pillage of the city in
1453.
The lexicon is arranged, not quite
alphabetically, but according to a
system (formerly common in many
lagnauges) called antistoichia; namely
the letters follow phonetically, in
order of sound (in the pronunciation of
Suida's time, which is the same as
modern Greek, and serves as a key to
the authentic pronunciation of each
letter, letter group and word).
Most of the
Alexandrian librarians are listed with
more details in the Suda.
[975 CE]
of a triangle of binomial coefficients
occurs in commentaries by Halayudha, on
the "Chandas Shastra", an ancient
Indian book on Sanskrit written by
Pingala between 400-100 BCE.
[976 CE]
'Ali al-Hasan ibn al-Haytham) (Arabic:
and Persian: ابو
علی،
حسن بن
حسن بن
هيثم)
(Latinized: Alhazen (oLHoZeN)) (CE
c965-1039), builds the first recorded
pin-hole camera (camera obscura), and
is the first Arab astronomer of record
to support a sun centered theory.
Al-Haytham
is the first of record to understand
that light comes from the Sun and
reflects off objects into the eyes
contradicting the theory of Euclid and
Ptolemy that rays of light emit from
the eye.
Al-Haytham constructs parabolic mirrors
(now used in telescopes to better focus
light than a spherical mirror).
Al-Haytham studies the focusing of
light.
Al-Haytham writes at length about
various physical phenomena such as
shadows, eclipses, and rainbows, and
speculates on the physical nature of
light.
Al-Haytham is the first to describe
accurately the various parts of the eye
and give a scientific explanation of
the process of vision.
Like Ptolemy, al-Haytham thinks that
the atmosphere has a finite height, and
estimates this height as 10 miles.
(actual units)
Al-Haytham's writings will be
translated into Latin in the 1500s and
influence Kepler, who after 600 years
will be the first to improve on the
science of optics. Specifically,
Al-Haytham's "Kitab al-Manazir" (Book
of Optics) and his book on the colors
of the sunset will be translated into
Latin.
The Latin translation of his main work,
Kitab al-Manazir, exerted a great
influence upon Western science e.g. on
the work of Roger Bacon who cites
al-Haytham by name, Witelo, and Kepler.
This will contribute to the method of
experiment.
Al-Haytham's research in catoptrics
(Catoptrics deals with the phenomena of
reflected light and image-forming
optical systems using mirrors) centers
on spherical and parabolic mirrors and
spherical aberration. Al-Haytham makes
the important observation that the
ratio between the angle of incidence
and refraction does not remain constant
and investigates the magnifying power
of a lens.
In his book "Mizan al-Hikmah", Ibn
al-Haytham discusses the density of the
atmosphere and relates it to altitude.
He also studies atmospheric refraction.
Al-haytham identifies that the twilight
(the time just before or after the
total darkness of night) only ends or
begins when the Sun is 19 degrees below
the horizon and attempts to measure the
height of the atmosphere on that basis.
At least one scholar states that around
this time Ibn al-Haytham has the size
estimates of the Sun and Earth from
Aristarchos available to him, and
revives this theory, placing the Sun in
the center and having the planets
rotating the Sun in circular orbits.
Perhaps Ibn al-Haytham supports the
Sun-centered theory based on
Aristarchos's estimate of the enormous
size of the Sun compared to the earth.
[1] Portrait of Ibn Al-Haithem from an
Iraqi 10000 Dinar note. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ibn_haithem_portrait.jpg
[2] 1572 C.E. Latin Frontpage of Ibn
Haithem's book. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Latin_Ibn_Haithem%27s_book.jpg
[979 CE]
Abu'l Qasim Maslamah al-Majrifi)
(Arabic: أبو
القاسم
مسلمة بن
Ø£ØÂمد
المجريطي) (CE
9?? - 1007), an Arab Muslim scholar in
Spain, writes two important works on
alchemy, "The Sage's Step" and "The Aim
of the Wise" (in Latin: "Picatrix") and
establishes a school in Cordova where
the historian Ibn Kaldun and the
physician al-Zahrawi will study.
[981 CE]
in Baghdad.
[985 CE]
aurillac, auvergne - 5/12/1003 Rome,
Italy) is a prolific scholar of the
10th century. Gerbert introduces Arab
knowledge of arithmetic and
astronomy/astrology to Europe. Gerbert
picks up the use of Indian numerals
(many times called arabic numerals)
without zero perhaps from Alkwarizmior
in Spain and is one of the first people
to use Indian numerals in Europe.
Gerber
t reintroduces the use of the abacus in
mathematical calculation. Gerbert
builds clocks, organs, and astronomical
instruments by consulting translated
arab works.
Gerbert writes a series of
works dealing with matters of the
quadrivium (the higher division of the
liberal arts, which includes music,
arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy).
In Rheims, he constructs a hydraulic
organ that excels all previously known
instruments, where the air had to be
pumped manually.
According to Asimov, Gerbert is
suspected of wizardry because of his
great wisdom.
[1] Impression of Sylvester II. Artist
unknown. immediate source:
italycyberguide.com [1] [2], marked
''© Copyright 1999-2004 Riccardo
Cigola'' PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Silvester_II.JPG
[2] Pope Silvester II. and the
Devil Illustration from Cod. Pal.
germ. 137, Folio 216v Martinus
Oppaviensis, Chronicon pontificum et
imperatorum ~1460 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Silvester_II._and_the_Devil_Cod._Pal.
_germ._137_f216v.jpg
[1010 CE]
Abu 'Ali al-Husayn ibn 'Abd Allah ibn
Sina) Persian: ابو
علی
الحسی
6; ابن
عبدال
4;ه ابن
سینا) (Latin:
Avicenna oViSeNo) (CE 980-1037), a
Persian physician writes "Canon of
Medicine" a massive book of Arab health
science. This book will be translated
into Latin and be taught for centruies
in European universities. Ibn Sina is
also famous for an encyclopedia "The
Book of Healing" (Kitab al-shifa) which
is described as the high point of
Peripatetic philosophy in Arabic
science and contains chapters on logic,
mathematics and natural sciences. Ibn
Sina's works will have a large
influence on both Arabic and Latin
health science for centuries.
Ibn Sina is credited with more than 250
books on a wide range of subjects, many
of which concentrate on philosophy and
health. His most famous works are "The
Canon of Medicine", which will be for
almost five centuries a standard
medical text at many European
universities and "The Book of Healing".
Ibn Sina's theories are based on those
of Hippocrates and Galen which he
combines with Aristotelian metaphysics
as well as traditional Persian and Arab
lore.
About 100 treatises are ascribed to Ibn
Sina. Some of them are tracts of a few
pages, others are works extending
through several volumes. The best-known
of these works, and that defines Ibn
Sina's European reputation, is his
14-volume "The Canon of Medicine",
which will be translated into Latin in
the 1100s, and will be a standard
medical text in Western Europe for
almost five centuries until the time of
Harvey. This work classifies and
describes diseases, and outlines their
assumed causes. Hygiene, simple and
complex medicines, and functions of
parts of the body are also covered. In
this, Ibn Sina is credited as being the
first to correctly document the anatomy
of the human eye, along with
descriptions of eye afflictions such as
cataracts. It asserts that tuberculosis
was contagious, which will be later
disputed by Europeans, but will be
found to be true. It also describes the
symptoms and complications of diabetes.
In addition, the workings of the heart
as a valve are described.(needs
citation)
Almost half of Avicenna's works are
versed as poetry.
[1] Source:
http://www.cais-soas.com/CAIS/Science/ir
an_sience.htm - Permission granted by
CAIS. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Avicenna_Persian_Physician.jpg
[2] Ibn Sina - w:Avicenna, as
appearing on a Polish stamp PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Avicenna2.jpg
[1013 CE]
Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni) (CE
973-c1051), a Persian scholar, writes
that astronomic data can also be
explained by supposing that the earth
turns daily on its axis and annually
around the sun, and notes "the
attraction of all things towards the
centre of the earth".
Al-Biruni writes:
"Rotation of the earth would in no way
invalidate astronomical calculations,
for all the astronomical data are as
explainable in terms of the one theory
as of the other. The problem is thus
difficult of solution."
In his "Kitab fi Tahqiq ma l'il-Hind"
(Researches on India) (1030 CE) Biruni
discusses the Indian heliocentric
theories of Aryabhata, Brahmagupta and
Varahamihira. Biruni notes that the
question of heliocentricity is a
philosophical rather than a
mathematical problem.
In al-Biruni's works on astronomy, he
discusses with approval the theory of
the Earth's rotation on its axis and
makes accurate calculations of latitude
and longitude on earth using celestial
objects.
In astronomy, Al-Biruni writes
treatises on the astrolabe, the
planisphere, the armillary sphere; and
formulates astronomical tables for
Sultan Masud.
In Al-Biruni's al-Qanun
al-Mas'udi (dedicated to the ruler
Masud) (1031 CE), an extensive
astronomical encyclopaedia, almost
1,500 pages, al-Biruni determines the
motion of the solar apogee (the point
where the sun apparently reaches its
highest point in the sky) and is the
first to write that the motion of the
solar apogee is not identical to that
of precession, but comes very close to
it.
Al-Biruni doubts Ptolemy's view that
the distance of the Sun from the Earth
is 286 times the Earth's circumference,
arguing that Ptolemy based his claim on
total eclipses but disregarded annular
eclipses which imply a larger distance.
An annular eclipse is when the moon is
in front of the Sun but because of the
Moon's variable distance from the Earth
(and to a less extent the distance the
Earth is from the Sun), the Moon
appears smaller than the sun and
results in a ring of light around the
moon, as opposed to a total eclipse
where the apparent size of the Moon
matches closely the apparent size of
the Sun, there are also partial
eclipses where the earth Moon only
blocks a portion of the Sun, and the
very rare "hybrid eclipse" where part
of the earth sees a total eclipse and
other parts see an annular eclipse.
In al-Baruni's works on geography, he
theorizes that the valley of the Indus
had once been a sea basin.
In al-Biruni's works on physics, he
determines with remarkable accuracy the
relative density (specific gravity) of
18 precious stones and metals. Relative
density is the ratio of the density of
a substance to that of a standard
substance. Relative density is to
buoyancy. If a substance has relative
density less than that of a fluid, it
will float on that fluid. For example,
helium-filled balloons rise in air, oil
forms a layer on top of water, and lead
floats on mercury.
[1] Biruni on a 1973 post stamp
commemorating his one thousandth
anniversary PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Abu-Rayhan_Biruni_1973_Afghanistan_po
st_stamp.jpg
[2] An illustration from Beruni's
Persian book. It shows different phases
of the moon. Illustration by Al-Biruni
(973-1048) of different phases of the
moon, from Kitab al-tafhim (in
Persian). Source Scanned from:
Seyyed Hossein Nasr (1976). Islamic
Science: An Illustrated Study, World of
Islam Festival Publishing Company. ISBN
090503502X PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lunar_eclipse_al-Biruni.jpg
[1041 CE]
individual blocks can be put together
to form a text, is invented in China.
The
first movable type is invented by Bi
Sheng in China. Sheng used clay type,
which broke easily, but Wang Zhen later
carved more durable type from wood.
[1064 CE]
name: Ghiyās ol-Dīn
Ab'ol-Fath Omār ibn
Ebrāhīm Khayyām
Neyshābūrī) (Persian:
غیاث
الدین
ابو
الفتح
عمر بن
ابراه®
0;م خیام
نیشاب
8;ری),(CE 1048-1131) a
mathematician, astronomer and poet, in
an early paper he writes regarding
cubic equations, Khayyam discovers that
a cubic equation (a polynomial equation
of the third degree (in other words an
equation where at least one variable is
raised to the third power, and no other
variables are raised to a higher power
than 3)) can have more than one
solution, that it cannot be solved
using earlier compass and straightedge
constructions, and finds a geometric
solution (for the variable or "roots"
of all cubic equations) (by
intersecting a parabola with a
circle(?)) which can be used to get a
numerical answer by consulting
trigonometric tables.
Although Khayyam's approach at solving
for the roots of cubic equations by
intersecting a parabola with a cicle
had earlier been attempted by
Menaechmus and others, Khayyám
provides a generalization extending it
to all cubic equations.
[1] Statue of Khayyam at his Mausoleum
in Neyshabur Omar Chayyām aus:
http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/hist
ory/PictDisplay/Khayyam.html http://de.
wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Omar_Chayyam.jpe
g PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Omar_Chayyam.jpg
[2] Omar Khayam's tomb, Neishapur,
which is a city in Iran (Neishapur was
a city of Eastern Seljuk Turkish
Empire). This Photo by user
zereshk. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Khayam.jpg
[1068 CE]
أبو
أسحاق
ابراه¡
0;م بن
يحيى
الزرق
5;لي ),(full name: Abu
Ishaq Ibrahim ibn Yahya Al-Zarqali)
(Latin: Arzachel) (Spanish and Italian:
Azarquiel), (1028-1087 CE), although
debated, supports the sun-centered
theory revived by al-Haytham and
improves on this model by having the
planets move in elliptical orbits
around the Sun at one focus of the
ellipse.
Many people mistakenly credit Kepler
for being the first to understand that
an ellipse fits the motion of planets
rotating the sun more accurately than a
circle does.
Al-Zarqali constructs a flat astrolabe
(called sahifah in Latin: Saphaea
Arzachelis) that can be used at any
latitude and will be widely used by
navigators until the 1500s.
Al-Zarqali corrects Ptolemy's
geographical data, specifically the
length of the Mediterranean Sea.
Al-Zarqali is the first to prove
conclusively the motion of the aphelion
(of the earth or apogee of the sun)
relative to the fixed stars. Al-Zarqali
measures this rate of motion as 12.04
arc-seconds per year, which is
remarkably close to the modern
calculation of 11.8 arc-seconds.
Working
in an observatory in Toledo,
Al-Zarqali contributes to the famous
"Tables of Toledo" (Toledan Zij)
(ZEj?), a compilation of astronomical
data of unprecedented accuracy. These
tables are composed with the help of
several other Arab and Jewish
scientists and will be widely used by
both Latin and Arabic speaking
astronomers in later centuries.
[1] Spain 1986. Al-Zarqali (dead 1100).
Astronomer. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://worldheritage.heindorffhu
s.dk/frame-SpainCordoba.htm
[2] None, but next to text about
al-Zarqali COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/
issue/200407/science.in.al-andalus-.comp
ilation..htm
[1070 CE]
name: Ghiyās ol-Dīn
Ab'ol-Fath Omār ibn
Ebrāhīm Khayyām
Neyshābūrī) (Persian:
غیاث
الدین
ابو
الفتح
عمر بن
ابراه®
0;م خیام
نیشاب
8;ری),(CE 05/18/1048
-12/04/1131) writes "Treatise on
Demonstration of Problems of Algebra"
(Risalah fi'l-barahin 'ala masa'il
al-jabr wa'l-muqabalah), the best book
on algebra of this time. In this book
Khayyam catagorizes equations according
to their degree, gives rules for
solving quadratic equations (polynomial
equations of the second degree
(equations where the variable with the
highest power is the power of 2), which
are very similar to the ones in use
today, and a geometric method for
solving cubic equations with real (non
integer) roots fonjud by means of
intersecting conic sections. In this
book Khayyam also extends Abu al-Wafa's
results on the extraction of cube and
fourth roots to the extraction of nth
roots of numbers for arbitrary whole
numbers n.(not clear, show work if
possible)
[1] Statue of Khayyam at his Mausoleum
in Neyshabur Omar Chayyām aus:
http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/hist
ory/PictDisplay/Khayyam.html http://de.
wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Omar_Chayyam.jpe
g PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Omar_Chayyam.jpg
[2] Omar Khayam's tomb, Neishapur,
which is a city in Iran (Neishapur was
a city of Eastern Seljuk Turkish
Empire). This Photo by user
zereshk. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Khayam.jpg
[1073 CE]
calls Omar Khayyám, already a famous
mathematician, to build and work with
an observatory, along with various
other distinguished scientists.
Eventually, Khayyám very accurately
(correct to six decimal places)
measures the length of the solar year
as 365.24219858156 days. This calendar
measurement has only an 1 hour error in
every 5,500 years, whereas the
Gregorian Calendar used today, has a 1
day error in every 3,330 years. Khayyam
also calculates how to correct the
Persian calendar. On March 15, 1079,
Sultan Jalal al-Din Malekshah Saljuqi
(1072-92) will put this corrected
calendar, the Jalali calendar, which
Khayyam and other astronomers created
into effect, as in Europe Julius Caesar
had done in 46 B.C.E. with the
corrections of Sosigenes, and as Pope
Gregory XIII would do in February 1552
with Aloysius Lilius' corrected
calendar (although Britain will not
switch from the Julian to the Gregorian
calendar until 1751, and Russia will
not switch until 1918).
In this observatory Khayyam prepares
improved astronomical tables (describe
fully). Kyammam built a star map (now
lost).(original source?)
Omar Khayyam also
estimates and proves to an audience
that includes the then-prestigious and
most respected scholar Imam Ghazali,
that the universe is not moving around
earth as was believed by all at that
time. By constructing a revolving
platform and simple arrangement of the
star charts lit by candles around the
circular walls of the room, Khayyam
demonstrates that earth revolves on its
axis, bringing into view different
constellations throughout the night and
day (completing a one-day cycle).
Khayyam also elaborates that stars are
stationary objects in space which if
moving around earth would have been
burnt to cinders due to their large
mass.
[1] Statue of Khayyam at his Mausoleum
in Neyshabur Omar Chayyām aus:
http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/hist
ory/PictDisplay/Khayyam.html http://de.
wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Omar_Chayyam.jpe
g PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Omar_Chayyam.jpg
[2] Omar Khayam's tomb, Neishapur,
which is a city in Iran (Neishapur was
a city of Eastern Seljuk Turkish
Empire). This Photo by user
zereshk. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Khayam.jpg
[1077 CE]
name: Ghiyās ol-Dīn
Ab'ol-Fath Omār ibn
Ebrāhīm Khayyām
Neyshābūrī) (Persian:
غیاث
الدین
ابو
الفتح
عمر بن
ابراه®
0;م خیام
نیشاب
8;ری),(CE 05/18/1048
-12/04/1131) writes "Explanations of
the Difficulties in the Postulates of
Euclid" ("Sharh ma ashkala min
musadarat kitab Uqlidis"). An important
part of this book is concerned with
Euclid's famous parallel postulate,
which had also attracted the interest
of Thabit ibn Qurra. Al-Haytham had
previously attempted a demonstation of
the postulate; Omar's attempt is a
distinct advance.
Khayyam writes this
book in Esfahan and these ideas will
make their way to Europe, where they
will influenced the English
mathematician John Wallis (1616-1703),
and the eventual development of
non-Euclidean geometry.
Also around this time Khayyám writes a
geometry book (also in Esfahan) on the
theory of proportions. In this book
Khayyam argues for the important idea
of enlarging the notion of number to
include ratios of magnitudes (and
therefore such irrational numbers as
the square root of 2 and pi).
[1] Statue of Khayyam at his Mausoleum
in Neyshabur Omar Chayyām aus:
http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/hist
ory/PictDisplay/Khayyam.html http://de.
wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Omar_Chayyam.jpe
g PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Omar_Chayyam.jpg
[2] Omar Khayam's tomb, Neishapur,
which is a city in Iran (Neishapur was
a city of Eastern Seljuk Turkish
Empire). This Photo by user
zereshk. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Khayam.jpg
[1088 CE]
Zirong 子容) (1020 - 1101),
a Chinese engineer, invents a
water-driven astronomical clock, one of
the first uses of an escapement
mechanism (a device that stops a gear
from continuously unwinding, such as a
pendulum) and one of the first
astronomical clocks.
[1] A scale model of Su Song's
Astronomical Clock Tower, built in 11th
century Kaifeng, China. It was driven
by a large waterwheel, chain drive, and
escapement mechanism. Su Song's Water
Clock (蘇頌鐘). This
picture is a scaled model of Su Song's
water-powered clock tower. The
original clock tower was 35 feet tall.
It was a 3 story tower with an
armillary sphere on the roof, and a
celestial globe on the third
floor. This picture was taken in
July 2004 from an exhibition at Chabot
Space & Science Center in Oakland,
California. The quality of the picture
is not ideal because flash photography
was not allowed. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:SuSongClock1.JPG
[1088 CE]
(Italian: Alma Mater Studiorum
Università di Bologna, UNIBO) if
founded. The University of Bologna is
the oldest degree-granting university
on earth, third oldest university on
earth, and the first university in the
West.
[1] Seal of the U of Bologna PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Bologna_University_seal.jpg
[2] U of Bologna COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://corpora.dslo.unibo.it/fra
mes06/img/Bologna.jpg
[1099 CE]
Order of St. John establish a hospital
in Jerusalem that can care for some
2,000 people. It is said to have been
particularly concerned with eye
disease, and be the first specialized
hospital.
The growth of hospitals accelerates
during the Crusades, which began at the
end of the 11th century. Military
hospitals came into being along the
well traveled routes. Disease kills
more people than Saracens (Islamic
soldiers).
[1] grand master & senior knights
hospitaller after 1307 move to rhodes
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Knights_hospitaller.JPG
[2] Hospital of the Knights of St.
John, Jerusalem, c. 1959. The hospital
was founded in 1069 to care for
pilgrims to the Holy Land and run by a
small group of monks. After the capture
of Jerusalem in 1099, the monks became
a regular religious order called the
Knights of St. John, or the
Hospitallers. Major, ''The Knights of
St. John of Jerusalem,'' Ralph Major
vertical file. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/rm
/m_07p.jpg
[1100 CE]
interest in the classic works of the
past changes from direct translation to
compilations and surveys of earlier
efforts, for example translating Ibn
Al-Quifti's "History of Wise Men", Ibn
Abi Usaybia's "Main Sources of Medical
Schools", and Al-Shahristani's "Creeds
and Sects".
[1106 CE]
Mohammad ibn Mohammad al-Ghazzali)
(Persian: ابو Øامد Ù…Øمد
ابن Ù…Øمد الغزالی or
امام Ù…Øمد غزالی) (Latin:
Algazel) (CE 1058-1111), a Persian
Islamic Theologin, writes "Tahafut
'al-Falasifah" (Arabic:تهاÙت
الÙلاسÙØ©) (The Incoherence of
the Philosophers), which marks a
turning point in Islamic philosophy in
its vehement rejections of Aristotle
and Plato. The book focuses on the
falasifa, a loosely defined group of
Islamic philosophers from the 8th
through the 11th centuries (most
notable among them Avicenna and
Al-Farabi) who drew intellectually upon
the Ancient Greeks. Ghazali bitterly
denounces Aristotle, Socrates and other
Greek writers as non-believers and
labels those who employed their methods
and ideas as corrupters of the Islamic
faith.
In the next century, Averroes will
draft a lengthy rebuttal of Ghazali's
Incoherence entitled "the Incoherence
of the Incoherence", however the course
of Islamic thought into an anti-science
Dark Age of religious intolerance had
already been set.
[1] Portrait of Ghazali in his late
years by an Iraqi artist Name:
Al-Ghazali (Algazel) Birth: 1058 CE
(450 AH) Death: 1111 CE (505
AH) School/tradition: Sufism, Sunnite
(Shafi'ite), Asharite Main interests:
Sufism, Theology (Kalam), Philosophy,
Logic, Islamic
Jurisprudence Influenced: Fakhruddin
Razi, Maimonides[1], Thomas Aquinas,
Raymund Martin, Nicholas of Autrecourt,
Shah Waliullah, Abdul-Qader Bedil PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ghazali.gif
[2] Haruniyah stucture in Tus, Iran,
named after Harun al-Rashid, the
mausoleum of Al-Ghazali is expected to
be situated on the entrance of this
monument Haruniyeh, Razavi Khorasan.
Sufis used to hang out here during the
Middle Ages. Iran GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Haruniyeh.JPG
[1120 CE]
Abelard) (oBALoR) (CE 1079-04/21/1142),
a French scholar, writes "Sic et Non"
(Yes and No), in Latin, a list of 158
philosophical and theological questions
about which there are divided opinions
and authorities conflict each other.
There are eleven surviving full and
partial manuscripts of the "Sic et
non".
Abilard is in constant danger of being
charged with heresy, and will die while
preparing his defense against a charge
of heresy.
Abelard also writes a book called
"Theologia", which will be formally
condemned as heretical and burned by a
council held at Soissons in 1121.
Paris, France
[1] Abélard and Héloïse depicted in
a 14th century manuscript Abelard,
with Heloise, miniature portrait by
Jean de Meun, 14th century; in the
Musee Conde, Chantilly, Fr.[3] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Abelard_and_Heloise.jpeg
[2] ''Abaelardus and Heloïse
surprised by Master Fulbert'', by
Romanticist painter Jean Vignaud
(1819) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Helo%C3%AFse_et_d%27Ab%C3%A9lard.jpg
[1130 CE]
Bernard) (Fontaines, near Dijon, 1090 -
August 21, 1153 Clairvaux), who helps
to form and preaches on the Second
Crusade (1145-46), is the prosecutor in
the trial of Peter Abelard, the French
scholar and author of "Sic et Non", for
heresy. Bernard also describes the
Jewish people, as "a degraded and
perfidious people"{1 get source}
(perfidious means "tending to betray,
disloyal and or faithless"). However,
after many Jewish people are murdered
in Germany, according to Martin Bouquet
(1685-1754) (Martin Bouquet, "Recueil
des Historiens des Gaules et de la
France," xv. 606) Bernard sends a
letter to (specifically?) England,
France and Germany expressing his view
that Jewish people should not be
disturbed or destroyed but that they
should be punished as a race of people
by dispersion for their crime against
Jesus (who again, was a Jewish person
with many Jewish disciples).(check)
[1] Bernard of Clairvaux, as shown in
the church of Heiligenkreuz Abbey near
Baden bei Wien, Lower Austria. Portrait
(1700) with the true effigy of the
Saint by Georg Andreas Wasshuber
(1650-1732), (painted after a statue in
Clairvaux with the true effigy of the
saint) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Heiligenkreuz.Bernard_of_Clervaux.jpg
.jpg)
[2] Bernhard of Clairvaux Initial B
from a 13th century illuminated
illuminated manuscript PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Bernhard_von_Clairvaux_%28Initiale-B%
29.jpg
[1130 CE]
c1150), English scholar translates
Euclid's "Elements" from Arabic to
Latin. This is the first time the
writings of Euclid will be available to
Europe. Adelard translates
al-Khwarizmi, and uses arabic numerals.
Adelard writes "Quaestiones
naturales"(Natural Questions) (76
discussions of human nature,
meteorology, astronomy, botany, and
zoology) which are based on all he has
learned about Arabic science. His other
writings include works on the abacus
and the astrolabe and a translation of
an Arabic astronomical table.
[1] Detail of a scene in the bowl of
the letter 'P' with a woman with a
set-square and dividers; using a
compass to measure distances on a
diagram. In her left hand she holds a
square, an implement for testing or
drawing right angles. She is watched by
a group of students. In the Middle
Ages, it is unusual to see women
represented as teachers, in particular
when the students appear to be monks.
She may be the personification of
Geometry. * Illustration at the
beginning of Euclid's Elementa, in the
translation attributed to Adelard of
Bath. * Date: 1309 - 1316 *
Location: France (Paris). Copyright:
The British Library. * original
from
http://www.bl.uk/services/learning/curri
culum/medrealms/t2womantask2.html
* second version adapted from
http://prodigi.bl.uk/illcat/ILLUMIN.ASP?
Size=mid&IllID=2756 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Woman_teaching_geometry.jpg
[1132 CE]
propellant. This is done in China and
is recorded in experiments with mortars
made of bamboo tubes. This is the first
cannon and gun.
[1] A Mongol bomb thrown against a
charging Japanese samurai during the
Mongol Invasions of Japan,
1281. Suenaga facing Mongol arrows and
bombs. From MokoShuraiEkotoba
(蒙古襲来絵
;詞), circa 1293, 13th
century. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mooko-Suenaga.jpg
[1150 CE]
Aryabhata's heliocentric model in his
astronomical treatise
"Siddhanta-Shiromani".
Bhaskara (1114-1185) expands on
Aryabhata's heliocentric model in his
astronomical treatise
"Siddhanta-Shiromani", where he
mentions the law of gravity,
recorgnizes that the planets do not
orbit the Sun at a uniform velocity,
and accurately calculates many
astronomical constants based on this
model, such as the solar and lunar
eclipses, and the velocities and
instantaneous motions of the planets.
[1] Español: Estatua de Aryabhata en
India This image of a public statue in
IUCAA Pune was photographed in May 2006
by myself, and I release all
rights. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:2064_aryabhata-crp.jpg
[1154 CE]
c1114 - 1187), and Italian scholar
translates (or supervises the
translation of) 92 Arabic works,
including portions of Aristotle, the
Almagest of Ptolemy, works of
Hippocrates, Euclid and Galen.
In Toledo,
which had been a center for Arab
learning, Gerard finds many Arab books
and people that help with translation.
Gerard moves to Toledo to learn Arabic
in order to read the "Almagest", which
is not available in Latin and remains
there for the rest of his life. Some
people speculate that Gerard is in
charge of a school of translators that
are responsible for some of the
translations. Gerard will complete the
translation of the Almagest in 1175.
Gerard also translates original Arabic
texts on health, mathematics,
astronomy, astrology, and alchemy.
Gerard is one of a small group of
scholars who invigorates medieval
Europe in the 1100s by transmitting
Greek and Arab traditions in astronomy,
medicine and other sciences, in the
form of translations into Latin, which
make them available to every literate
person in the West.
Gerard of Cremona's Latin translation
of Ptolemy's "Almagest" from Arabic
will be the only version of this book
that is known in Western Europe for
centuries, until George of Trebizond
and then Johannes Regiomontanus
translate it from the Greek originals
in the 1400s. The "Almagest" forms the
basis for a mathematical astronomy
until being replaced by the
sun-centered theory popularized by
Copernicus.
Gerard translates into Latin the
"Tables if Toledo", the most accurate
compilation of astronomical data ever
seen in Europe at the time. These
Tables are partly the work of
Al-Zarqali, known to the West as
Arzachel, a mathematician and
astronomer who flourished in Cordoba in
the eleventh century.
Al-Farabi, the Islamic "second teacher"
after Aristotle, wrote hundreds of
treatises. His book on the sciences,
"Kitab al-lhsa al Ulum", discusses
classification and fundamental
principles of science in a unique and
useful manner. Gerard renders this book
as "De scientiis" (On the Sciences).
Gerard translates Euclid"s "Geometry"
and Alfraganus's "Elements of
Astronomy".
Gerard also composes original treatises
on algebra, arithmetic and astrology.
In the astrology text, longitudes are
reckoned both from Toledo and Cremona.
[1] Ptolemy, Almagest In
Latin Translated by Gerard of
Cremona Parchment Thirteenth
century The most important medieval
Latin translation of the Almagest,
which is found in many manuscripts, was
made from the Arabic in Spain in 1175
by Gerard of Cremona, the most prolific
of all medieval translators from Arabic
into Latin. PD
source: http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/vati
can/images/math11a.jpg
[2] w opisie obrazka było ''A
midwife and an assistant stand by at
the birth of twins. Miniature from
Chururgia, by Gerard of Cremona,
twelfth century, Codex Series Nova
2641, fol 41 r. Osterreichische
Nationalbibliothek, Vienna.'' PD
source: http://www.freha.pl/lofiversion/
index.php?t8228.html
[1166 CE]
(oVROEZ) (full name: Abu-Al-Walid
Muhammad Ibn Ahmad Ibn Rushd) (Arabic:
أبو
الوليž
3; محمد
بن
احمد
بن رشد)
(CE 1126 - 12/10/1198), physician and
philosopher, writes an encyclopedia of
health science, commentaries on most of
Aristotle's surviving works, Plato's
"Republic", and original philosophical
works.
Among Ibn Rushd's health science
works are his original medical
encyclopedia called "Kulliyat"
("Generalities", i.e. general
medicine), known in Latin translation
as "Colliget", a compilation of the
works of Galen, and a verse commentary
on Ibn Sina's "Qanun fi 't-tibb" (Canon
of Medicine).
Ibn Rushd writes
commentaries on Arabic versions of most
of the surviving works of Aristotle.
Because Ibn Rushd has no access to any
text of Aristotle's "Politics", as a
substitute he comments on Plato's
"Republic".
Ibn Rushd's most important original
philosophical work is "The Incoherence
of the Incoherence" (Tahafut
al-tahafut), in which he defends
Aristotelian philosophy against
al-Ghazali's claims in "The Incoherence
of the Philosophers" (Tahafut
al-falasifa). Al-Ghazali argued that
Aristotelianism, especially as
presented in the writings of Ibn Sina
(Avicenna), is self-contradictory and
an affront to the teachings of Islam.
Ibn Rushd's (Averroes') argues that
al-Ghazali's arguments are mistaken and
that, in any case, the system of Ibn
Sina was a distortion of genuine
Aristotelianism. However, this work
will not have as much influence on
Arabic people as al-Ghazzali's original
attack on philosophers does. Although I
have not seen this mentioned before,
part of this unfortunate rejection of
ancient Greek science, may very well be
a racial prejudice against ideas from
Greek history versus ideas from Arabic
history, in particular those from
Muhammad as recorded in the Quran. In
Europe, however, Ibn Rushd will be
viewed as the most influential Arabic
thinker, and most of Ibn Rushd's works
survive today only in Latin and Hebrew
instead of the original Arabic.
Other works by Ibn Rushd are "the Fasl
al-Maqal", which argues for the
legality of philosophical investigation
under Islamic law, and the "Kitab
al-Kashf".
Asimov wrote that after Averroes the
Islamic world will enter a Dark Age,
where scientific inquiry will be lost,
just as the Christian world is emerging
from a Dark Age.
[1] Averroes, detail of the
fourteenth-century Florentine artist
Andrea Bonaiuto's Triunfo de Santo
Tomás. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:AverroesColor.jpg
[2] Averroes, a closeup of The School
of Athens, a fresco by Raffaello
Sanzio, 1509. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Averroes_closeup.jpg
[1167 CE]
oldest university of the
English-speaking nations is founded.
There is no clear date of foundation,
but teaching existed at Oxford in some
form in 1096 and developed rapidly in
this year, when Henry II bans English
students from attending the University
of Paris.
After a dispute between students and
townsfolk breaks out in 1209, some of
the academics at Oxford move north-east
to the town of Cambridge, where the
University of Cambridge will be
founded.
[1] All Souls College quad COPYRIGHTED
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Oxford_University_Colleges-All_Souls_
quad.jpg
[2] Oxford's 'Dreaming Spires' at
sunset View of All Souls College and
the Radcliffe Camera, Oxford,
England COPYRIGHTED
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Oxfordskylinedawn.jpg
[1170 CE]
founded around this time.
The medieval University of Paris grows
out of the cathedral schools of
Notre-Dame and, like most other
medieval universities, is a kind of
corporate company that includes both
professors and students. With papal
support, Paris will soon become a
center of Christian orthodox
theological teaching. At the end of the
1200s and during the 1300s, it will be
the most celebrated teaching center of
all Europe. Its famous professors will
include Alexander of Hales, St.
Bonaventure, Albertus Magnus, and
Thomas Aquinas.
The university is originally divided
into four faculties: three "superior,"
theology, canon law, and medicine
(health); and one "inferior," arts. In
the faculty of arts, the trivium
(grammar, rhetoric, and dialectic) and
the quadrivium (arithmetic, geometry,
astronomy, and music) are taught
together with general scientific,
literary, and general culture.
Aristotelian philosophy is an
especially important field of study in
the arts faculty. Each faculty is
headed by a dean, and the dean of the
faculty of arts will by the 1300s
become the head of the collective
university under the title of rector.
The Faculty of Arts is the lowest in
rank, but also the largest as students
have to graduate there to be admitted
to one of the higher faculties. The
students there are divided into four
nations according to language or
regional origin, those of France,
Normandy, Picard, and England, this
last nation will later be known as the
Alemannian (German) nation. Recruitment
to each nation is wider than the names
might imply: the English-German nation
includes students from Scandinavia and
Eastern Europe.
Like other early medieval universities
(for example the University of Bologna,
the University of Oxford), but unlike
later ones (such as the University of
Prague or the University of
Heidelberg), the University of Paris is
established through a specific
foundation act by a royal charter or
papal bull. This University grows up in
the latter part of the 12th century
around the Notre Dame Cathedral as a
business similar to other medieval
businesses, such as guilds of merchants
or artisans. The medieval Latin term
universitas actually has the more
general meaning of a guild, and the
university of Paris is known as a
universitas magistrorum et scholarium
(a guild of masters and scholars).
The faculty and nation system of the
University of Paris (along with that of
the University of Bologna) will become
the model for all later medieval
universities.
Three schools were especially famous at
Paris, the palatine or palace school,
the school of Notre-Dame, and that of
Sainte-Geneviève. The decline of
royalty will bring about the decline of
the palatine school. The other two,
which will grow very old, like those of
the cathedrals and the abbeys, will be
only faintly outlined during the early
centuries of their existence. The glory
of the palatine school doubtless
eclipses theirs, until in the course of
time when it will completely gave way
to them.
[1] The Sorbonne, Paris, in a 17th
century engraving PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sorbonne_17thc.jpg
[1175 CE]
is founded.
Emilia-Romagna, Italy
[1] The see in Reggio Emilia PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Reggio_emilia_foro_boario_uni.jpg
[1176 CE]
משה בן
מימון)
(Arabic name: Abu Imran Mussa bin
Maimun ibn Abdallah al-Qurtubi
al-Israili (أبو
عمران
موسى
بن
ميمون
بن عبد
الله
القرط
6;ي
الإسر
5;ئيلي))
(Greek: Moses Maimonides
(Μωυσής
Μαϊμον^
3;δης)), a Jewish
philosopher and physician to Saladin,
completes his "Guide to the Perplexed"
in Arabic, which calls for a more
rational philosophy of Judaism.
writes "Guide for the Perplexed", where
he speaks against astrology and tries
to reconcile the Old Testament with the
teaching of Aristotle.
[1] Commonly used image indicating one
artist's conception of Maimonides's
appearance Moses Maimonides, portrait,
19th century. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Maimonides-2.jpg
[2] Statue of Maimonides in Córdoba,
Spain GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Maimonides-Statue.jpg
[1180 CE]
English scholar at the University of
Paris writes a book "De utensilibus"
("On Instruments") that is the first
mention of a mariner's compass in
Europe. Chinese people have been using
a (magnetic) compass for at least 200
years by this time.
Neckam writes "De naturis rerum" ("On
the Natures of Things"), a two-part
introduction to a commentary on the
Book of Ecclesiastes, which contains
miscellaneous scientific information
new to western Europe but already known
to educated people in Greek and Arabic
nations.
[11/??/1184 CE]
Lucius III holds a synod at Verona,
Italy, creating the shockingly brutal
law that burning is to be the official
punishment for heresy.
Pope Lucius III holds a
synod at Verona, Italy which condemns
the Cathars, Paterines, Waldensians and
Arnoldists, and anathematizes all those
declared as heretics and their
abettors. In order to effectively
persecute them, Lucius III formally
starts the Inquisition creating the
shockingly brutal law that burning is
to be the official punishment for
heresy.
The Medieval Inquisition is a term
historians use to describe the various
inquisitions that started around 1184,
including the Episcopal Inquisition
(1184-1230s) and later the Papal
Inquisition (1230s). It was in response
to large popular movements throughout
Europe considered apostate or heretical
to Christianity, in particular
Catharism and Waldensians in southern
France and northern Italy. These were
the first inquisition movements of many
that would follow.
[1] St Dominic (1170-1221[3]) presiding
over an auto de fe, Spanish,
1475 Representation of an Auto de fe,
(1475). [t I think this is a dubious
claim, that people didn't stay
around...they quickly leave when time
for the burning...I doubt it:] Many
artistic representations depict torture
and the burning at the stake as
occurring during the auto da fe.
Actually, burning at the stake usually
occurred after, not during the
ceremonies. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Inquisition2.jpg
[1195 CE]
to Lucena, possibly to gain undivided
loyalty from the people before a jihad
(holy war) against Christian Spain, or
as Arabic sources claim to protect Ibn
Rushd from attacks by people at the
request of religious leaders.
[1] Averroes, detail of the
fourteenth-century Florentine artist
Andrea Bonaiuto's Triunfo de Santo
Tomás. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:AverroesColor.jpg
[2] Averroes, a closeup of The School
of Athens, a fresco by Raffaello
Sanzio, 1509. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Averroes_closeup.jpg
[1202 CE]
and Italian mathematician, writes
"Liber Abaci" ("Book of the Abacus") in
Latin, which explains the use of
Indian-Arabic numerals, how position
affects the value (positional or
place-value notation) and the use of
the number zero. Adelard of Bath had
used arabic numerals, but this book in
particular will contribute to the end
in a few centuries of the "Roman
numerals" which the Greeks and Romans
had used (although Roman numerals are
still rarely used).
Fibonacci's name is known in modern
times mainly because of the Fibonacci
sequence, a series of numbers where the
next number is the sum of the last two
numbers, which is derived from a
problem in the Liber abaci.
[1] Leonardo Pisano Fibonacci [t nice
to find source an date of image] PD
source: http://www.mathekiste.de/fibonac
ci/fibonacci.jpg
[2] Leonardo da Pisa, detto Fibonacci
(1170 -1250) PD
source: http://alpha01.dm.unito.it/perso
nalpages/cerruti/primi/primigrandi/fibon
acci.html
[1208 CE]
(CE c1175-1253), English scholar and
teacher of Roger Bacon, is the first
person to write, in his scientific
treatise "De Luce" (Concerning light),
that light is the basis of all matter
(although Grosseteste does not
explicitly describe light as being made
of particles he does mention atomic
theory). This theory will still not be
publicly recognized as true by the
majority of people 750 years later
today. Possibly this is just an
unfounded guess, and/or an extension of
the biblical text describing a god
commanding "Let there by light".
In "De Luce",
Grosstest writes "Lux est ergo prima
forma corporalis.", "Light is therefore
the first corporeal (material) form".
While "De Luce" is filled with complex
mystical inaccurate beliefs (such as
Grosseteste's conclusion that "ten is
the perfect number in the universe"),
there are many statements that reveal
Grosseteste's smart views such as
"light is not a form that comes after
corporeity (the state of materialness),
but it is corporeity itself.", .
Grossetest brings in scholars from the
Byzantine Empire to translate works
from the original Greek.
Interested in optics,
Grosseteste performs experiments with
mirrors and lenses using al-Haytham's
(Alhazen's) writings as a guide.
From about 1220 to 1235 Grosseteste
writes a number of scientific treatises
including:
* De sphera. An introductory text
on astronomy.
* De luce. On the "metaphysics
of light."
* De accessione et recessione
maris. On tides and tidal movements.
* De
lineis, angulis et figuris.
Mathematical reasoning in the natural
sciences.
* De iride. On the rainbow.
He also wrote a number of commentaries
on Aristotle, including the first in
the West of Posterior Analytics, and
one on Aristotle's Physics.
As bishop, Grosseteste will translate
the Nicomachean Ethics, making this
important work available to the West in
its entirety for the first time.
Grosseteste concludes that mathematics
is the highest of all sciences, and the
basis for all others, since every
natural science ultimately depended on
mathematics.
Grossteste believes light to be the
"first form" of all things, and the
source of all generation and motion
(approximately what we know as biology
and physics today).
In "De Iride" ("On the rainbow")
Grosseteste writes:
"This part of optics,
when well understood, shows us how we
may make things a very long distance
off appear as if placed very close, and
large near things appear very small,
and how we may make small things placed
at a distance appear any size we want,
so that it may be possible for us to
read the smallest letters at incredible
distances, or to count sand, or seed,
or any sort or minute objects."
Gresseteste's
work in optics will be continued by his
student Roger Bacon.
In "De Luce" Grosseteste reveals his
awareness of atomic theory writing:
"It
is my opinion that this was the meaning
of the theory of those philosophers who
held that everything is composed of
atoms, and said that bodies are
composed of surfaces, and surfaces of
lines, and lines of points."
written)
[1] Portrait of Robert Grosseteste,
Bishop of Lincoln, seated with mitre
and crozier; his right hand raised in
blessing. Produced in England - 13th
century Record Number:
c6400-05 Shelfmark: Harley
3860 Page Folio Number:
f.48 Description: [Detail] Portrait
of Robert Grosseteste, Bishop of
Lincoln, seated with mitre and crozier;
his right hand raised in blessing. The
Articles of the Christian Faith
according to Bishop Grosseteste, in
French verse Title of Work:
- Author: Grosseteste,
Robert Illustrator: - Production:
England; 13th
century Language/Script: Latin and
French / - [t notice the crossed eyes,
perhaps reputation as insane for
proscience views?] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Grosseteste_bishop.jpg
[2] Record Number:
19885 Shelfmark: Royal 6 E. V Page
Folio Number: f.6 Description:
[Miniature only] Initial 'A', portrait
of Robert Grosseteste, Bishop of
Lincoln. The beginning of one of the
bishop's sermons Title of Work: Works
of Robert Grosseteste, Bishop of
Lincoln Author: Grosseteste,
Robert Illustrator: - Production:
England; 15th
century Language/Script: Latin /
- PD
source: http://www.imagesonline.bl.uk/br
itishlibrary/controller/textsearch?text=
grosseteste&y=0&x=0&startid=31330&width=
4&height=2&idx=2
[1209 CE]
England is founded.
Early records suggest, in
this year scholars leave Oxford after a
dispute with local townsfolk over a
killing.
[1] The town centre of Cambridge with
the University Church (Great St Mary's)
on the right, the Senate House of
Cambridge University on the left, and
Gonville and Caius College in the
middle at the back. CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CambridgeTownCentre.jpg
[2] Photograph of Cambridge colleges
seen from St Johns College Chapel PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cam_colls_from_johns.jpg
[1212 CE]
founded. This is the earliest and
oldest University in Spain.
region of Castile-Leon,in northern
Spain.
[1] Statue of Cervantes in the
University Square, opposite to the
Faculty of Law. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cervantes_Valladolid_lou.jpg
[06/15/1215 CE]
limiting the power of the King of
England.
[1] # Magna Carta. This is not the
original charter signed by John of
England, which has been lost (though
four copies survive), but the version
issued in 1225 by Henry III of England
and preserved in the UK's National
Archives. # Quelle:
http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathw
ays/citizenship/images/citizen_subject/m
agna_carta.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Magna_Carta.jpg
[2] John of England signs Magna
Carta Image from Cassell's History of
England - Century Edition - published
circa 1902 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:King_John_of_England_signs_the_Magna_
Carta_-_Illustration_from_Cassell%27s_Hi
story_of_England_-_Century_Edition_-_pub
lished_circa_1902.jpg
[1218 CE]
founded.
[1] Plateresque facade of the
University GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:University_of_Salamanca.jpg
[1220 CE]
founded.
région of the south of France.
[1] The University of Montpellier is
one of the oldest in France, having
been granted a charter in 1220 by
Cardinal Conrad von Urach and confirmed
by Pope Nicholas IV in a papal bull of
1289. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.bbc.co.uk/herefordand
worcester/content/image_galleries/montpe
llier_photo_gallery.shtml?17
[1222 CE]
Università degli Studi di Padova,
UNIPD) is founded. Padua is the second
oldest University in Italy after the
University of Bologna. The university
is founded in 1222 when a large group
of students and professors leave the
University of Bologna in search of more
academic freedom.
[1] Ornate ceiling in the conference
auditorium. University of Padua, Padua,
Italy, January 31, 2003 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.big6.com/showarticle.
php?id=342
[2] University of Padua, anatomical
theater, from Jacob Tomasini''s
Gymnasium Patavinum, 1654. Major, 327,
347 PD
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/rm
/major_17th.htm
[06/05/1224 CE]
II is founded by the emperor of the
Holy Roman Empire Frederick II.
[1] Main building, university of
Naples, Federico II PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Uninap.JPG
[1227 CE]
court, translates from Arabic to Latin
many of the Arabic translations and
commentaries of Aristotle's works by
people such as Ibn Rushd (Averroes) and
Ibn Sina (Avicenna).
Frederick II urges Scot to
spread his translations to the
universities of Europe.
[1229 CE]
(TUlUS) is founded.
The formation of the
University of Toulouse is imposed on
Count Raymond VII as a part of the
Treaty of Paris in 1229 ending the
crusade against the Albigensians.
Suspected of sympathizing with the
heretics, Raymond VII has to finance
the teaching of theology.
[1] Toulouse, le Capitole COPYRIGHTED
FRANCE
source: http://w3.univ-tlse2.fr/pac/iclc
e.toulouse/photos/index.1.jpg
[1233 CE]
great) (1193-1280), German scholar and
teacher of Thomas Aquinas, recognizes
that the Milky Way is composed of many
stars, compiles a list of a hundred
minerals, and recognizes the existence
of fossils.
[1] Albertus Magnus (fresco, 1352,
Treviso, Italy) by Tommaso da Modena
(1326-1379) 1352 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:AlbertusMagnus.jpg
[2] Painting by Joos (Justus) van
Gent, Urbino, ~ 1475 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Albertus_Magnus_Painting_by_Joos_van_
Gent.jpeg
[1234 CE]
press is invented in Korea.
[1234 CE]
Roman Emperor, (1194-1250), expreses
antireligious views, funds and
corresponds with many scholars.
Frederick II keeps company with people
of any race and religion. Frederick II
keeps a traveling zoo that includes
monkeys, camels, a giraffe and an
elephant.
Frederick writes "De arte venandi cum
avibus", a standard work on falconry
based entirely on his own experimental
research. In this book Frederick
describes hundreds of kinds of birds,
their anatomy, physiology, and
behavior. The book also includes
illustrations.
Asimov describes Frederick II as
atheist and makes no distinctions
between religions, although in 1220
issues laws against heretics. Frederick
is supposed to have joked that Moses,
Christ, and Muhammad were three
impostors who had themselves been
fooled.
Frederick is in his own time as "Stupor
mundi" ("wonder of the world"), and is
said to speak nine languages and be
literate in seven at a time when some
monarchs and nobles cannot read or
write. Frederick is a ruler very much
ahead of his time, being an avid patron
of science and the arts.
[1] * Frederick II and his falcon.
* From his book De arte venandi cum
avibus (''The art of hunting with
birds). From a manuscript in Biblioteca
Vaticana, Pal. lat 1071), late 13th
century PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Frederick_II_and_eagle.jpg
[2] L'Islam in Italia, DeAgostini -
Rizzoli periodici An image from an old
copy of De arte venandi cum avibus PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:De_Venandi_com_Avibus.jpg
[1240 CE]
founded.
[1] University of Siena COPYRIGHTED
ITALY
source: http://www.elet.polimi.it/confer
ences/siena2003/home2.html
[1242 CE]
first person in Europe to give exact
directions for making gunpowder, in a
letter "De nullitate magiæ" at
Oxford.
Bacon may have learned about gunpowder
from an Arab trader.
Bacon writes that if
confined, gunpowder would have great
power and might be useful in war, but
fails to speculate further. The use of
gunpowder in guns in Europe happens
early in the next century.
[1] Roger Bacon Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/roger%20b
acon
[2] Statue of Roger Bacon in the
Oxford University Museum of Natural
History. 2004 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Roger-bacon-statue.jpg
[1252 CE]
(1221-1284), a Spanish monarch, founds
schools, and encourages learning.
Alfonso orders the creation of the
Alfonsine Tables, astronomical tables
based on the Toledo tables but revised
for more accuracy. These astronomical
tables will be used for more than 300
years. Alfonso sponsors the writing of
the first history of Spain and
translations of the Koran and Talmud.
[1] Español: Alfonso X el
Sabio Alfonso X el Sabio (Toledo
1221-Sevilla 1284), rey de Castilla y
de León (en la actual España)
(1252-1284). From en.wiki: *
Alfonso X of Castile from the Libro des
Juegas. Scanned from Four Gothic
Kings, Elizabeth Hallam ed. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:LibroDesJuegasAlfonXAndCourt.jpg
_01.jpg)
[2] Statue of Alfonso X of Castile
(1221â€''1284) at the entrance
staircase of the National Library of
Spain, in Madrid. Sculpted by José
Alcoverro y Amorós (1835â€''1910) in
1892. 2006 CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Alfonso_X_el_Sabio_%28Jos%C3%A9_Alcov
erro%29_01.jpg
[1259 CE]
Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn al-Hasan
al-Tusi) (CE 1201-1274), as scientific
adviser to Hülegü Khan (c.
1217-1265), grandson of Genghis Khan,
al-Tusi convinces Khan to construct an
observatory in Maragheh (now in
Azerbaijan).
[1] Stamp issued in 1956 by Iran
picturing Nasir al-Din Tusi,
astronomer Source scan of stamp 30
May 2006 Date issued 1956 Author
Iran PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nasir_al-Din_Tusi.jpg
[2] Tusi couple - 13th century CE
sketch by Nasir al-Din Tusi. Generates
a linear motion as a sum of two
circular motions. Invented for Tusi's
planetary model. Online source:
Pearson Prentice Hall Companion Website
for Astronomy Today Original source:
Library of Congress Vatican Exhibit
(Vat. Arabic ms 319, fol. 28 verso) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Tusi_couple.jpg
[1263 CE]
an Italian physician, writes
"Consilia", which describes clinical
case studies, and writes one of the
first health works in the vernacular
Italian language "Sulla conservazione
della salute" a family health
encyclopedia.
[1] Taddeo Alderotti PD
source: http://www3.unibo.it/avl/english
/biogr/bio2.htm
[2] Biografie di medici medievali [t
Biography of medieval medicine, it
looks just like a contemporary image of
some physicians, maybe at a health
school?] PD
source: http://www.accademiajr.it/medweb
/biografie.html
[01/20/1265 CE]
members are required to be elected,
formed by Simon de Montfort
(c1208-1265) without royal approval,
meets in England.
[1] Relief of Simon de Montfort, by
Gaetano Cecere (1950), in United States
House of Representatives Chamber.
Agency: Architect of the Capitol PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Demontfort.jpg
[1265 CE]
(c1225-1274), an Italian theologian,
with others promote the idea first
identified by Ibn Rushd (Averroes) that
reason and faith can coexist and each
operate according to their own laws.
This is a step forward in the eventual
complete replacement of religion with
science, faith with logic.
[1] Depiction of St. Thomas Aquinas
from the Demidoff Altarpiece by Carlo
Crivelli. [t bald head is shaved or
naturally like this?] Depiction of St.
Thomas Aquinas from The Demidoff
Altarpiece by Carlo Crivelli Name:
Thomas Aquinas Birth: ca. 1225
(Castle of Roccasecca, near Aquino,
Italy) Death: 7 March 1274 (Fossanova
Abbey, Lazio, Italy) School/tradition:
Scholasticism, Founder of
Thomism Main interests: Metaphysics
(incl. Theology), Logic, Mind,
Epistemology, Ethics, Politics Notable
ideas: Five Proofs for God's
Existence, Principle of double
effect Influences: Aristotle,
Albertus Magnus, Boethius, Eriugena,
Anselm, Averroes, Maimonides, St.
Augustine,Al-Ghazzali Influenced:
Giles of Rome, Godfrey of Fontaines,
Jacques Maritain, G. E. M. Anscombe,
John Locke, Dante PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:St-thomas-aquinas.jpg
[2] St. Thomas Aquinas, by Fra
Angelico Title: ''Saint Thomas
Aquinas'' Artist: Fra Angelico (1395
â€'' 1455) Description: During the
13th century, Saint Thomas Aquinas
sought to reconcile Aristotelian
philosophy with Augustinian theology.
Aquinas employed both reason and faith
in the study of metaphysics, moral
philosophy, and religion. While Aquinas
accepted the existence of God on faith,
he offered five proofs of God’s
existence to support such a
belief. Source:
http://www.cptryon.org/prayer/special/gu
idaquin.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Saint_Thomas_Aquinas.jpg
[1267 CE]
scholar, writes "Opus Majus", an 840
page book in Latin, an encylopedia of
all aspects of natural science, from
grammar and logic to mathematics,
physics, and philosophy. "Opus Majus"
is the first work that proposes
mechanically propelled ships and
carriages. "Opus Majus" also mentions
the use of spectacles which soon come
into use (although magnifying glasses
for reading are already in use in China
and Europe at this time), and describes
the principles of reflection,
refraction, and spherical aberration.
"Opus Majus" contains what may be the
first description of a telescope.
Bacon suggests that a balloon of thin
copper sheet filled with "liquid fire"
would float in the air as many light
objects do in water and seriously
studies the problem of flying in a
machine with flapping wings.
Bacon denounces magic, but believes in
astrology and alchemy.
Bacon suggests that the earth can be
circumnavigated. Ancient Greek people
such as the Pythagoreans viewed the
earth as a sphere and Eratosthenes was
the first to accurately calculate the
size of the spherical earth. Columbus
will quote this suggestion from Bacon
in a letter to Ferdinand and Isabella
of Spain. In 300 years Magellan will be
the first to circumnavigate the earth.
Bacon estimates that the outermost
heavenly sphere, the sphere with the
stars is 130 million miles (units) from
earth, far short of the actual distance
to any star other than the sun, but
such a guess is rare, and probably
inspires other people to wonder.
Following Grosseteste, Bacon constructs
magnifying glasses.
Bacon writes that lenses can correct
the vision of those who are farsighted
(cannot see close objects). In Europe
eyeglasses first appeared in Italy,
their introduction being attributed to
Alessandro di Spina of Florence.
Bacon recognizes the flaw in the Julian
calendar.
Between 1777 and 1779 Bacon will be
imprisoned and his works ordered
supressed. His greatest book "Opus
Majus" will not be printed until 1733.
[1] Roger Bacon Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/roger%20b
acon
[2] Statue of Roger Bacon in the
Oxford University Museum of Natural
History. 2004 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Roger-bacon-statue.jpg
[1268 CE]
iron or bronze) first appeared in the
wars between the Mongols and the Song
Dynasty (1268-1279).
[1] A Mongol bomb thrown against a
charging Japanese samurai during the
Mongol Invasions of Japan,
1281. Suenaga facing Mongol arrows and
bombs. From MokoShuraiEkotoba
(蒙古襲来絵
;詞), circa 1293, 13th
century. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mooko-Suenaga.jpg
[08/08/1269 CE]
Maricourt, (Latin: Petrus Peregrinus de
Maharncuria) ("Peter the Pilgrim from
Maricourt") (PruGrINuS) (c1240-?), a
French scholar, writes the first known
treatise describing the properties of
magnets. Pelerin tries to build a motor
to keep a planetarium designed by
Archimedes moving for a period of time
by using magnetic force (in my opinion
the magnetic force is actually the
electric force). This is the first
recorded suggestion that magnetic force
might be used as a source of power like
water, and air. Peregrinus attempts to
prove that magnets can be used to
realize perpetual motion. I think some
time in the future, if not already,
permanent magnets, arranged perhaps in
a circle, may constantly turn another
magnet or piece of metal, as a virutal
perpetual motion machine, because the
source of magnetic force in a permanent
magnet appears to last for a very long
time and may be able to even overpower
the friction of turning. The force of
gravity is another force that appears
to last for many millions of years.
Peregrinus writes his treatise to a
friend while serving as an engineer in
the army of Charles I of Anjou during a
siege of Lucera (in Italy) in a
"crusade" sanctioned by the Pope. In
this treatise Peregrinus describes how
to determine the north and south pole
of a bar magnet (explain how), that
like poles repel each other and
opposite poles attract each other, and
that a pole cannot be isolated by
breaking a magnet, because each half is
then a complete magnet with both a
north and south pole.
Peregrinus improves the
compass by placing the magnetic needle
on a pivot instead of allowing the
needle to float on a piece of cork, and
surrounding the pivot point with a
circular scale to allow direction to be
read more accurately. This improvement
will help those navigating and
exploring.
Peregrinus is one of few medeival
scholars to practice experiment.
My feeling is that a permanent magnet
has a current running through it
creating an electric field which may be
the actual explanation for the
so-called magnetic field of a permanent
magnet.
[1] Pivoting compass needle in a 14th
century handcopy of Peter's Epistola de
magnete (1269) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Epistola-de-magnete.jpg
[12/??/1270 CE]
enacted by Bishop Étienne (Stephen)
Tempier, which lists thirteen doctrines
held by "radical Aristotelians" as
heretical and that anybody that
practices or teaches them would be
faced with the punishment of the
Inquisition. The banned propositions
are related to Ibn Rushd's (Latin
Averroes') theory of the soul and the
doctrine of monopsychism (that all
humans share one eternal soul, mind, or
intellect). Other propositions banned
included Aristotle's theory of God as a
passive Unmoved Mover.
Conservative forces in
the Church attempted to use the
Condemnation for political purposes to
stop, or at least control and contain,
supposed threats to questions of
theology posed by Aristotelian reason.
In particular the Condemnation targeted
such radical scholars as Siger of
Brabant, a teacher at the University of
Paris that is one of the inventors and
major proponents of Averroism,
Averrois' interpretation of Aristotle.
In 7 years
Tempier will enact a second list of
condemnations, the Condemnation of
1277.
[1275 CE]
1235-1311), Spanish alchemist and
physician, is the first to recognize
that wood burning with poor ventilation
gives rise to poisonous fumes, so
Villanova is the first to describe
carbon monoxide. Some claim that
Villanova is the first to prepare
(distill?) pure alcohol.
[1] Arnaldus de Villanova PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Arnaldus_de_Villanova.jpeg
[1277 CE]
Roger Bacon (c1220-1292), Bacon is
placed under house arrest by Jerome of
Ascoli, the Minister-General of the
Franciscan Order (later to be Pope
Nicholas IV), and Bacon's works are
ordered supressed. His greatest book
"Opus Majus" will not be printed until
1733.
[1] Roger Bacon Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/roger%20b
acon
[2] Statue of Roger Bacon in the
Oxford University Museum of Natural
History. 2004 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Roger-bacon-statue.jpg
[1277 CE]
enacted by Bishop Tempier of Paris.
These Condemnations list 219 banned
propositions. Propositions banned
included statements on Aristotle's
"Physics": that God could not make
several worlds or universes; that God
could not move a spherical heavens with
a rectilinear motion; that God could
not make two bodies exist in the same
place at once.
12 of these propositions are theses of
Aquinas and these condemnations will
eventually lead to a direct attack on
the works of Thomas Aquinas.
[1281 CE]
1236-1311), student of Nasir al-Din
al-Tusi, writes a commentary on Ibn
Sin'a "Canon", and composes numerous
works on optics, geometry, astronomy,
geography and philosophy. In "The Limit
of Accomplishment concerning Knowledge
of the Heavens", Qutb al-Din also
discusses the possibility of
heliocentrism.
[1] Photo taken from medieval
manuscript by Qotbeddin Shirazi. The
image depicts an epicyclic planetary
model. Name: Title: Birth:
1236CE death: 1311CE Maddhab:
Sufi Main interests: Mathematics,
Astronomy, medicine, science and
philosophy works: Almagest, The Royal
Present ,Pearly Crown, etc Influences:
Nasir al-Din Tusi, Ibn al-Haytham and
Suhrawardi Picture taken by Zereshk
from old manuscript of Qotbeddin
Shirazi's treatise. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ghotb2.jpg
[1290 CE]
(Portuguese: Universidade de Coimbra)
is founded.
[1] The tower of the University of
Coimbra (left) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Coimbra_University_Tower_2.jpg
[1297 CE]
(1257-c1315), an Italian physician,
writes "Conciliator", in which he
describes the brain as the source of
nerves, and the heart as the source of
the blood vessels. D'Abano recognizes
that air has weight, and makes a very
accurate estimate of the length of a
year. D'Abano will be brought twice
before the Inquisition for heresy,
magic, and atheism because he rejects
the miraculous aspects of the gospel
tales. D'Abano is acquitted the first
time and dies in prison during the
course of the second trial.
[1] Pietro d'Abano PD
source: http://www.filosofico.net/pietro
abano.htm
[2] Pietro D'Abano A Rural
Dalliance Illustration from an
illuminated manuscript of his
Commentary on Aristotle's Problems,
1315 PD
source: http://www.androphile.org/previe
w/Museum/Europe/pietro_abano-dalliance.h
tml
[1298 CE]
explorer, writes a book "Il milione"
("the Millions"), known in English as
"the Travels of Marco Polo", describing
the use of coal, paper money and
asbestos while in prison.
Columbus will be
inspired by Polo's book into seeking
the riches of the Indies.
Marco Polo is one of
the few people from Europe to visit
China.
[1] Marco Polo in Tatar attire. The
Granger Collection, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-13534?articleTypeId=1
[2] Marco Polo leaving Venice on his
way to China (Platt 97) PD
source: http://www.susqu.edu/history/med
trav/MarcoPolo/images.htm
[1303 CE]
Sapienza" (Italian: Università degli
Studi di Roma "La Sapienza") is
founded. The University of Rome La
Sapienza is the largest European
university and the most ancient of
Rome's three public universities. In
Italian, Sapienza means "wisdom" or
"knowledge".
La Sapienza is founded in 1303 by Pope
Boniface VIII, as a Studium for
ecclesiastical studies more under his
control than the universities of
Bologna and Padua.
[1] Church of Sant'Ivo alla Sapienza,
by Borromini, originally a chapel of
the La Sapienza see. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Borromini_SantIvo.jpg
[2] The statue of Minerva in la
Sapienza University, Rome PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:MinervaSapienza.JPG
[09/08/1308 CE]
(Italian: Università degli Studi di
Perugia) is founded.
One of the "free"
universities of Italy, the University
of Perugia is erected into a studium
generale on September 8, 1308, by the
Bull "Super specula" of Clement V.
[1] Logo for U of Perudia COPYRIGHTED
EDU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Unipg.gif
[2] ''Perugia is a poetic, university
city, one of the beautiful, learned
cities of old Italy.'' George Sand,
1855. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.sbu.edu/images/pics_g
allery_2.jpg
[1310 CE]
alchemist writing under the name of
Jabir (Ibn Haiyan), is the first to
describe sulfuric acid and other strong
acids. Before this viniger is the
strongest acid known.
[1316 CE]
lUTSE) (c1275-1326), an Italian
anatomist, does his own dissections
(unlike previous physicians who
lectured from a high platform while an
assistant conducted the actual autopsy,
which continues after Mondino for 200
years until Vesalius), and in 1316
writes "Anathomia Mundini", the first
book devoted entirely to anatomy.
Mondino De' Luzzi makes advances in
describing the anatomy of the organs in
the reproductive system.
[1] Mondino da Luzzi supervising an
autopsy Johannes de Ketham
Fasciculo di Medicina, Venice, 1493,
engraving National Library of
Medicine, USA PD
source: http://www.afip.org/Departments/
HepGastr_dept/sobin/chap2.htm
[2] Autopsy with prosector and
physician Anathomia, Mondino da
Luzzi, 1495 engraving National
Library of Medicine, USA PD
source: http://www.afip.org/Departments/
HepGastr_dept/sobin/chap3.htm
[1317 CE]
c1285-1349), English scholar, correctly
rejects Plato's view that observed
objects are only imperfect copies of
reality, opting for the view that
objects we observe are real, and that
Plato's philosophy is abstraction.
Ockham (skeptical of the constant
adding of more items required to make
theories work) writes that "Entities
must not needlessly be multiplied",
which will come to be called "Okham's
razor", basically meaning that of two
arguments the simplest is probably the
more accurate.
[1] William of Ockham (also Occam or
any of several other spellings) (ca.
1285â€''1349) was an English
Franciscan friar and philosopher, from
Ockham, a small village in Surrey, near
East Horsley. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Occam.jpg
[2] Sketch labelled 'frater Occham
iste', from a manuscipt of Ockham's
'Summa Logicae', 1341 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_of_Ockham_-_Logica_-_1341.jpg
[1327 CE]
of Sankoré is founded.
The Mali Empire gained direct control
over the city of Timbuktu in 1324
during the reign of Mansa Kankan Musa.
A royal lady financed Musa'a plans to
turn Sankoré into a world class
learning institution with professors on
par with any outside of Africa. Upon
returning from his famous Hajj, Musa
brought the Granada architect Abu Ishaq
es Saheli from Egypt to build mosques
and palaces throughout the empire.
[1] Doors of the Sankore Madrash WIKI
COMMONS (GNU)
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Medersa_Sankore.jpg
[1335 CE]
founded.
[1] The building of the Ancient Faculty
of Medicine and Sciences in Zaragoza,
now called Paraninfo. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Zaragoza_-_Antigua_Facultad_de_Medici
na_-_Fachada.JPG
[2] Coat of arms of the University of
Zaragoza COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Unizar.gif
[1335 CE]
(c1295-c1358), French philosopher,
revises Aristotle's theory of motion,
which states that an object needs a
continuous force to keep the object
moving, arguing instead that an initial
force on an object is all that is
needed and that the motion then
continues indefinitely.
John Philoponus (6th c. CE)
had reached a similar conclusion in his
commentary on Aristotle's "Physics", as
had Hipparchos (2nd c. BCE) and
Synesios (4th c. CE) before him.
Buridan
then applies this concept to the
so-called spheres of heaven, saying
once put into motion by a god, the
motion of the spheres would continue
forever, and do not need angels to keep
them moving (as, shockingly, is the
common belief, among those who care).
[1] The Index Librorum Prohibitorum
(''List of Prohibited Books'') is a
list of publications which the Catholic
Church censored for being a danger to
itself and its members. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Index_Librorum_Prohibitorum_1.jpg
[2] Jean Buridan (1300-1358) “O
dinheiro, portanto, é um bem do
mercado, e o valor desse dinheiro, como
nos outros casos de bens do mercado,
deve ser mensurado pela necessidade
humana. Os valores dos bens de troca
são proporcionados pela necessidade
humanaâ€Â. PD
source: http://www.cieep.org.br/images/b
uridanbio.jpg
[1336 CE]
founded.
[1] aerial image of U of
Camerino COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.unicam.it/discichi/cr
istalliteam/camerino-01.bmp
[2] U of Camerino COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.unicam.it/discichi/cr
istalliteam/dove.htm
[09/03/1343 CE]
founded.
The University of Pisa is founded by an
edict of Pope Clement VI on this day,
although there had been lectures on law
in Pisa since the 11th century.
[1] The Tower of Pisa. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lea
ning_Tower_of_Pisa
[2] Miracoli? COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://krasnow.gmu.edu/L-Neuron/
ascoli/miracoli.jpg
[04/07/1348 CE]
is founded. Charles University (Czech:
Univerzita Karlova; Latin: Universitas
Carolina) is the oldest university in
the Czech Republic.
On April 7 of 1348, Charles I, the King
of Bohemia (later known as Charles IV,
Holy Roman Emperor) issues a Golden
Bull (transcription of the Latin
original) granting the University of
Prague its privileges. A minority
however sees the papal bull of Pope
Clement VI on January 26 of 1347 as
primary.
Charles University is based on the
model of the University of Paris.
[1] Seal of the Charles University of
Prague. Source:
http://www.evropa.wz.cz/Czech_rep/pages/
mesta/imagescr/pecet.u.karlovy.jpg COPY
RIGHTED EDU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Seal_of_Charles_University_of_Prague.
png
[2] Monument to the founder of the
university, Emperor Charles IV GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Charles_IV._2003-12-24.jpg
[1360 CE]
c1320-1382), French Roman Catholic
bishop and scholar understands the
movement of uniformly accelerated
motion.
[1] Nicole Oresme Miniature of Nicole
Oresmes Traité de l''espere,
Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, France,
fonds français 565, fol. 1r. from:
http://www.math.uqam.ca/_charbonneau/GRM
S04/RepresentBasMA.htm Portrait of
Nicole Oresme: Miniature of Nicole
Oresme's Traité de l''espere,
Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, France,
fonds français 565, fol. 1r. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Oresme-Nicole.jpg
[2] Nicole Oresme Miniature of Nicole
Oresmes Traité de l''espere,
Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris, France,
fonds français 565, fol. 1r. PD
source: http://www.nicole-oresme.com/sei
ten/chronology.html
[1361 CE]
Università degli Studi di Pavia,
UNIPV) is founded.
An edict issued by King Lotarius quotes
a higher education institution in Pavia
as already established 825 CE. This
institution, mainly devoted to
ecclesiastical and civil law as well as
to divinity studies. The University of
Pavia is officially established as a
studium generale by Emperor Charles IV
in 1361.
[1] Box 1
source: http://www.nature.com/nrm/journa
l/v2/n10/slideshow/nrm1001-776a_bx1.html
[1364 CE]
Uniwersytet Jagielloński) is
founded.
Jagiellonian University is the first
university in Poland and is the second
oldest university in Central Europe
behind The University of Prague.
For much of
its history, this university is known
as the Cracow Academy, but in the 1800s
the university is renamed to
commemorate the Jagiellonian dynasty of
Polish kings.
Jagiellonian University is
founded by Casimir III the Great as
Akademia Krakowska.
[1] Monument to Nicolaus Copernicus
next to the Jagiellonian University's
Collegium Novum (New College) in
Kraków CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kopernikus_nikolaus_krakau.jpg
[2] The Jagiellonian University in
the south of Poland is a modern
university. The city of Crakow
attracts many young people, especially
the main square is a popular meeting
place COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.phlinz.at/typo3/filea
dmin/paedak_upload/technik/Crakow.jpg
[03/12/1365 CE]
Universität Wien) is founded.
The University is
founded March 12, 1365 by Duke Rudolph
IV and his brothers Albert III and
Leopold III.
The University of Vienna is the
oldest University in the
German-speaking world.
[1] The University of Vienna main
building at the Ringstraße in
Vienna CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Universit%C3%A4t_Vienna_June_2006_164
.jpg
[2] Interior view of the main library
reading hall (Hauptlesesaal) of the
University of Vienna PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Uni_Wien_Bibliothek%2C_Vienna_2.jpg
[03/12/1367 CE]
Hungary is founded.
The University of Pécs is
the oldest university in Hungary. The
Anjou king Louis the Great establishes
it in 1367.
[1] Humanities building at University
of P�cs COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.fredonia.edu/departme
nt/communication/schwalbe/hungary.htm
[1368 CE]
I don't yet know} of the bamboo gun
being replaced with bronze, which makes
this the first metal gun and cannon,
known as the Huochong, more reliable
and powerful than the bamboo gun.
During
wartime, the Chinese used the metal
cannons heavily in defence against the
Mongols. Afterward, the Mongols will
further improve the qualities of the
Huochong, making it more deadly.
[1379 CE]
al-Din 'Abd al-Rahman ibn Muhammad ibn
Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr Muhammad ibn
al-Hasan Ibn Khaldun) (Arabic: ابو
زيد عبد الرØمن بن
Ù…Øمد بن خلدون) (CE
1332-1406), writes "Muqaddimah"
("Introduction") an introductory to the
philsophy of history, and starts a very
large history, "Kitab al-'Ibar", the
best single source on the history of
Islamic North Africa.
what is now the town of Frenda,
Algeria
[1] Ibn Khaldun on a Tunisian postage
stamp Name: Ibn Khaldun Birth: 27
May, 1332/732 AH Death: 19 March
1406/808 AH School/tradition: Main
interests: History, Historiography,
Demography, Economics, Philosophy of
History, Sociology Notable ideas:
Asabiyah Influences: Influenced:
Al-Maqrizi PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Khaldun.jpg
[2] Statue of Ibn Khaldoun in
Tunis 2004 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ibn_Khaldoun.jpg
[1386 CE]
Heidelberg (German
Ruprecht-Karls-Universität Heidelberg)
is founded.
The University of Heidelberg is
founded by Rupert I, Count Palatine of
the Rhine, in order to provide
faculties for the study of philosophy,
theology, jurisprudence, and medicine.
[1] University of Heidelberg Institute
for Physics COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/rai
nerebert/523892158/in/set-72157600292990
475/
[2] University of Heidelberg
University Library COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.flickr.com/photos/rai
nerebert/523890448/in/set-72157600292990
475/
[03/04/1391 CE]
(Italian: Università degli Studi di
Ferrara) in Italy is founded.
[1] COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.unife.it/ateneo/unife
_si_presenta
[03/04/1398 CE]
established in 1398 to offer prayers
and memorials to Confucius and his
disciples, and to promote the study of
the Confucian canon. Seonggyungwan is
located in the capital Hanseong,
modern-day Seoul. It follows the
example of the Goryeo-period Gukjagam,
which in its later years is also known
by the name "Seonggyungwan." The
Sungkyunkwan will be Korea's foremost
institution of the highest learning
under the Joseon dynasty education
system.
Seoul and Suwon, South Korea
[1] Sign for the 600th Anniversary Hall
on Sungkyunkwan University's Seoul
campus. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sungkyunkwan_600.jpg
[2] Official logo of Sungkyunkwan
University, South Korea. Retrieved Oct
12, 2005 from university website.
Background transparent
version. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Skku_logo.png
[1400 CE]
interest in the classics becomes less.
Mostafa El-Abbadi sites the Arab
adoption of a popular problem solving
technique of posing problems and
solutions initiated by Aristotle,
instead of exploring other techniques
including explaining observational
phenomena as being a major reason for
this failure for Arab science to
progress, although I think the brutal
intolerance for science by a religious
majority may have contributed to this
failure too. The Arab people accept
Ptolomy's earth centered universe and
progress no further.
[1410 CE]
(Scottish Gaelic: Oilthigh Chill
Rìmhinn), the oldest university in
Scotland is founded.
[1] St Salvator's Chapel, by Malcolm
McFadyen GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:St_Salvator%27s_Chapel.JPG
[1420 CE]
a Portuguese prince, establishes an
observatory, and tries unsuccessfully
to circumnavigate Africa as Hanno did
2000 years before.
[1] Prince Henry the Navigator PD
source: http://www.etsu.edu/cas/history/
resources/Private/Faculty/Fac_To1877Chap
terDocFiles/ChapterImages/Ch2PrinceHenry
theNavigator.jpg
[2] Henry the Navigator PD
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/995/0
00094713/
[1420 CE]
name: Muhammad Taragay) (1394-1449), a
Mongol astronomer, founds a university
(madrasa) in Samarkand.
[1] Ulugh Beg PD
source: http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/
~history/BigPictures/Ulugh_Beg.jpeg
[2] Mirzo Ulubek (Ulugh Beg), Statue
in Riga, Latvia. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ulugbek.statue.riga.jpg
[1424 CE]
name: Muhammad Taragay) (1394-1449), a
Mongol astronomer, builds an astronomic
observatory in Samarkand.
[1] Ulugh Beg PD
source: http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/
~history/BigPictures/Ulugh_Beg.jpeg
[2] Mirzo Ulubek (Ulugh Beg), Statue
in Riga, Latvia. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ulugbek.statue.riga.jpg
[1425 CE]
Leuven, the first university in Belgium
is founded.
[1] Castle Arenberg, part of the
Katholieke Universiteit Leuven,
Belgium. 2004 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Castle_Arenberg%2C_Katholieke_Univers
iteit_Leuven_adj.jpg
[1435 CE]
(c1398-c1468), German inventor,
introduces the movable type printing
press in Europe.
France)
[1] Johannes Gutenberg, engraving,
1584. Science Source/Photo
Researchers, Inc. PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15524?articleTypeId=1
[2] Johannes Gensfleisch zur Laden
zum Gutenberg made after his
death http://www.sru.edu/depts/cisba/co
mpsci/dailey/217students/sgm8660/Final/
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gutenberg.jpg
[1435 CE]
(CE 1404-1472), Italian artist and
achitect, writes "On Painting" the
first book to describe the laws of
perspective (how to draw a picture of a
three-dimensional scene on a
two-dimensional plane). Poncelet will
develop this 400 years later, and
Leonardo da Vinci will make use of
perspective in painting. This book will
result in more real looking paintings.
This book is the first modern treatise
on painting.
In 1452 Alberti writes "De re
aedificatoria" (Ten Books on
Architecture), a monumental theoretical
result of his long study of Vitruvius.
This work, not a restored text of
Vitruvius but a wholly new work, gives
hima a reputation as the "Florentine
Vitruvius" and becomes a bible of
Renaissance architecture, because it
incorporates and makes advances on the
engineering knowledge of antiquity.
This treatise
on architecture will remain the best
for centuries.
Alberti writes small treatise on
geography, the first work of its kind
since antiquity. It sets forth the
rules for surveying and mapping a land
area, in this case the city of Rome,
and it is probably as influential as
his earlier treatise on painting.
Although it is difficult to trace the
historical connections, the methods of
surveying and mapping and the
instruments described by Alberti are
precisely those that were responsible
for the new scientific accuracy of the
depictions of towns and land areas that
date from the late 1400s and early
1500s.
[1] Late statue of Leon Battista
Alberti. Courtyard of the Uffizi
Gallery, Florence GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leon_Battista_Alberti.jpg
[2] Leon Battista Alberti,
self-portrait plaque, bronze, c. 1435;
in the National Gallery of Art,
Washington, D.C. Courtesy of the
National Gallery of Art, Washington,
D.C., Samuel H. Kress
Collection COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-8247?articleTypeId=1
[1437 CE]
name: Muhammad Taragay) (1394-1449), a
Mongol astronomer, Beg publishes an
astronomical table and star catalogue
"Zij-i-Sultani", that contains a star
map of 994 stars and is the product of
the work of a group of astronomers
working under the funding of Ulugh Beg.
[1] Ulugh Beg PD
source: http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/
~history/BigPictures/Ulugh_Beg.jpeg
[2] Mirzo Ulubek (Ulugh Beg), Statue
in Riga, Latvia. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ulugbek.statue.riga.jpg
[02/12/1440 CE]
(1401-1464), German scholar, writes "De
docta ignorantia" ("On Learned
Ignorance"), in which Krebs correctly
describes space as infinite, is the
first of record to correctly identify
that stars are other suns and is the
first to describe that other stars have
inhabited worlds.
Krebs writes that the earth
and other planets (which he refers to
as stars) move around a central pole
which is a diety. I find no explicit
text by Krebs that describes the earth
turning on its own axis as some
historians claim.
Krebs correctly supposes that plants
draw nourishment (their food) from the
air. This is the first modern formal
experiment in biology and the first
proof that air has weight.
Krebs advocates the
counting of pulse as a diagnostic aid
in healing.
Instead of Krebs getting in
trouble, he is appointed cardinal in
1448, Giordano Bruno will be murdered
for sharing many of these same views in
only 152 years.
Krebs builds spectacles (glasses) with
concave lenses where earlier glasses
used the easier to make convex lenses
that served only the far-sighted (those
who cannot see close objects), these
glasses serve the near-sighted (who
cannot see far objects).
[1] Picture of Nicholas of
Cusa English: Nicholas of Cusa Source
from a painting by Meister des
Marienlebens, located in the hospital
at Kues (Germany) Date ca. 1480 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nicholas_of_Cusa.jpg
[2] Nicholas of Cusa (Nicholas
Krebs) Library of Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/topic/nic
holas-of-cusa?cat=technology
[1443 CE]
1403-1472), a Greek scholar,
accumulates many manuscripts of great
Greek books.
[1] Basilius Bessarion Source
http://www.telemachos.hu-berlin.de/bi
lder/gudeman/gudeman.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Basilius_Bessarion.JPG
[1450 CE]
invented.
[1450 CE]
southern Germany or northern Italy
began to make small clocks driven by a
spring. These are the first portable
timepieces.
Italy
[1452 CE]
1404-1472), writes "De re
aedificatoria" (Ten Books on
Architecture), a monumental theoretical
result of his long study of Vitruvius.
This treatise on architecture will
remain the best for centuries.
[1] Late statue of Leon Battista
Alberti. Courtyard of the Uffizi
Gallery, Florence GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leon_Battista_Alberti.jpg
[2] Leon Battista Alberti,
self-portrait plaque, bronze, c. 1435;
in the National Gallery of Art,
Washington, D.C. Courtesy of the
National Gallery of Art, Washington,
D.C., Samuel H. Kress
Collection COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-8247?articleTypeId=1
[1454 CE]
c1398-c1468) produces 300 copies of the
Bible, in double columns with forty-two
lines in Latin on each page. This is
the first printed book in Europe.
Gutenberg goes into debt to produce the
books and is sued for the money. Infact
the winners of the lawsuit take his
presses and supplies and are the first
to actually sell the books.
[1] Johannes Gutenberg, engraving,
1584. Science Source/Photo
Researchers, Inc. PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15524?articleTypeId=1
[2] Johannes Gensfleisch zur Laden zum
Gutenberg made after his
death http://www.sru.edu/depts/cisba/co
mpsci/dailey/217students/sgm8660/Final/
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gutenberg.jpg
[1460 CE]
Universität Basel), the oldest
university in Switzerland is founded.
[1] The Astronomical Institute of the
University of Basel was founded in
1894. Since 1995 it is part of the
Department of Physics and Astronomy,
together with the Institute of Physics
of the University of Basel COPYRIGHTED
EDU
source: http://www.astro.unibas.ch/infos
/AIUB_semifront_small.jpg
[2] Opening Pageant of the University
of Basel, Basel Minster, 4 April
1460. Title miniature of the Rector''s
register, Basel University
Library. PD
source: http://www.unibas.ch/index.cfm?u
uid=911241CC0F0BC853812D75DEECDB0824&&IR
ACER_AUTOLINK&&&o_lang_id=2
[1462 CE]
(Johnann Muller) (1436-1476), German
astronomer, publishes a revised and
corrected version of "Almagest" using
Greek copies brought from Cardinal
Bessarion from Constantinople. In this
work Regiomontanus completes
Peuerbach's half-finished "Epitome" on
Ptolemy's "Almagest" around 1462 (first
printed in 1496 as EpytomaÂ…in
Almagestum Ptolomei).
prepares new table of planetary motions
bringing those under Alfonso X up to
date. These tables are used by many
people including Columbus.
Introduces Indian (Arabic) numerals to
Germany, reproducing his tables with a
printing press and is one of the first
printers.
1472 observes a comet (later called
Halley's comet), this is the first time
comets are the objects of scientific
study instead of merely stirring up
superstitious terror.
[1] Regiomontanus (1436-1476) German
mathematician, astronomer and
astrologer. Quelle: *
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johannes_Regiomontanus.jpg
[1472 CE]
1423-1461), Austrian mathematician and
astronomer, uses arabic numerals to
prepare the most accurate table of
sines.
[1] Georg von Peuerbach: Theoricarum
novarum planetarum testus, Paris
1515 PD
source: http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bil
d:Peuerbach-Theoricarum-1515.png
[2] Georg von Peuerbach PD
source: http://www.astronomie.at/burgenl
and/archiv/peuerbach/start.htm
[1472 CE]
1452-1519), Italian painter, sculpture
and inventor, draws designs for tanks,
airplanes, uses elaborate gears,
chains, ratchets an other devices in
his designs, designs a parachute,
designs an elevator for the Milan
cathedral, among other engineering
feats.
[1] # Self-portrait of Leonardo da
Vinci, circa 1512-1515 # Location:
Royal Library, Turin # Technique: Red
chalk # Dimensions: 13 x 8.5'' (33 x
21.6 cm) Source:
http://www.vivoscuola.it/us/ic-villalaga
rina/Ipertesti/caritro/images/Leonardo_a
utorutratto.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leonardo_self.jpg
[2] Verrocchio, Florence, 15thC,
''David'' bronze statue. The model is
thought to have been Leonardo da
Vinci Source WGA Date
1467 Author Verrocchio PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Verrocchio_David.jpg
[1474 CE]
(1397-1482), an Italian physician and
mapmaker, creates a map with Europe on
the right hand side and Asia on the
left hand side, separated by the
Atlantic Ocean which Toscanelli
estimates is 3000 miles (actual units?)
wide which is too small). Toscanelli
sends a letter and the map to the court
of Lisbon, detailing a plan for sailing
westwards to reach the Spice Islands. A
copy of this letter and map is sent to
Christopher Columbus, which excites and
inspires Columbus. Columbus carries the
map with him during his first voyage to
the new world. Toscanelli's
miscalculation of the size of the earth
will result in Columbus never realizing
he has found a new continent.
[1] Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli (1397-10
May,1482) From: H.F. Helmolt (ed.):
History of the World. New York,
1901. Copied from University of Texas
Portrait
Gallery http://www.lib.utexas.edu/photo
draw/portraits/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hw-columbus.jpg
[2] La carte de Toscanelli et,
ci-dessous, son tracé superposé avec
celui d'une carte actuelle. PD
source: http://www.stephan-selle.de/Lese
fruchte/Kolumbus/kolumbus.html
[1477 CE]
Uppsala universitet), a public
university in Uppsala, Sweden is
founded. Uppsala university is the
oldest university in Scandinavia,
outdating the University of Copenhagen
by two years.
[1] 18th century engraving of
Riddartorget in Uppsala, with the later
demolished Academia Carolina (the old
chapter house) to the left (by the
Cathedral which is just outside the
picture). To the right is the
Oxenstierna Palace, the former
residence of w:Bengt Gabrielsson
Oxenstierna. The latter was then used
for the ''Royal Academy [=University]
Hospital'' (''Kgl Academi Sjukhus''),
and is now the main building for the
Faculty of Law. In the middle one can
see a part of the Skytteanum, where the
Professor Skytteanus has his residence
and office and parts of the Department
of Government are still
located. Engraving by F. Akrelius in:
J. B. Busser, Beskrifning om Upsala
(1769). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Academia_Carolina_Uppsala.jpg
[2] Engraving by Fredrik Akrel
(Akrelius). Source: From: Johan
Benedict Busser, Utkast till
beskrifning om Upsala. Upsala, tryckt
hos Joh. Edman, kongl. acad. boktr.
1-2. 1769-73. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Exercise_yard_-_from_Busser%2C_Om_Ups
ala_Stad_etc.jpg
[1479 CE]
(Danish: Københavns Universitet), the
oldest and largest university in
Denmark is formed.
[1] The University of Copenhagen old
building in the inner city. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:KU_inner_city_1.jpg
[2] The Rundetårn (round tower) was
used in the 17th century as an
observatory by Ole Rømer CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Copenhagen_Rundet%C3%A5rn_street_left
.jpg
[1480 CE]
1452-1519), draws a machine for
storming walls.
[1] Machine for Storming Walls a 1480
drawing by Leonardo da Vinci for a ware
machine PD
source: http://inventors.about.com/od/ds
tartinventors/ig/Inventions-of-Leonardo-
DaVinci/Machine-for-Storming-Walls.htm
[05/01/1484 CE]
1451-1506), Italian explorer, seeks
support for crossing the Atlantic to
Asia from King John II of Portugal but
is denied.
[1] Portrait of Christopher Columbus
from the painting Virgen de los
Navegantes (in the Sala de los
Almirantes, Royal Alcazar, Seville). A
painting by Alejo Fernández between
1505 and 1536. It is the only state
sponsored portrait of the First Admiral
of the Indias. Photo by a Columbus
historian, Manuel Rosa. More info
http://www.UnmaskingColumbus.com PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Columbus_Face.jpg
[2] Christopher Columbus, conjectural
image by Sebastiano del Piombo in the
Gallery of Illustrious Men (Corridoio
Vasariano), Uffizi, Florence but
yet: Christophorus Columbus/Cristobal
Colon, pictue by Sebastiano del Piombo
from the XVI (15th century) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CristobalColon.jpg
[1485 CE]
1452-1519), draws designs for a boat, a
giant crossbow, an eight-barrelled
machine gun, and an automatic igniting
device for firearms.
[1] Designs for a Boat is part of a
series of (1485 - 1487) drawings by
Leonardo da Vinci. PD
source: http://inventors.about.com/od/ds
tartinventors/ig/Inventions-of-Leonardo-
DaVinci/Designs-for-a-Boat-.htm
[2] Drawing of giant crossbow by
Leonardo da Vinci circa 1485 to
1487. PD
source: http://inventors.about.com/od/ds
tartinventors/ig/Inventions-of-Leonardo-
DaVinci/Giant-Crossbow.htm
[1487 CE]
1452-1519), draws the first known
design for a tank (armored car)
(metal?).
[1] Armoured Car a pen drawing dated
1487 by Leonardo Da Vinci PD
source: http://inventors.about.com/od/ds
tartinventors/ig/Inventions-of-Leonardo-
DaVinci/Armoured-Car.htm
[1487 CE]
1452-1519), draws a design of a
helicopter or aerial screw.
[1] The Ornithopter Flying Machine
Designed and Drawn by Leonardo da
Vinci The ornithopter flying machine
was never actually created. It was a
design that Leonardo DaVinci made to
show how man could fly. Some experts
say that the modern day helicopter was
inspired by this design. [t this is
not an ornithopter because it has no
flapping wings] PD
source: http://inventors.about.com/od/ds
tartinventors/ig/Inventions-of-Leonardo-
DaVinci/Ornithopter-Flying-Machine.htm
[1488 CE]
1452-1519), draws a design for an
"ornithopher" a flying machine with
flapping wings.
[1] Design for a Flying Machine is a
1488 drawing by Leonardo da Vinci. PD
source: http://inventors.about.com/od/ds
tartinventors/ig/Inventions-of-Leonardo-
DaVinci/Design-for-a-Flying-Machine-2.ht
m
[2] Design for a Flying Machine (c.
1488) is a drawing by Leonardo da
Vinci. Source:
http://www.visi.com/~reuteler/leonardo.h
tml PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Design_for_a_Flying_Machine.jpg
[01/??/1492 CE]
fund Columbus with 3 small ships and
120 men (most are from prison).
[1] Portrait of Christopher Columbus
from the painting Virgen de los
Navegantes (in the Sala de los
Almirantes, Royal Alcazar, Seville). A
painting by Alejo Fernández between
1505 and 1536. It is the only state
sponsored portrait of the First Admiral
of the Indias. Photo by a Columbus
historian, Manuel Rosa. More info
http://www.UnmaskingColumbus.com PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Columbus_Face.jpg
[2] Christopher Columbus, conjectural
image by Sebastiano del Piombo in the
Gallery of Illustrious Men (Corridoio
Vasariano), Uffizi, Florence but
yet: Christophorus Columbus/Cristobal
Colon, pictue by Sebastiano del Piombo
from the XVI (15th century) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CristobalColon.jpg
[08/03/1492 CE]
of Asia.
[1] Portrait of Christopher Columbus
from the painting Virgen de los
Navegantes (in the Sala de los
Almirantes, Royal Alcazar, Seville). A
painting by Alejo Fernández between
1505 and 1536. It is the only state
sponsored portrait of the First Admiral
of the Indias. Photo by a Columbus
historian, Manuel Rosa. More info
http://www.UnmaskingColumbus.com PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Columbus_Face.jpg
[2] Christopher Columbus, conjectural
image by Sebastiano del Piombo in the
Gallery of Illustrious Men (Corridoio
Vasariano), Uffizi, Florence but
yet: Christophorus Columbus/Cristobal
Colon, pictue by Sebastiano del Piombo
from the XVI (15th century) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CristobalColon.jpg
[09/13/1492 CE]
shifting of direction of the compass
needle as a person moves over large
areas of the earth. He keeps this a
secret from his crew because they might
fear that they were moving into areas
were the laws of nature are no longer
observed.
[1] Portrait of Christopher Columbus
from the painting Virgen de los
Navegantes (in the Sala de los
Almirantes, Royal Alcazar, Seville). A
painting by Alejo Fernández between
1505 and 1536. It is the only state
sponsored portrait of the First Admiral
of the Indias. Photo by a Columbus
historian, Manuel Rosa. More info
http://www.UnmaskingColumbus.com PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Columbus_Face.jpg
[2] Christopher Columbus, conjectural
image by Sebastiano del Piombo in the
Gallery of Illustrious Men (Corridoio
Vasariano), Uffizi, Florence but
yet: Christophorus Columbus/Cristobal
Colon, pictue by Sebastiano del Piombo
from the XVI (15th century) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CristobalColon.jpg
[10/12/1492 CE]
1451-1506) lands on a small island
(probably San Salvador) in America.
In America
Columbus explores, finds a new race of
people, new plants, and many other new
phenomena.
Vikings such as Leif Eriksson had
visited North America five centuries
earlier.
In the next 10 years Columbus will
makes 3 journeys to the "Indies".
Because of this
mistaken belief that Columbus had
reached India, the Carribean will be
called the West Indies even up to the
present time. It is still shocking that
native american people are commonly
refered to as "Indians", as if this
mistaken view of America being India
was still uncorrected.
Beyond planting the royal banner,
Columbus spends little time on San
Salvador, being anxious to press on to
what he thinks will be Cipango
(Japan).
Land is sighted at 2 a.m. on October
12, 1492, by a sailor named Rodrigo de
Triana on the Pinta, however Columbus,
on the Nina, will claim the prize.
The indigenous people Columbus
encounters, the Lucayan, TaÃno or
Arawak, are peaceful and friendly. In
his journal he writes of them, "It
appears to me, that the people are
ingenious, and would be good servants
and I am of opinion that they would
very readily become Christians, as they
appear to have no religion.", which
expresses the ominous and arrogant view
of the native American humans as
slaves, servants, and subhumans. Sadly,
this mistaken and prejudice view will
prevail for many years.
[1] Portrait of Christopher Columbus
from the painting Virgen de los
Navegantes (in the Sala de los
Almirantes, Royal Alcazar, Seville). A
painting by Alejo Fernández between
1505 and 1536. It is the only state
sponsored portrait of the First Admiral
of the Indias. Photo by a Columbus
historian, Manuel Rosa. More info
http://www.UnmaskingColumbus.com PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Columbus_Face.jpg
[2] Christopher Columbus, conjectural
image by Sebastiano del Piombo in the
Gallery of Illustrious Men (Corridoio
Vasariano), Uffizi, Florence but
yet: Christophorus Columbus/Cristobal
Colon, pictue by Sebastiano del Piombo
from the XVI (15th century) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CristobalColon.jpg
[12/05/1492 CE]
1451-1506) reaches Haiti. Columbus
renames it La Isla Española, or
Hispaniola. He seems to have thought
that Hispaniola might be Cipango or, if
not Cipango, then perhaps one of the
legendarily rich isles from which King
Solomon's triennial fleet brought back
gold, gems, and spices to Jerusalem (1
Kings 10:11, 22); alternatively, he
reasons that the island could be
related to the biblical kingdom of
Sheba (Saba'). There Columbus finds at
least enough gold and other products to
save him from ridicule on his return to
Spain. With the help of a Taino
cacique, or Indian chief, named
GuacanagarÃ, Columbus has a stockade
built on the northern coast of the
island, names it "La Navidad", and
posts 39 men to guard it until his
return. The accidental running aground
of the Santa MarÃa provids additional
planks and provisions for the garrison.
This is the first European settlement
in America. In the future many millions
of European people will move to and
live in America.
[1] Portrait of Christopher Columbus
from the painting Virgen de los
Navegantes (in the Sala de los
Almirantes, Royal Alcazar, Seville). A
painting by Alejo Fernández between
1505 and 1536. It is the only state
sponsored portrait of the First Admiral
of the Indias. Photo by a Columbus
historian, Manuel Rosa. More info
http://www.UnmaskingColumbus.com PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Columbus_Face.jpg
[2] Christopher Columbus, conjectural
image by Sebastiano del Piombo in the
Gallery of Illustrious Men (Corridoio
Vasariano), Uffizi, Florence but
yet: Christophorus Columbus/Cristobal
Colon, pictue by Sebastiano del Piombo
from the XVI (15th century) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CristobalColon.jpg
[01/16/1493 CE]
1451-1506) leaves America (Hispaniola)
with his remaining two ships, the Nina
and Pinta, for Spain. Columbus takes
some of the native people back with
him. As Columbus had predicted the
westerly winds do indeed direct them
homeward.
[1] Portrait of Christopher Columbus
from the painting Virgen de los
Navegantes (in the Sala de los
Almirantes, Royal Alcazar, Seville). A
painting by Alejo Fernández between
1505 and 1536. It is the only state
sponsored portrait of the First Admiral
of the Indias. Photo by a Columbus
historian, Manuel Rosa. More info
http://www.UnmaskingColumbus.com PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Columbus_Face.jpg
[2] Christopher Columbus, conjectural
image by Sebastiano del Piombo in the
Gallery of Illustrious Men (Corridoio
Vasariano), Uffizi, Florence but
yet: Christophorus Columbus/Cristobal
Colon, pictue by Sebastiano del Piombo
from the XVI (15th century) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CristobalColon.jpg
[03/15/1493 CE]
1451-1506) arrives at his home port of
Palos March 15. Pinzón arrives at
Palos in the Pinta a few hours later
but dies within days. Columbus presents
Isabella with "Indian" human captives,
parrots and other unknown animals,
spices, and some gold.
[1] Portrait of Christopher Columbus
from the painting Virgen de los
Navegantes (in the Sala de los
Almirantes, Royal Alcazar, Seville). A
painting by Alejo Fernández between
1505 and 1536. It is the only state
sponsored portrait of the First Admiral
of the Indias. Photo by a Columbus
historian, Manuel Rosa. More info
http://www.UnmaskingColumbus.com PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Columbus_Face.jpg
[2] Christopher Columbus, conjectural
image by Sebastiano del Piombo in the
Gallery of Illustrious Men (Corridoio
Vasariano), Uffizi, Florence but
yet: Christophorus Columbus/Cristobal
Colon, pictue by Sebastiano del Piombo
from the XVI (15th century) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CristobalColon.jpg
[06/07/1494 CE]
Portugal and Spain. According to this
treaty Spain is allowed to take all
land west of a line drawn from pole to
pole 370 leagues (about 1,185
miles/1,910 km) west of the Cape Verde
Islands, and Portugal is allowed to
claim all land to the east of the line.
province, Spain)
[1] Cantino planisphere of 1502
depicting the meridian designated by
the treaty. Cantino planisphere. Image
found at
http://www.ac-creteil.fr/portugais/PPCAN
TINO2.jpg. In public domain due to the
image's age. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cantino_Planisphere.jpg
[1494 CE]
(CE c1445-1517), Italian mathematician,
publishes his major work on arithmetic
and geometry "Summa de arithmetica,
geometrica, proportioni et
proportionalita", the first printed
description of method of double-entry
bookkeeping.
[1] Ritratto di Frà Luca Pacioli
(1495). Luca Pacioli (1445 - 1517) is
the central figure in this painting
exhibited in the Museo e Gallerie di
Capodimonte in Napoli (Italy). The
painter is unknown, although some
people are convinced the painter is
Jacopo de' Barbari (1440-1515). Table
is filled with geomerical tools: slate,
chalk, compas, a dodecahedron model and
a rhombicuboctahedron half-filed with
water is hanging in the air. Pacioli is
demonstrating a theorem by Euclid. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pacioli.jpg
[2] The first ever printed version of
the Rhombicuboctahedron was by Leonardo
da Vinci, as appeared in the Divina
Proportione by Luca Pacioli 1509,
Venise PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leonardo_polyhedra.png
[1504 CE]
(Latin: Americus Vespucius) (VeSPYUsuS)
(CE 1454-1512), Italian navigator,
recognizes that the new lands extend
too far to the South to be Asia, and
that the new lands are not Asia but
represent a new continent unknown to
ancient people, and that between that
continent and Asia there must be a
second ocean. The new continent will be
named "America" after Amerigo
Vespucius.
[1] Amerigo Vespucci From Amerigo
Vespucci by Frederick A. Ober - Project
Gutenberg eText
19997 http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/19
997 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Amerigo_Vespucci_-_Project_Gutenberg_
etext_19997.jpg
[2] Statue at the Uffizi,
Florence. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Amerigo_Vespucci01.jpg
[1507 CE]
(VoLTZAmYULR) (c1470-c1518), German
cartographer, prints 1000 copies of the
first map to show America which he
names after Amerigo Vespucius for
recognizing that America is infact a
new landmass.
[1] Le cartographe allemand Martin
Waldseemüller (portrait peint par
Gaston Save pour décorer l'ancien
théâtre de Saint-Dié-des-Vosges,
aujourd'hui disparu) Source Catalogue
de l'exposition ''America, L'Amérique
est née à Saint-Dié-des Vosges en
1507'' (1992) Date 19ème
siècle Author Gaston Save
(1844-1901) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:MartinWaldseem%C3%BCller.jpg
[2] Gerlinde Brandenburger-Eisele
holds the oldest map showing
''America'' in the Ritterhausmuseum
(Museum of the Knight) in Offenburg,
southern Germany. The map was drawn in
1507 by cartographer Martin
Waldseemueller. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.usatoday.com/news/nat
ion/2007-04-24-america-turns-500_N.htm?c
sp=34
[1511 CE]
1469-1536), Dutch humanist, publishes
"Moriae encomium" ("Praise of Folly"),
which contains satirical criticisms of
church and state.
Humanism is a broad category
of ethical philosophies that affirm the
dignity and worth of all humans, based
on their ability to determine right and
wrong by appeal to universal human
qualities, particularly logic (reason).
[1] The Dutch philosopher Desiderius
Erasmus. By Hans Holbein the
younger. Source:
http://www.wga.hu/art/h/holbein/hans_y/1
525/08erasmu.jpg Creator/Artist Name
Holbein d. J., Hans Date of
birth/death 1497/98
1543-11-29 Location of birth/death
Deutsch: Augsburg Deutsch:
London Work location Deutsch:
Basel, London PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Holbein-erasmus.jpg
[2] Deutsch: Porträt des Erasmus von
Rotterdam am Schreibpult Artist
Holbein d. J., Hans Year
1523 Technique Deutsch: Tempera
auf Holz Dimensions Deutsch: 43 ×
33 cm Current location Deutsch:
Musée du Louvre Deutsch:
Paris Source The Yorck Project:
10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei.
DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202.
Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing
GmbH. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hans_Holbein_d._J._047.jpg
[1512 CE]
Copernicus (KOPRniKuS) (Polish:Mikolaj
Kopernik) (1473-1543), Polish
astronomer, distributes
"Commentariolus" ("Little Commentary"),
a short handwritten paper describing
his ideas about the sun centered
theory.
[1] Nicolaus Copernicus (portrait from
Toruń - beginning of the 16th
century), from
http://www.frombork.art.pl/Ang10.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nikolaus_Kopernikus.jpg
[2] Nicolaus Copernicus PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Copernicus.jpg
[09/25/1513 CE]
(1475-1519), Spanish explorer, is the
first European to see and describe the
Pacific Ocean. Balboa names the Pacific
Ocean the "South Sea".
[1] Vasco Núñez de Balboa PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vascon%C3%BA%C3%B1ezdebalboa.jpeg
[2] Vasco Núñez de Balboa executing
Native Americans for same-sex
love. New York Public Library, Rare
Book Room, De Bry Collection, New
York http://www.androphile.org/preview/
Museum/New_World/Panama_Two-SpiritA.html
Théodore De
Bry (1528-1598) Balboa setting his
dogs upon Indian practitioners of male
love (1594) The Spanish invader Vasco
Núñez de Balboa (1475-1519) shown in
Central America with his troops,
presiding over the execution of
Indians, whom he ordered eaten alive by
the war dogs for having practiced male
love. New York Public Library, Rare
Book Room, De Bry Collection, New
York. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Balboamurder.jpg
[1515 CE]
(1477-1547), German geographer,
constructs the first globe (a
manuscript) with the new lands
discovered by Columbus, and with the
name "America" as Waldseemüller
suggested.
[1] Johannes Schöner, (1477-1547)
Astronomer. Original Picture was
obtained from this
(http://www.uni-mannheim.de/mateo/desbil
lons/aport/seite181.html) site, PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johannes_Sch%C3%B6ner_Astronomer_01.j
pg
[2] Cranach, Lucas Portrait des
Magdeburger Theologen Dr. Johannes
Schoener Renaissance Diese
Bilder-Vorlage Portrait des Magdeburger
Theologen Dr. Johannes Schoener Von
Cranach, Lucas als hochwertiges,
handgemaltes Gem�lde. Wir malen
Ihr �lgem�lde nach Ihrer
Vorlage. PD
source: http://www.oel-bild.de/bilder/67
92M.jpg
[10/31/1517 CE]
Theses on the door of the Castle
Church, Wittenberg, Germany, on October
31, 1517, the eve of All Saints' Day,
the traditional date for the beginning
of the Protestant Reformation.
In 1521 Luther will be excommunicated
and what began as an internal reform
movement will become a major fracture
in western Christendom.
As a result of the Protestant
Reformation, although Protestant people
will persecute and murder atheists and
scientists just as Catholic people
will, the Protestant Reformation does
represent a challange to the
traditional religious Christian belief,
the massive group of followers of Jesus
of Nazareth.
Before this there are other reformers
within the medieval church such as St.
Francis of Assisi, Valdes (founder of
the Waldensians), Jan Hus, and John
Wycliffe.
[1] Luther in 1529 by Lucas
Cranach Painting by Lucas Cranach the
Elder. Uffizi gallery. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Luther46c.jpg
[09/20/1519 CE]
(c1480-1521), sets sail from Spain to
circumnavigate the earth.
Ferdinand Magellan
(moJeLoN) (c1480-1521), Portuguese
explorer, sets sail to circumnavigate
the earth.
Magellan leaves for America with 5
ships in order to find a way to the
Spice Islands of Indonesia. This is the
voyage to circumnavigate the earth that
Columbus had intended.
[1] An anonymous portrait of Ferdinand
Magellan, 16th or 17th century (The
Mariner's Museum Collection, Newport
News, VA) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ferdinand_Magellan.jpg
[2] Map of Ferdinand Magellans voyage
around the world GFDL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Magellan%27s_voyage_EN.svg
[10/21/1520 CE]
through the southern tip of South
America that connects the Atlantic and
Pacific Oceans. Magellan will name the
waters the "Mar Pacifico" (Pacific
Ocean) because of the calmness of the
Pacific Ocean after the storms of the
strait.
[1] An anonymous portrait of Ferdinand
Magellan, 16th or 17th century (The
Mariner's Museum Collection, Newport
News, VA) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ferdinand_Magellan.jpg
[2] Map of Ferdinand Magellans voyage
around the world GFDL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Magellan%27s_voyage_EN.svg
[1520 CE]
(1477-1547), German geographer,
constructs a globe with the new lands
discovered by Columbus.
[1] Johannes Schöner, (1477-1547)
Astronomer. Original Picture was
obtained from this
(http://www.uni-mannheim.de/mateo/desbil
lons/aport/seite181.html) site, PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johannes_Sch%C3%B6ner_Astronomer_01.j
pg
[2] Johannes Schöner globe, made in
1520. Shows the Americas, Antarctica
before (european) official discovery.
Based on other older maps and globes.
Original picture was obtained from this
site, then it was scaled down to a
lower resolution. Globe maker died more
than 200 hundred years ago. This image
is to be used in Johannes Schöner
globe article under fair use as : This
photo is only being used for
informational purposes. This photo
helps only to show the globe. As this
picture is also (commonly) used in
other sites, it helps to recognize the
globe quickly. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johannes_Sch%C3%B6ner_globe_1520_m01.
jpg
[09/08/1522 CE]
circumnavigate the earth.
Magellen's crew is
the first to circumnavigate the earth..
Juan Sebastian del Cano (KonO)
(c1460-1525), Spanish Navigator,
returns in a single remaining ship
originally lead by Magellan to Seville,
Spain with a crew that is the first to
circumnavigate the earth.
This voyage lasted 3
years and cost 4 ships, but the spices
and other merchandice brought back more
than compensate for the loss. This
voyage proves that Eratosthenes
estimate of the size of the earth is
correct, and that of Poseidoinius and
Ptolemy wrong, and that a single ocean
covers the earth.
This is the first time that
the people of Europe know for sure that
the earth is in fact a sphere. In
addition, they must have a new feeling
of confidence, knowing that the size of
earth is finite. Once the earth is
completely explored, new adventurers
will plan voyages to the other planets
and when those planets are fully
explored, voyages to other stars.
[1] Juan Sebastián Elcano LitografÃa
de J. Donon en Historia de la Marina
Real Española. Madrid,
1854 http://marenostrum.org/bibliotecad
elmar/historia/pacifico/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Elcano.jpg
[2] Juan Sebastián Elcano in
Guetaria CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Elcano-estatua.JPG
[1523 CE]
(1477-1547) 1523 map of earth.
Germany(presumably)
[1] Johannes Schöner, (1477-1547)
Astronomer. Original Picture was
obtained from this
(http://www.uni-mannheim.de/mateo/desbil
lons/aport/seite181.html) site, PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johannes_Sch%C3%B6ner_Astronomer_01.j
pg
[2] Facsimile globe gores of Johannes
Schöner's Globe of 1523 [t is not
actual map?] PD
source: http://www.henry-davis.com/MAPS/
Ren/Ren1/348.html
[1524 CE]
Hemisphere is built by the conquistador
Hernán Cortés to care for poor
Spanish soldiers and the native
inhabitants. The original name is
"Hospital de la PurÃsima Concepción
de Nuestra Señora" (Hospital of Our
Lady of the Purest Conception).
[1] This is the first and longest
serving hospital constructed on the
American continent, which has been
serving the needs of the sick and
ailing since 1524. Originally called
the Hospital de la PurÃsima
Concepción de Nuestra Señora
(Hospital of Our Lady of the Purest
Conception), it was built with the
economic support of conquistador Hernan
Cortes, so as to serve the needs of
poor Spanish soldiers and Native
Americans. New installations were added
in the mid-twentieth century, of a
different architectural appearance, but
using the same materials as the
original construction. It is worth
visiting for its sixteenth century
stone arches and the mural by Orozco
that depicts the encounter between the
Spaniards and Native
Americans. Information by
Wcities COPYRIGHTED
source: http://travel.yahoo.com/p-travel
guide-2739035-hospital_de_jesus_nazareno
_hershey-i
[1524 CE]
publishes "Cosmographia", which
contains some of the earliest maps of
America.
[1] Petrus Apianus. From Icones sive
imagines virorum literis illustrium,
Frankfurt 1719. Image source:
http://www.math.uni-hamburg.de/math/ig
n/xyz/ca00-v5.htm#tth_sEc3 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Peter_Apian.png
[2] A page from Petrus Apianus'
Astronomicum Caesareum (1540). Img src:
Library of
Congress. http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/w
orld/world-object.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Astronomicum_Caesareum.jpg
[1525 CE]
1471-1528), German artist, invents the
art of etching and publishes "Vier
Bücher von menschlicher Proportion"
("The Painter's Manual", more
literally, "the Instructions on
Measurement"), a book on geometrical
constructions for use by artists which
helps the popular trend of naturalism
(realism) in painting at this time.
[1] Autorretrato (1500) Albrecht Durer
- Self-Portrait at 28 * Image
copiée sur le site WebMuseum *
http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/ Self-Portrai
t (1500) by Albrecht Dürer, oil on
board, Alte PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Durer_self_portarit_28.jpg
[2] The earliest painted Self-Portrait
(1493) by Albrecht Dürer, oil,
originally on vellum Louvre, Paris La
bildo estas kopiita de wikipedia:lt. La
originala priskribo estas: Albrech
Dürer, Selbstportät mit Blume,
1493 Autoportretas su
gėlėmis, tapyta apiejumi ant
drobės, 57 x 45 cm, laikoma Luvre,
Paryžiuje. Šaltinis:
http://www.louvre.fr/img/photos/collec/p
eint/grande/rf2382.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Albrecht-self.jpg
[1530 CE]
name: Phillip von Hohenheim)
(1493-1541), Swiss physician and
alchemist, publishes a clinical
description of syphilis. Paracelsus
will establish the use of chemistry in
health.
[1] Presumed portrait of Paracelsus,
attributed to the school of Quentin
Matsys source :
http://euromin.w3sites.net/Nouveau_site/
mineralogiste/biographies/pic/paracelse.
htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Paracelsus.jpg
[2] Monument for Paracelsus in
Beratzhausen, Bavaria. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:300704_beratzhausen-oberpfalz-paracel
sus-denkmal_1-480x640.jpg
[1533 CE]
(1477-1547) 1533 map of earth.
Germany(presumably)
[1] Johannes Schöner, (1477-1547)
Astronomer. Original Picture was
obtained from this
(http://www.uni-mannheim.de/mateo/desbil
lons/aport/seite181.html) site, PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johannes_Sch%C3%B6ner_Astronomer_01.j
pg
[2] Johannes Schöner Weimer Globe
(1533). Made in 1533. Who died more
than 200 years ago. This modified
picture is used here for informational
purposes only, thus constitute a fair
use also. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johannes_Sch%C3%B6ner_globe_1533_f_m0
2.png
[1534 CE]
series of acts which transfers
authority over all churches in England
to the King, removing Papal authority
and ownership of church property from
Rome and creating the Church of
England.
[1] Portrait of Henry VIII by Hans
Holbein the Younger. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Henry-VIII-kingofengland_1491-1547.jp
g
[2] An official portrait of Catherine
of Aragon whilst Queen consort, painted
from life around 1525 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Catherine_aragon.jpg
[1536 CE]
name: Phillip von Hohenheim)
(1493-1541), publishes "Der grossen
Wundartzney" ("Great Surgery Book").
[1] Presumed portrait of Paracelsus,
attributed to the school of Quentin
Matsys source :
http://euromin.w3sites.net/Nouveau_site/
mineralogiste/biographies/pic/paracelse.
htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Paracelsus.jpg
[2] Monument for Paracelsus in
Beratzhausen, Bavaria. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:300704_beratzhausen-oberpfalz-paracel
sus-denkmal_1-480x640.jpg
[1537 CE]
(ToRToLYo) (CE 1499-1557) publishes
"Nova Scientia" ("A New Science"), the
first book on the theory of projectiles
(Leonardo da Vinci had written one
earlier, but Da Vinci's writings were
not published).
[1] Niccolò Fontana Tartaglia PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Niccol%C3%B2_Tartaglia.jpg
[2] (Tartaglia's formula) for the
volume of a tetrahedron (incl. any
irregular tetrahedra) presumed GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nic
col%C3%B2_Fontana_Tartaglia
[10/28/1538 CE]
Santo Domingo (Spanish: Universidad
Autónoma de Santo Domingo (UASD)), a
public university in the Dominican
Republic, the oldest university in the
western hemisphere, is established.
The Autonomous University of Santa
Domingo is founded during the reign of
Charles I of Spain.
[1] La Universidad de Santo Domingo fue
creada mediante la Bula In Apostolatus
Culmine, expedida el 28 de octubre de
1538, por el Papa Paulo III, la cual
elevó a esa categorÃa el Estudio
General que los dominicos regenteaban
desde el 1518, en Santo Domingo, sede
virreinal de la colonización y el más
viejo establecimiento colonial del
Nuevo Mundo. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.uasd.edu.do/principal
es/general.html
[1540 CE]
German astronomer, publishes
"Astronomicum Caesareum", a book
describing his observations of comets,
describing the appearance of 5
different comets (including what will
become named Halley's comet). Apian
mentions that comets always have their
tails pointing away from the sun.
[1] Petrus Apianus. From Icones sive
imagines virorum literis illustrium,
Frankfurt 1719. Image source:
http://www.math.uni-hamburg.de/math/ig
n/xyz/ca00-v5.htm#tth_sEc3 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Peter_Apian.png
[2] A page from Petrus Apianus'
Astronomicum Caesareum (1540). Img src:
Library of
Congress. http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/w
orld/world-object.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Astronomicum_Caesareum.jpg
[1541 CE]
1516-1565), Swiss naturalist, completes
"Historia plantarum", a dictionary of
plants.
[1] Conrad Gessner (1516-1565), Swiss
naturalist. Source Galerie des
naturalistes de J. Pizzetta, Ed.
Hennuyer, 1893 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gessner_Conrad_1516-1565.jpg
[2] Conrad Gesner. Historiae
Animalium. (Zurich, 1551ff).
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/histor
icalanatomies/Images/1200_pixels/porcupi
ne_33.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Porcupine_33.jpg
[1542 CE]
(1497-1558), French physician,
publishes "Medicina", in which Fernel
is the first to use the words
"physiology" and "pathology".
Fernel is the first to
make human dissection an important part
of his clinical duties.
"Medicina" corrects
some of Galen's errors.
Fernel is the
first to describe an appendicitis.
Ferne
l describes the central canal of the
spinal cord.
[1] Scientist: Fernel, Jean François
(1497 - 1558) Discipline(s):
Medicine Print Artist: Nicolas de
Larmessin Medium: Woodcut Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 16.9 x 13.3 cm /
Sheet: 19 x 14.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d
iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D
iscipline_1=Medicine
[1542 CE]
1501-1566), German botanist, writes
"Historia Stirpium", "History of
Plants", in which numerous plant
species are described in detail.
"Historia Stirpium" is a landmark in
the development of natural history
because of its organized presentation,
the accuracy of its drawings and
descriptions of plants, and its
glossary. Prepares the first important
glossary of botanical terms. This will
define botany, the study of plants, as
a specific branch of science.
[1] Leonhart Fuchs, German botanist and
author, 16th century Portrait,
unbekannter Künstler, o.D. source:
http://www.tu-darmstadt.de/fb/bio/bot/fu
chsien/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leonhart.fuchs.farbig.jpg
[2] Description Leonard Fuchs Source
L C Miall. The History of Biology.
Watts and Co. Date 1911 Author L C
Miall PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:LeonardFuchsMiall.png
[1543 CE]
III stating that the earliest
suggestion he had seen that the earth
is in motion, was a statement that he
quoted from Cicero's "Academica".
[1543 CE]
supporting a sun centered theory is
published.
A few hundred copies of Nicolaus
Copernicus' (1473-1543) book, "De
revolutionibus orbium coelestium libri
vi" ("Six Books Concerning the
Revolutions of the Heavenly Orbs"), are
printed (200 copies still exist). The
original hand written draft exists and
shows that Copernicus crossed out an
original reference to Aristarchos (some
people suppose the motive for this is
so his ideas do not appear to be
unoriginal).
in)Nuremberg, Germany
[1] Nicolaus Copernicus (portrait from
Toruń - beginning of the 16th
century), from
http://www.frombork.art.pl/Ang10.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nikolaus_Kopernikus.jpg
[2] Nicolaus Copernicus PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Copernicus.jpg
[1543 CE]
1514-1564), Flemish anatomist,
publishes "De Corporis Humani Fabrica"
("On the Structure of the Human Body"),
the first accurate book on human
anatomy, and the first with
illustrations.
[1] Portrait of Vesalius from his De
humani corporis fabrica (1543). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vesalius_Fabrica_portrait.jpg
[2] Image from Andreas Vesalius's De
humani corporis fabrica (1543), page
190. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vesalius_Fabrica_p190.jpg
[1545 CE]
(KoRDoNO) (CE 1501-1576), Italian
mathematician, publishes "Ars Magna"
(Great Work), the first book to publish
a solution for equations of the third
degree (or cubic equations). "Ars
Magna" also contains the solution of
the quartic equation found by Cardano's
former servant, Lodovico Ferrari.
Cardano is the first to recognize the
value of negative and to understand
imaginary numbers.
Cardano is the first to write a
clinical description of Typhus fever.
Cardano is the first to understand the
water cycle (how water evaporates from
the seas into vapor (or gas) and the
vapor turns to rain and falls back to
the ground and into the oceans from
rivers.
Cardano writes 200 works.
[1] Girolamo Cardano, coloured woodcut
on the cover of his Practica
arithmetica (1539). The Granger
Collection, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15447/Girolamo-Cardano-coloured-woodcut
-on-the-cover-of-his-Practica?articleTyp
eId=1
[2] wikipedia contributor typed: I
found this picture at the library the
other day and haven't ever seen it
online before and thought it would make
a great addition to the Cardano page.
The author was marked as unknown. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CardanoPortrait.jpg
[1545 CE]
1510-1590), a French surgeon considered
by many to be the founder of modern
surgery, writes "La Méthod de traicter
les playes faites par les arquebuses et
aultres bastons à feu", ("The Method
of Treating Wounds Made by Harquebuses
and Other Guns"), which is ridiculed
because it is written in French instead
of Latin.
Wisely decides to not use
boiling oil to treat gunshots
Pare ties off
arteries to stop bleeding.
Summarizes the books
of Vesalius into French (so other
barber-surgeons can learn anatomy).
Pare builds
artificial limbs.
Pare improves obstetrical
(care of a woman during pregnancy)
methods.
[1] Ambroise Paré (ca. 1510-1590),
famous French surgeon Posthumous
(fantasy) portrait by William Holl
(1807-1871) Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_name_disp
lay_results.cfm?scientist=Par%C3%A9,%20A
mbroise PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ambroise_Par%C3%A9.jpg
[2] Paré, detail of an engraving,
1582 PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-13373/Pare-detail-of-an-engraving-1582?
articleTypeId=1
[1546 CE]
(George Bauer) (1494-1555), German
mineralogist, publishes "De natura
fossilium", considered the first
mineralogy textbook. This book presents
the first scientific classification of
minerals (based on their physical
properties) and describes many new
minerals, their occurrence and mutual
relationships.
published: Basel, Switzerland
[1] The ''Father of Mineralogy'',
Georgius Agricola. URL:
http://kanitz.onlinehome.de/agricolagymn
asium/agrigale.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Georgius_Agricola.jpg
[2] Georgius Agricola, portrait from
Icones veterum aliquot ac recentium
medicorum philosophorumque (1574) by
Joannes Sambucus, printed in
Antwerp. Courtesy of the Museum
National d'Histoire Naturelle,
Paris[2] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Georg_Agricola.jpg
[1546 CE]
publishes "De ortu et causis
subterraneorum" and "De natura eorum
quae effluunt ex terra". In these books
Agricola correctly attributes the
origin of ore deposits to deposition
from aqueous solution, describes the
erosive action of rivers and how
erosion shapes mountains. Agricola
readily discards the mistakes of
ancient authorities such as Aristotle
and Pliny.
published: Basel, Switzerland
[1] The ''Father of Mineralogy'',
Georgius Agricola. URL:
http://kanitz.onlinehome.de/agricolagymn
asium/agrigale.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Georgius_Agricola.jpg
[2] Georgius Agricola, portrait from
Icones veterum aliquot ac recentium
medicorum philosophorumque (1574) by
Joannes Sambucus, printed in
Antwerp. Courtesy of the Museum
National d'Histoire Naturelle,
Paris[2] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Georg_Agricola.jpg
[1550 CE]
(George Bauer) (1494-1555), German
mineralogist, writes "De Re Metallica"
which will be published a year after
his death in 1556. This book summarizes
all the knowledge gained by the Saxon
miners including drawings of mining
machines.
[1] The ''Father of Mineralogy'',
Georgius Agricola. URL:
http://kanitz.onlinehome.de/agricolagymn
asium/agrigale.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Georgius_Agricola.jpg
[2] Georgius Agricola, portrait from
Icones veterum aliquot ac recentium
medicorum philosophorumque (1574) by
Joannes Sambucus, printed in
Antwerp. Courtesy of the Museum
National d'Histoire Naturelle,
Paris[2] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Georg_Agricola.jpg
[1551 CE]
1511-1553), German mathematician,
publishes "Tabulae Prutenicae"
(Prussian Tables), the first set of
planetary tables based on the
sun-centered theory revived by
Copernicus.
[1] Reinhold, Prutenic Tables (1585),
title page. [t must be later
edition] PD
source: http://hsci.cas.ou.edu/images/jp
g-100dpi-5in/16thCentury/Reinhold/1585/R
einhold-1585-000tp.jpg
[2] Reinhold, Prutenic Tables (1585),
133v. PD
source: http://hsci.cas.ou.edu/exhibits/
exhibit.php?exbgrp=9&exbid=52&exbpg=25
[1552 CE]
(CE c1510-1574), Italian anatomist,
completes his book "Tabulae
anatomicae". Because Eustachio fears
ex-communication by the Catholic
Church, he does not publish his work
and it will not be published until
1714.
In "Anatomical Engravings" Eustachio is
the first to describe the adrenal
gland. The Eustachian tube is named
after Eustachio, although first
described by Alcmaeon 2000 years
before.
Eustachio does a detailed study
of teeth.
1552 Eustachio writes a book but
will not be published until 1714, with
anatomical illustrations
(worked on the sympathetic
nervous system, kidney and ear)
[1] Description Portrait of
Bartolomeus Eustachius, the
anatomist. Source Plate from A
History of dentistry from the most
ancient times until the end of the
eighteenth century, by Vincenzo
Guerini. Scanned by Google Book
Search. Date Plate published 1909;
possibly much earlier. Author Unknown
(not specified); possibly from one of
Eustachius' books. Permission Public
domain due to age. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Bartolomeus_Eustachius.jpg
[2] Portrait of Eustachius Eustachi,
Bartholomeo (d. 1574) - Tabulae
anatomicae. Tabulae anatomicae (Rome,
1783) Title page PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Eustachi01.jpg
[10/27/1553 CE]
(Spanish: Miguel Servet) (CE
1511-1553), Spanish physician, is
burned alive on a stake for heresy in
Champel, Geneva, Switzerland.
[1] Miguel Servet, (Villanueva de
Sigena 1511- Genevra 1553) Spanish
scientist and theologist of the
Renaissance. Artist : Christian
Fritzsch (author) born in about 1660,
Mittweida, Bautzen, Sachsen,
Germany. Source:
http://mcgovern.library.tmc.edu/data/www
/html/people/osler/MS/P000d.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Michael_Servetus.jpg
[2] Servetus, detail from an engraving
by Carl Sichem Courtesy of the
National Library of Medicine, Bethesda,
Md. PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-14212/Servetus-detail-from-an-engraving
-by-Carl-Sichem?articleTypeId=1
[1553 CE]
Dutch cartographer, explains that
longitude can be measured by using an
accurate timepiece, but no accurate
timepieces exist at this time.
Netherlands)
[1] English: Gemma Frisius, 1508-1555,
cartographer and mathematician Source
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollection
s/hst/scientific-identity/fullsize/SIL14
-G002-05a.jpg Date 17th
century Author Esme de Boulonois PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gemma_frisius_dockumensis.jpg
[1553 CE]
(Spanish: Miguel Servet) (CE
1511-1553), Spanish physician,
publishes "Christianismi Restitutio"
which contains a description of the
function of pulmonary circulation.
[1] Miguel Servet, (Villanueva de
Sigena 1511- Genevra 1553) Spanish
scientist and theologist of the
Renaissance. Artist : Christian
Fritzsch (author) born in about 1660,
Mittweida, Bautzen, Sachsen,
Germany. Source:
http://mcgovern.library.tmc.edu/data/www
/html/people/osler/MS/P000d.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Michael_Servetus.jpg
[2] Servetus, detail from an engraving
by Carl Sichem Courtesy of the
National Library of Medicine, Bethesda,
Md. PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-14212/Servetus-detail-from-an-engraving
-by-Carl-Sichem?articleTypeId=1
[1555 CE]
1517-1564), French Naturalist,
publishes "L'histoire de la nature des
oyseaux" (1555; "Natural History of
Birds"), illustrating, classifying, and
describing about 200 species of birds.
[1] Subject : Pierre Belon
(1517-1564) French zoologist PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Belon_Pierre_1517-1564.jpg
[2] Birds and Humans skeleton
comparison from 1555 Source History
of Biology Date 1911 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:BelonBirdSkel.jpg
[1558 CE]
1516-1565), Swiss naturalist, completes
"Historia animalium" (1551-8), an
exhaustive effort to describe all known
animals.
[1] Conrad Gessner (1516-1565), Swiss
naturalist. Source Galerie des
naturalistes de J. Pizzetta, Ed.
Hennuyer, 1893 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gessner_Conrad_1516-1565.jpg
[2] Conrad Gesner. Historiae
Animalium. (Zurich, 1551ff).
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/exhibition/histor
icalanatomies/Images/1200_pixels/porcupi
ne_33.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Porcupine_33.jpg
[1559 CE]
c1510-1559), Italian anatomist, writes
"De re anatomica" (1559; "On Things
Anatomical"), which clearly describes
the passage of blood between the heart
and lungs (pulmonary circulation).
[1] Matteo colombo, anatomista del
s.XVI. Óleo de autor anónimo. Matteo
Realdo Colombo. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Matteocolombo.jpg
[1560 CE]
(KoRDoNO) (CE 1501-1576), Italian
mathematician, writes "Liber de ludo
aleae" (The Book on Games of Chance),
which presents the first systematic
computations of probabilities, a
century before Blaise Pascal and Pierre
de Fermat.
[1] Girolamo Cardano, coloured woodcut
on the cover of his Practica
arithmetica (1539). The Granger
Collection, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15447/Girolamo-Cardano-coloured-woodcut
-on-the-cover-of-his-Practica?articleTyp
eId=1
[2] wikipedia contributor typed: I
found this picture at the library the
other day and haven't ever seen it
online before and thought it would make
a great addition to the Cardano page.
The author was marked as unknown. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CardanoPortrait.jpg
[1560 CE]
(1535-1615), Italian physicist, forms
the first scientific society
(associations for scholars to
communicate), named "Accademia
Secretorus Naturae".
[1] Giambattista della Porta PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Dellaporta.jpg
[1561 CE]
1523-1562), Italian anatomist,
publishes "Observationes anatomicae",
in which he identifies the tubes that
connect the ovaries to the uterus (now
known as fallopian tubes) and several
major nerves of the head and face.
Fallopius describes the semicircular
canals of the inner ear (responsible
for maintaining body (balance)).
Fallopius names the "vagina",
"placenta", "clitoris", "palate", and
"cochlea" (the snail-shaped organ of
hearing in the inner ear).
The actual
function of the Fallopian tubes, where
sperm fertilizes the ovum, will not be
known for 200 years.
[1] 16th century portrait by unknown
artist Retrieved from
http://www.peoples.ru/science/professor/
gabriello/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gabriele_Falloppio.jpg
[2] Gabriel Fallopius, coloured copper
engraving, 17th century. The Granger
Collection, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15449/Gabriel-Fallopius-coloured-copper
-engraving-17th-century?articleTypeId=1
[1567 CE]
(1497-1558) most comprehensive work,
"Universa medicina", is published
posthumously. In this book Frenel
describes peristalsis (the rhythmic
contraction of smooth muscles to propel
contents through the digestive tract.),
and the heart's systole (the
contraction of the chambers of the
heart, driving blood out of the
chambers.) and diastole (the period of
time when the heart relaxes after
contraction).
[1] Scientist: Fernel, Jean François
(1497 - 1558) Discipline(s):
Medicine Print Artist: Nicolas de
Larmessin Medium: Woodcut Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 16.9 x 13.3 cm /
Sheet: 19 x 14.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d
iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D
iscipline_1=Medicine
[1569 CE]
1512-1594), publishes a world map with
the Mercator projection, which allows
lines of latitude and longitude to be
straight instead of curved.
(presumably)
[1] Portrait of en:Gerardus
Mercator Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. (Original text :
http://www.nmm.ac.uk/collections/prints/
viewRepro.cfm?reproID=PU2381) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mercator.jpg
[2] Gerardus Mercator, Atlas sive
Cosmographicae Meditationes de Fabrica
Mundi et Fabricati Figura, Duisburg,
1595. from
http://octavo.com/collections/projects/m
crats/index.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mercator_World_Map.jpg
[1569 CE]
1512-1594), publishes a chronology of
the world from the Creation to 1568.
(presumably)
[1] Portrait of en:Gerardus
Mercator Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. (Original text :
http://www.nmm.ac.uk/collections/prints/
viewRepro.cfm?reproID=PU2381) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mercator.jpg
[2] Gerardus Mercator, Atlas sive
Cosmographicae Meditationes de Fabrica
Mundi et Fabricati Figura, Duisburg,
1595. from
http://octavo.com/collections/projects/m
crats/index.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mercator_World_Map.jpg
[1569 CE]
the first to use the symbol "i" for the
square root of -1.
[1] Rafael Bombelli Source
unknown contemporary? PD?
COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://www-history.mcs.st-andrew
s.ac.uk/PictDisplay/Bombelli.html
[11/11/1572 CE]
1546-1601), Danish Astronomer observes
an exploded star (now called SN 1572)
in the constellation Cassiopeia, as
bright as Venus.
[1] The astronomer Tycho Brahe Source
http://measure.igpp.ucla.edu/solar-terr
estrial-luminaries/brahe.JPG PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Tycho_Brahe.JPG
[2] Tycho Brahe, engraving by Hendrik
Goltzius of a drawing by an unknown
artist, c. 1586. Courtesy of Det
Nationalhistoriske Museum på
Frederiksborg, Den. PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-9034/Tycho-Brahe-engraving-by-Hendrik-G
oltzius-of-a-drawing-by?articleTypeId=1
[1573 CE]
1546-1601), Danish Astronomer,
publishes "De nova stella" ("Concerning
the new star"), which records his
observation of an apparently new star
(now named SN 1572).
Ljungbyhed, Scania, Denmark (now
Sweden)
[1] The astronomer Tycho Brahe Source
http://measure.igpp.ucla.edu/solar-terr
estrial-luminaries/brahe.JPG PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Tycho_Brahe.JPG
[2] Tycho Brahe, engraving by Hendrik
Goltzius of a drawing by an unknown
artist, c. 1586. Courtesy of Det
Nationalhistoriske Museum på
Frederiksborg, Den. PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-9034/Tycho-Brahe-engraving-by-Hendrik-G
oltzius-of-a-drawing-by?articleTypeId=1
[1573 CE]
1546-1601), Danish Astronomer,
publishes "De mundi aetherei
recentioribus phenomenis" ("?"), in
which Tycho proves that the great comet
of 1577 had to be at least six times
farther than the moon, and this
provides another criticism of the claim
recorded by Aristotle that no change
can occur above the orbit of the moon.
[1] The astronomer Tycho Brahe Source
http://measure.igpp.ucla.edu/solar-terr
estrial-luminaries/brahe.JPG PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Tycho_Brahe.JPG
[2] Tycho Brahe, engraving by Hendrik
Goltzius of a drawing by an unknown
artist, c. 1586. Courtesy of Det
Nationalhistoriske Museum på
Frederiksborg, Den. PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-9034/Tycho-Brahe-engraving-by-Hendrik-G
oltzius-of-a-drawing-by?articleTypeId=1
[1581 CE]
English navigator, publishes "The Newe
Attractive", which shows that a compass
needle allowed to swing up and down
points down below the horizon. Gilbert
also recognizes this.
[1582 CE]
calendar by the German astronomer,
Christoph Clavius (KloVEUS) (CE
1537-1612), is accepted at an
astronomical conference in Rome. Pope
Gregory XII approves this change, and
so the calendar is called the Gregorian
calendar. Eleven days are dropped so
that October 15,1582 is the day after
October 4, 1582.
With the Gregorian
calendar, February 29th is omitted in
century years which are not divisible
by 400.
[1] Christopher Clavius (1538-1612),
German mathematician and
astronomer. Immediate source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/fullsize/SIL14-
C4-02a.jpg Ultimate source: A 16th
century engraving after a painting by
Francisco Villamena. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Clavius.jpg
[1583 CE]
(CE 1540-1609), French historian and
astronomer, publishes "Opus de
emendatione tempore" (1583; "Study on
the Improvement of Time"), a study of
earlier calendars. In this book
Scaliger compares the computations of
time made by the various civilizations
of the past, corrects their errors, and
is the first to places chronology on a
solidly scientific basis.
Scaliger founds the "Julian Day"
system, where January 1, 4713 BCE is
set to day 1. This system forms a
standard for astronomers through
periods of various diverse calendars,
and is still used today.
[1] Joseph Justus Scaliger source:
http://www.telemachos.hu-berlin.de/bilde
r/gudeman/gudeman.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Joseph_Justus_Scaliger.JPG
[2] Joseph Justus Scaliger, oil
painting by an unknown French artist,
17th century; in the Musée de
Versailles Cliche Musees Nationaux
PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-14115/Joseph-Justus-Scaliger-oil-painti
ng-by-an-unknown-French-artist?articleTy
peId=1
[1584 CE]
Italian philosopher, writes 6 Italian
Dialogs in which he explains his belief
in the infinity of space, that the
earth goes around the sun (heliocentric
theory), and the atom theory.
[1] Giordano Bruno PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Giordano_Bruno.jpg
[2] Statue of Giordano Bruno in Campo
de Fiori, Rome, Italy. This monument
was erected in 1889, by Italian Masonic
circles, in the site where he was
burned alive for opposing the Catholic
church authority. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Brunostatue.jpg
[1585 CE]
1548-1620) , publishes a small pamphlet
in Dutch, "La Thiende" ("The Tenth"),
which contains the introduction of a
decimal system of notating fractions.
[1] Simon Stevin, from English
wikipedia. Older than 100 years, so
it's Public Domain for countries with a
copyright term of life of the author
plus 100 years from en: Portrait by an
unknown artist, library of University
of Leiden. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Simon-stevin.jpeg
[2] Image made by user:Branko. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Stevin-decimal_notation.png
[1586 CE]
al-'Amili (CE 1546-1622), writes works
in mathematics and astronomy
summarizing earlier scientists and is
causes a revival in mathematics in Iran
which was neglected for more than 100
years.
[1586 CE]
1548-1620) , publishes "De Beghinselen
der Weeghconst" (1586; "Statics and
Hydrostatics") which explains Stevin's
discovery that the downward pressure of
a liquid is independent of the shape of
its vessel and depends only on its
height and area of the surface.
Netherlands
[1] Simon Stevin, from English
wikipedia. Older than 100 years, so
it's Public Domain for countries with a
copyright term of life of the author
plus 100 years from en: Portrait by an
unknown artist, library of University
of Leiden. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Simon-stevin.jpeg
[1586 CE]
1548-1620) , publishes a report on his
experiment in which two lead spheres,
one 10 times as heavy as the other,
fall a distance of 30 feet in the same
time. The first to do this experiment
is usually wrongly credited to Galileo.
[1] Simon Stevin, from English
wikipedia. Older than 100 years, so
it's Public Domain for countries with a
copyright term of life of the author
plus 100 years from en: Portrait by an
unknown artist, library of University
of Leiden. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Simon-stevin.jpeg
[1589 CE]
20, 1612) invents the first modern
flush toilet.
[1] Portrait of Sir John Harrington PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sirjharrington.gif
[2] Diagram of Harrington's toilet.
[t: says Cummings Closet..is really
Harington's?]
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CummingsCloset.gif
[1590 CE]
Italian philosopher, writes "De
immenso, innumerabilibus et
infigurabilibus" ("On the Immeasurable
and Innumerable"), describe the concept
of an atomic basis of matter and being.
[1] Giordano Bruno PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Giordano_Bruno.jpg
[2] Statue of Giordano Bruno in Campo
de Fiori, Rome, Italy. This monument
was erected in 1889, by Italian Masonic
circles, in the site where he was
burned alive for opposing the Catholic
church authority. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Brunostatue.jpg
[1591 CE]
1540-1609), French mathematician,
publishes "In artem analyticem isagoge"
(1591; "Introduction to the Analytical
Arts"), which closely resembles a
modern elementary algebra text.
Vieta is first to use letters to
symbolize constant and unknown numbers,
using consonents for constants and
vowels for unknowns.
Uses Archimedes method of using
polygons to estimate pi. using 393,216
sides in his calculation he gets the
value of pi accurate to 10 decimal
places, the most accurate value up to
this time.
[1] François Viète. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Francois_Viete.jpg
[1592 CE]
1553-1616) , Italian botanist, prints
"De plantis Aegypti liber" (1592; "Book
of Egyptian Plants") which includes the
first European botanical accounts of
coffee, banana, and a genus of the
ginger family.
Alpini is the first to recognize that
plants have gender.
[1] Prospero Alpini PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Prospero_Alpini.jpg
[2] Alpini, engraving Courtesy of the
Ashmolean Museum, Oxford PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-8320/Alpini-engraving?articleTypeId=1
[1593 CE]
constructs a thermometer (he calls a
thermoscope, using the expansion and
contraction of air in a bulb to move
water in an attached tube.
[1] Galileo's Letter to Prince of
Venice PD
source: http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo
/ganymede/manuscript1.jpg
[2] Galileo's illustrations of the
Moon, from his Sidereus Nuncius (1610;
The Sidereal Messenger). Courtesy of
the Joseph Regenstein Library, The
University of Chicago PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2914/Galileos-illustrations-of-the-Moon
-from-his-Sidereus-Nuncius?articleTypeId
=1
[1595 CE]
1550-1617), Scottish mathematician,
writes a manuscript which describes
four weapons: two kinds of mirrors that
burn opponents using light, a piece of
artillery, and a battle vehicle covered
with metal plates having small holes
for emission of offensive firepower and
moved and directed by men inside,
although none are ever built.
.jpg)
[1] Painting of John Napier PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Napier_%28Painting%29.jpeg
[2] John Napier PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Napier.JPG
[08/??/1596 CE]
1564-1617) , German astronomer, finds
the first variable star, a star that
shows periodic changes in brightness.
Fabricius finds this star (what will be
called Omicron Ceti, and later "Mira")
before the use of the telescope, but is
one of the first after Galileo to start
using a telescope for astronomical
observations.
and northeast Netherlands)
(guess)
[1] David Fabricius
(1564-1617) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.tayabeixo.org/biograf
ias/mar_1q.htm
[1596 CE]
publishes his first major astronomical
work, "Mysterium Cosmographicum" ("The
Sacred Mystery of the Cosmos"), the
first published defense of the
Copernican system.
[1] model of the Solar system from
Mysterium Cosmographicum (1596). from
http://phoenixandturtle.net/images/keple
r.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kepler-solar-system-1.png
[2] Kepler's Platonic solid model of
the Solar system from Mysterium
Cosmographicum (1596). From:
http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhe
dra/figs/kepler-spheres-2.jpg included
in the page:
http://www.georgehart.com/virtual-polyhe
dra/kepler.html (scroll to the
bottom) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kepler-solar-system-2.png
[02/17/1600 CE]
Italian philosopher, is burned alive at
the stake.
[1] Giordano Bruno PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Giordano_Bruno.jpg
[2] Statue of Giordano Bruno in Campo
de Fiori, Rome, Italy. This monument
was erected in 1889, by Italian Masonic
circles, in the site where he was
burned alive for opposing the Catholic
church authority. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Brunostatue.jpg
[1600 CE]
Aquapendente (FoBrEsEuS) (CE
1537-1619), Italian physician,
publishes "De Formato Foetu" (1600; "On
the Formation of the Fetus"), which
summarizes his investigations of the
fetal development of many animals,
including human, contains the first
detailed description of the placenta
and opens the field of comparative
embryology. In this book, Fabricius
gives the first full account of the
larynx as a vocal organ and is the
first to demonstrate that the pupil of
the eye changes its size.
Corrects Vesalius who puts eye lens in
middle of eye, by correctly describing
the lens as near the forward (front)
rim.
[1] Girolamo Fabrizi d'Acquapendente
(1537-1619) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Girolamo_Fabrizi_d%27Acquapendente.jp
g
[2] Fabricius ab Aquapendente, oil
painting by an unknown
artist Alinari-Art Resource/EB Inc.
PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-10511/Fabricius-ab-Aquapendente-oil-pai
nting-by-an-unknown-artist?articleTypeId
=1
[1600 CE]
English physician and physicist,
publishes "De Magnete, Magneticisque
Corporibus, et de Magno Magnete
Tellure" (1600; "On the Magnet,
Magnetic Bodies, and the Great Magnet
of the Earth"), which describes his
research on magnetic bodies and
electrical attractions. From
experiments involving a spherical
lodestone, the most powerful magnet
then available, Gilbert concludes that
the earth is a spherical magnet and
recognizes that the compass points to
magnetic poles not up to the stars (or
heavens) as wrongly thought.
Gilbert works with amber which is known
to attract light objects after being
rubbed with a cloth, Gilbert extends
this knowledge by finding other
substances including rock crystal, and
a variety of gems that show the same
property. Gilbert labels these objects
"electrics" from the Greek word for
Amber "Elektron".
Gilbert is the first
to use the terms electric attraction,
electric force, and magnetic pole and
is often considered the father of
electrical studies.
Gilbert invents the first known
electroscope, a device to measure the
quantity of static electricity. This is
the versorium or electrical needle,
which consists simply of a light
metallic needle balanced on a pivot
like a compass needle.
[1] Paiting of William Gilbert (1544 -
1603) Source
http://physics.ship.edu/~mrc/pfs/110/in
side_out/vu1/Galileo/Images/Port/gilbert
.gif Date Author Unknown, after
title page of De Magnete (1600) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Gilbert.jpg
[2] Drawing in Gilbert's book showing
the downward slant of the magnetic
force. PD
source: http://istp.gsfc.nasa.gov/earthm
ag/upto1600.htm
[1602 CE]
(SANKTOrEuS) (CE 1561-1636) , Italian
physician, invents a pulse clock, a
"pulsilogium".
[1] Engraving of Sanctorius of
Padua PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sanctorius.jpg
[2] Santorio, marble portrait
bust Alinari/Art Resource, New York
PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-14072/Santorio-marble-portrait-bust?art
icleTypeId=1
[1603 CE]
Aquapendente (FoBrEsEuS) (CE
1537-1619), Italian physician,
publishes "De Venarum Ostiolis" (1603;
"On the Valves of the Veins"), which
contains the first clear description of
the semilunar (one-way) valves of the
veins, which will later provided Harvey
with a crucial point in his argument
for circulation of the blood.
[1] Girolamo Fabrizi d'Acquapendente
(1537-1619) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Girolamo_Fabrizi_d%27Acquapendente.jp
g
[2] Fabricius ab Aquapendente, oil
painting by an unknown
artist Alinari-Art Resource/EB Inc.
PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-10511/Fabricius-ab-Aquapendente-oil-pai
nting-by-an-unknown-artist?articleTypeId
=1
[1603 CE]
1572-1625), German astronomer,
publishes "Uranometria", the first star
catalog to show the entire celestial
sphere, and invents an ordered star
naming system of listing each star in a
constellation in order of brightness.
[1] The constellation of Hydrus was
first published in Johann Bayer's
Uranometria atlas. Bayer's Uranometria
opened a new age in the history of
celestial cartography, and was praised
for the careful placement of star
positions and brightnesses and for its
attractive plates. Click on the above
image for an enlarged view. Image
credit: U.S. Naval Observatory
Library PD
source: http://www.aavso.org/images/baye
r.jpg
[2] A print of the copperplate
engraving for Johann Bayer's
Uranometria showing the constellation
Orion. This image is courtesy of the
United States Naval Observatory
Library, who gives explicit permission
to use it so long as the attribution is
attached. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Uranometria_orion.jpg
[01/01/1604 CE]
publishes "Astronomiae Pars Optica"
("The Optical Part of Astronomy")
In this book
Kepler describes the inverse-square law
governing the intensity of light,
reflection by flat and curved mirrors,
and principles of pinhole cameras, as
well as the astronomical implications
of optics such as parallax and the
apparent sizes of heavenly bodies.
"Astronomiae Pars Optica" is generally
recognized as the foundation of modern
optics (though the law of refraction is
conspicuously absent).
(presumably)
[1] A plate from Johannes Kepler's Ad
Vitellionem Paralipomena, quibus
Astronomiae Pars Optica (1604),
illustrating the structure of
eyes. Source:
http://www.hps.cam.ac.uk/starry/keplerbo
oks.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kepler_Optica.jpg
[2] Johannes Kepler, oil painting by
an unknown artist, 1627; in the
cathedral, Strasbourg, France. Erich
Lessing/Art Resource, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2965/Johannes-Kepler-oil-painting-by-an
-unknown-artist-1627-in?articleTypeId=1
[1604 CE]
publishes "Ad Vitellionem Paralipomena,
Quibus Astronomiae Pars Optica
Traditur" (1604; "Supplement to Witelo,
in Which Is Expounded the Optical Part
of Astronomy") which contains the first
accurate description of how light from
a single point forms a cone with a
circular base at the pupil, and then
meets again at a single point on the
retina.
(presumably)
[1] A diagram from Johannes Kepler's
1611 Strena Seu de Nive Sexangula,
illustrating what came to be known as
the Kepler conjecture. Source:
http://www.math.sunysb.edu/~tony/whatsne
w/column/pennies-1200/cass1.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kepler_conjecture_2.jpg
[2] Johannes Kepler, oil painting by
an unknown artist, 1627; in the
cathedral, Strasbourg, France. Erich
Lessing/Art Resource, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2965/Johannes-Kepler-oil-painting-by-an
-unknown-artist-1627-in?articleTypeId=1
[1605 CE]
English philosopher, published
"Advancement of Learning", in which he
argues against mysticism and tradition.
[1] Sir Francis Bacon [t notice the
collar, interesting how things like
that come in and go out of
popularity] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Francis_Bacon.jpg
[2] Francis Bacon, engraving by
William Marshall, 1640 Mary Evans
Picture Library PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-8669/Francis-Bacon-engraving-by-William
-Marshall-1640?articleTypeId=1
[1605 CE]
Johannes Kepler (CE 1571-1630)
recognizes that Mars moves in an
elliptical orbit.
[1] A diagram from Johannes Kepler's
1611 Strena Seu de Nive Sexangula,
illustrating what came to be known as
the Kepler conjecture. Source:
http://www.math.sunysb.edu/~tony/whatsne
w/column/pennies-1200/cass1.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kepler_conjecture_2.jpg
[2] Johannes Kepler, oil painting by
an unknown artist, 1627; in the
cathedral, Strasbourg, France. Erich
Lessing/Art Resource, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2965/Johannes-Kepler-oil-painting-by-an
-unknown-artist-1627-in?articleTypeId=1
[1606 CE]
Joseph Justus Scaliger's (SkoLiJR) (CE
1540-1609) book "Thesaurus temporum,
complectens Eusebi Pamphili Chronicon"
(1606; "The Thesaurus of Time,
Including the Chronicle of Eusebius
Pamphilus") is published. This book is
a reconstruction of the Chronicle of
the early Christian historian Eusebius
Pamphilus and a collection of Greek and
Latin remnants placed in chronological
order.
Scaliger founds the "Julian Day"
system, where January 1, 4713 BCE is
set to day 1. This system forms a
standard for astronomers through
periods of various diverse calendars,
and is still used today.
[1] Joseph Justus Scaliger source:
http://www.telemachos.hu-berlin.de/bilde
r/gudeman/gudeman.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Joseph_Justus_Scaliger.JPG
[2] Joseph Justus Scaliger, oil
painting by an unknown French artist,
17th century; in the Musée de
Versailles Cliche Musees Nationaux
PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-14115/Joseph-Justus-Scaliger-oil-painti
ng-by-an-unknown-French-artist?articleTy
peId=1
[1606 CE]
1560-1616) , German alchemist,
publishes "Alchymia" (1606; "Alchemy"),
the first systematic chemistry
textbook, in which Libavius is the
first to describe the preparation of
hydrochloric acid. tin tetrachloride,
ammonium sulfate, and antimony sulfide.
[1608 CE]
1570-1619), German-Dutch optician,
invents the first telescope (and
microscope).
Lippershey had placed a double convex
lens (the "object glass") at the
farther end of a tube, and a double
concave lens (the "eyepiece") at the
nearer end.
An apprentice of Lippershey's
accidentally finds that looking through
two lens makes distant objects appear
closer. Lippershey mounts two lens in a
tube, and tries to sell them.
Recognizing the use of the instrument
in warfare, the government tries to
keep it a secret, but having heard
rumors about this device, Galileo in
Italy, quickly constructes one.
This is a refracting telescope, which
spreads light out using two transparent
lens.
(presumably)
[1] Hans Lippershey (1570-September
1619), Dutch lensmaker. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hans_Lippershey.jpg
[08/??/1609 CE]
can magnify object 8 times larger to
the Venetian Senate. Galileo is
rewarded with life tenure (which makes
being fired very difficult) and a
doubling of his salary. Galileo is now
one of the highest-paid professors at
the University of Padua.
[1] Two of Galileo's first telescopes;
in the Institute and Museum of the
History of Science,
Florence. Scala/Art Resource, New York
PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2916/Two-of-Galileos-first-telescopes-i
n-the-Institute-and-Museum?articleTypeId
=1
[2] Galileo Galilei. Portrait in
crayon by Leoni Source: French WP
(Utilisateur:Kelson via
http://iafosun.ifsi.rm.cnr.it/~iafolla/h
ome/homegrsp.html) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galilee.jpg
[1609 CE]
1564-1642), understands that the
distance covered by a falling body is
proportional to the square of the
elapsed time.
This law is called the "Law of falling
bodies". In empty space, all bodies
fall to earth with the same constant
acceleration and in proportion to the
square of time. This motion is called
uniformly accelerated motion.
This law will later be expressed (by
whom) as s = 1/2 (at2), where s is
distance, t is time, and a is
acceleration. (state by whom)
Galileo finds
that the trajectory of a projectile is
a parabola.
[1] Galileo Galilei. Portrait in crayon
by Leoni Source: French WP
(Utilisateur:Kelson via
http://iafosun.ifsi.rm.cnr.it/~iafolla/h
ome/homegrsp.html) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galilee.jpg
[2] Original portrait of Galileo
Galilei by Justus Sustermans painted in
1636. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg
[1609 CE]
can also be used as a microscope) after
hearing about the invention created in
Holland.
[1] Galileo Galilei. Portrait in crayon
by Leoni Source: French WP
(Utilisateur:Kelson via
http://iafosun.ifsi.rm.cnr.it/~iafolla/h
ome/homegrsp.html) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galilee.jpg
[2] Original portrait of Galileo
Galilei by Justus Sustermans painted in
1636. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg
[1609 CE]
understands that planets move in
elliptical orbits.
Johannes Kepler (CE
1571-1630) understands that planets
move in elliptical orbits with the Sun
at one focus of the ellipse and that
the variable velocities of the planets
are due to their varying distances from
the Sun.
Johannes Kepler (CE 1571-1630),
German astronomer publishes "Astronomia
Nova" ("A New Astronomy") which
contains his first 2 laws of planetary
motion: (1) the planets move in
elliptical orbits with the Sun at one
focus (2) the time needed to move
through any arc of a planetary orbit is
proportional to the area of the sector
between the central body and that arc
("the area law").
Stuttgart Region in the German state of
Baden-Württemberg, 30 km west of
Stuttgart's center)
[1] Johannes Kepler, oil painting by an
unknown artist, 1627; in the cathedral,
Strasbourg, France. Erich Lessing/Art
Resource, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2965/Johannes-Kepler-oil-painting-by-an
-unknown-artist-1627-in?articleTypeId=1
[2] A 1610 portrait of Johannes Kepler
by an unknown PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johannes_Kepler_1610.jpg
[01/??/1610 CE]
around Jupiter and determines their
period.
Galileo finds that planet Jupiter has
four moons visible only by telescope,
that circle Jupiter with regular
motions. Within a few weeks Galileo
determines the periods of each moon.
Galileo is the first to see that planet
Venus has phases like the moon.
Galileo also
finds many more stars can be seen with
the telescope than with the naked eye.
Galileo describes these earthshaking
finds in a little book, "Sidereus
Nuncius" ("The Sidereal Messenger").
(in Latin?)
Jupiter and it's moons is an
example of small bodies orbiting a
large body and this is evidence in
support of the sun-centered theory, and
is definite proof that not all bodies
orbit the earth.
Galileo is first to see that the
planets appear as globes, but the stars
appears as points, and concludes that
the stars must be very far away, and
that the universe may be infinitely
large (again this logical view of the
infinite universe is still not accepted
today 400 years later).
Galileo records the first clearly
documented use of the compound
microscope when using his telescope as
a microscope to observe insects. An
interesting truth is that a telescope
and microscope are the same thing in
that they take a small area and spread
it out. There is not much purpose for
humans in taking a large area and
compacting it together into a small
area.
[1] Galileo's Letter to Prince of
Venice PD
source: http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo
/ganymede/manuscript1.jpg
[2] Galileo's illustrations of the
Moon, from his Sidereus Nuncius (1610;
The Sidereal Messenger). Courtesy of
the Joseph Regenstein Library, The
University of Chicago PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2914/Galileos-illustrations-of-the-Moon
-from-his-Sidereus-Nuncius?articleTypeId
=1
[06/??/1611 CE]
(CE 1587-1615) is the first to show
that the Sun rotates around its own
axis.
Johannes Fabricius (FoBrisEuS) (CE
1587-1615), German astronomer, is the
first to show that the Sun rotates
around its own axis in a book published
in June of 1611.
and northeast Netherlands)
(guess)
[1] Johannes Fabricius PD
source: http://www.daviddarling.info/enc
yclopedia/F/Fabricius.html
[1611 CE]
circulates a manuscript that will be
published posthumously as "Somnium"
("The Dream") about a man who travels
to the moon in a dream, and is the
first science fiction (or futuristic)
book.
[1] ''SOMNIUM'' 1634 PD
source: http://www.um.zagan.pl/kepler/im
age/somnium.jpg
[2] Johannes Kepler, oil painting by
an unknown artist, 1627; in the
cathedral, Strasbourg, France. Erich
Lessing/Art Resource, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2965/Johannes-Kepler-oil-painting-by-an
-unknown-artist-1627-in?articleTypeId=1
[1611 CE]
publishes a short pamphlet entitled
"Strena Seu de Nive Sexangula" ("A New
Year's Gift of Hexagonal Snow") which
investigates an atomistic basis for the
symmetry of snowflakes, and explores
the most efficient way to pack spheres.
[1] A diagram from Johannes Kepler's
1611 Strena Seu de Nive Sexangula,
illustrating what came to be known as
the Kepler conjecture. Source:
http://www.math.sunysb.edu/~tony/whatsne
w/column/pennies-1200/cass1.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kepler_conjecture_2.jpg
[2] Johannes Kepler, oil painting by
an unknown artist, 1627; in the
cathedral, Strasbourg, France. Erich
Lessing/Art Resource, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2965/Johannes-Kepler-oil-painting-by-an
-unknown-artist-1627-in?articleTypeId=1
[1611 CE]
completes the publishing of "Epitome
astronomiae Copernicanae" ("Epitome of
Copernican Astronomy") (published in
three parts from 1618-1621), the first
textbook of Copernican astronomy.
[1] A diagram from Johannes Kepler's
1611 Strena Seu de Nive Sexangula,
illustrating what came to be known as
the Kepler conjecture. Source:
http://www.math.sunysb.edu/~tony/whatsne
w/column/pennies-1200/cass1.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kepler_conjecture_2.jpg
[2] Johannes Kepler, oil painting by
an unknown artist, 1627; in the
cathedral, Strasbourg, France. Erich
Lessing/Art Resource, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2965/Johannes-Kepler-oil-painting-by-an
-unknown-artist-1627-in?articleTypeId=1
[1611 CE]
German Astronomer, publishes the first
telescopic observation of the Andromeda
galaxy, describing the sight as "like a
candle seen at night through a horn"
(referring to horn lanterns, then
common).
[1] Simon Marius, (January 10, 1573 -
December 26, 1624), German
astronomer. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Simon_Marius.jpg
[01/12/1612 CE]
sInR?) (CE 1575-1650), German
Astronomer, publishes "Tres Epistolae
de Maculis Solaribus" ("Three Letters
on Solar Spots"), in which he claims to
have observed sunspots on a projection
of the Sun, before Galileo on March in
1611, which Galileo disputes.
This results in a controversy with
Galileo, who claims that he was the
first to discover sunspots.
Scheiner publishes this book under the
pseudonym "Apelles latens post
tabulam", or "Apelles hiding behind the
painting".
(presumably)
[1] Sunspot plate from Scheiner's
``Tres Epistolae'' (650 x 505;
250K) http://www.math.yorku.ca/SCS/Gall
ery/milestone/sec3.html PD/Corel
source: http://cnx.rice.edu/content/m119
70/latest/tres_epistolae.gif
[2] Christoph Scheiner No source
specified. Please edit this image
description and provide a source. Date
1725 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Scheiner_christoph.gif
[1612 CE]
(SANKTOrEuS) (CE 1561-1636) , Italian
physician, is the first to use a
thermometer (one invented by Galileo
that uses a liquid and air trapped in a
tube) to measure the temperature of
humans.
[1] Engraving of Sanctorius of
Padua PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sanctorius.jpg
[2] Santorio, marble portrait
bust Alinari/Art Resource, New York
PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-14072/Santorio-marble-portrait-bust?art
icleTypeId=1
[1614 CE]
and exponential notation.
John Napier (nAPER)
(CE 1550-1617), Scottish
mathematician, publishes "Mirifici
Logarithmorum Canonis Descriptio"
("Description of the Marvelous Canon of
Logarithms"), which describes his
invention of logarithms.
Napier invents exponential notation,
including the system of exponential
multiplication by adding exponents and
division by subtracting exponents. (in
this book?)
Napier's tables of logarithms are very
popular.
[1] Painting of John Napier PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Napier_%28Painting%29.jpeg
[2] John Napier PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Napier.JPG
[1614 CE]
(SANKTOrEuS) (CE 1561-1636) , Italian
physician, publishes "De Statica
Medicina" (1614; "On Medical
Measurement") is the first systematic
study of basal metabolism (the average
rate that a body breaks apart molecules
for fuel).
[1] Engraving of Sanctorius of
Padua PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sanctorius.jpg
[2] Santorio, marble portrait
bust Alinari/Art Resource, New York
PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-14072/Santorio-marble-portrait-bust?art
icleTypeId=1
[1614 CE]
German Astronomer, publishes "Mundus
Iovialis", in which he names the 4
major moons of Jupiter: Io, Europa,
Ganymede, Callisto after four Gods
closely related to Jupiter (Zeus) in
myths, and claims to have seen
Jupiter's four major moons some days
before Galileo.
[1] Simon Marius, (January 10, 1573 -
December 26, 1624), German
astronomer. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Simon_Marius.jpg
[1616 CE]
heresy by Pope "Paul V" (Camillo
Borghese).
[1] Galileo Galilei. Portrait in crayon
by Leoni Source: French WP
(Utilisateur:Kelson via
http://iafosun.ifsi.rm.cnr.it/~iafolla/h
ome/homegrsp.html) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galilee.jpg
[2] Original portrait of Galileo
Galilei by Justus Sustermans painted in
1636. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg
[1616 CE]
understands the circulatory system.
William
Harvey (CE 1578-1657), English
Physician, understands the circulatory
system; that the heart is a muscle that
contracts to push blood out, that blood
can only move in one direction in blood
vessels (not back and forth as Galen
had believed), and that blood moves in
a circle from the hearth to the
arteries, from the arteries to the
veins, and through the veins back to
the heart.
[1] William Harvey Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/William+H
arvey?cat=health
[2] William Harvey Source
University of Texas Libraries, The
University of Texas at Austin PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Harvey.jpg
[1616 CE]
builds the earliest known reflecting
telescope.
This telescope is before the
telescopes of James Gregory and Isaac
Newton.
[1] Nicolas Zucchi (1586-1670) PD
source: http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/opti
cs/timeline/people/zucchi.html
[1617 CE]
English mathematician, publishes
"Logarithmorum Chilias Prima"
("Introduction to Logarithms"), which
describes using logarithms with base 10
and includes the logarithms of numbers
from 1 to 1,000, calculated to 14
decimal places.
[1] Briggs, Henry (Vlacq,
A.) Arithmetica
Logarithmica London 1624 disbound ID
#: B277.82 LOC: CHM PD
source: http://research.microsoft.com/~g
bell/CyberMuseum_files/Bell_Book_Files/b
ooks.htm
[1619 CE]
point.
Scottish mathematician John Napier's
(nAPER) (CE 1550-1617) "Mirifici
Logarithmorum Canonis Constructio"
("Construction of the Marvelous Canon
of Logarithms") is published
posthumously. This book contains the
first use of the decimal point to
separate the fractional from the
integral part of a number.
[1] Painting of John Napier PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Napier_%28Painting%29.jpeg
[2] John Napier PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Napier.JPG
[1619 CE]
publishes "Harmonices Mundi"
("Harmonies of the World") which
includes his third law: that the square
of the period of orbit of a planet is
proportional to the cube of its
distance from the Sun.
[1] A hand-annotated illustration plate
from Johannes Kepler's Harmonices mundi
(1619), showing the perfect
solids. source:
http://hsci.cas.ou.edu/digitized/16thCen
tury/Kepler/1619/Kepler-1619-pl-3-image/
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kepler-1619-pl-3.jpg
[2] Johannes Kepler, oil painting by
an unknown artist, 1627; in the
cathedral, Strasbourg, France. Erich
Lessing/Art Resource, New York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2965/Johannes-Kepler-oil-painting-by-an
-unknown-artist-1627-in?articleTypeId=1
[1619 CE]
sInR?) (CE 1575-1650), German
Astronomer, publishes "Oculus hoc est:
Fundamentum opticum", in which Scheiner
recognizes that the curvature of the
lens in the human eye changes as the
eye focuses to different distances.
[1] Christoph Scheiner No source
specified. Please edit this image
description and provide a source. Date
1725 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Scheiner_christoph.gif
[2] Pantograph, from Book
Pantographice seu ars delineandi, Page
29 Source
http://fermi.imss.fi.it/rd/bdv?/bdviewe
r/bid=000000920801 Date 1631 Author
Christoph Scheiner PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pantograph_by_Christoph_Scheiner.jpg
[1620 CE]
"New Atlantis" is published
posthumously in 1627. This book
describes an island governed by an
Academy of Sciences. This idea will
find partial realization with the
organization of the Royal Society in
1660.
[1] Sir Francis Bacon [t notice the
collar, interesting how things like
that come in and go out of
popularity] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Francis_Bacon.jpg
[2] Francis Bacon, engraving by
William Marshall, 1640 Mary Evans
Picture Library PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-8669/Francis-Bacon-engraving-by-William
-Marshall-1640?articleTypeId=1
[1621 CE]
1580-1626), Dutch mathematician,
identifies the law of refraction.
[1] Willibrord
Snellius http://images.google.com/imgre
s?imgurl=http://tau.fesg.tu-muenchen.de/
~iapg/web/fame/images/geo/snellius.jpg&i
mgrefurl=http://tau.fesg.tu-muenchen.de/
~iapg/web/fame/seiten/snellius.php&h=584
&w=407&sz=81&hl=en&sig2=5XbrrVTx-PVInTZc
fU_5ng&start=1&tbnid=QsmS80Z3DsqbhM:&tbn
h=135&tbnw=94&ei=psvoRKCJLLP2wQGCnPDfDg&
prev=/images%3Fq%3D%2522Snellius%2522%26
svnum%3D100%26hl%3Den%26lr%3D%26safe%3Do
ff%26client%3Dfirefox-a%26rls%3Dorg.mozi
lla:en-US:official%26sa%3DN http://tau.
fesg.tu-muenchen.de/~iapg/web/fame/image
s/geo/snellius.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Willebrord_Snellius.jpg
[2] Snell's law equation GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sne
ll%27s_law#_ref-4
[1622 CE]
1574-1660), English mathematician
invents the first slide-rule, two
identical linear or circular
logarithmic scales, used to perform
calculations by moving them
mechanically by hand.
(presumably)
[1] Portrait of William Oughtred, from
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/PictDisplay/Oughtred.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Oughtred.jpg
[1627 CE]
publishes the "Rudolphine Tables", the
planetary tables meant to replace the
Prussian Tables of Erasmus Reinhold.
This book includes the first time
estimates for the "transit" of the
planets Mercury and Venus across the
face of the Sun. These transits have
never been observed before, but
according to the sun-centered theory
have to take place.
[1] from
http://www.britannica.com/eb/art-2966/Fr
ontispiece-from-Tabulae-Rudolphinae-by-J
ohannes-Kepler?articleTypeId=1 Frontisp
iece from Tabulae Rudolphinae (1627;
''Rudolphine Tables'') by Johannes
Kepler. This is one of the most famous
and richly symbolic images in the
history of science. The figures, from
left to right, are the astronomers
Hipparchus, Nicolaus Copernicus, an
anonymous ancient observer, Tycho
Brahe, and Ptolemy, each surrounded by
symbols of their work. The pillars in
the background are made of wood; those
in the foreground are made of brick and
marble, symbolizing the progress of
astronomy. Astronomical instruments
serve as decorations. The figures on
the cornice symbolize mathematical
sciences; Kepler's patron, the Holy
Roman emperor Rudolph II, is
represented by the eagle. On the base,
from left to right, are Kepler in his
study, a map of Tycho Brahe's island of
Ven, and a printing press. The writing
at the bottom is Kepler's; this copy
was given by him to a friend, Benjamin
Ursinus. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Libr0310.jpg
[2] World map in: ''Tabulae
Rudolphinae : quibus astronomicae
....'' by Johannes Kepler, 1627.
Source: NOAA
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kepler-world.jpg
[1628 CE]
publishes the circulation of blood
theory in a small book of 72 pages,
titled "Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu
Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus" ("An
Anatomical Exercise Concerning the
Motion of the Heart and Blood in
Animals"). Harvey is ridiculed for
refuting Galen, he is called
"Circulator" which is Latin slang for
the name given to people who sell
medicines at a circus.
Germany
[1] Woodcut depicting William Harvey's
theory of the circulation of blood,
from his Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu
Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus
(1628). The Granger Collection, New
York PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15453/Woodcut-depicting-William-Harveys
-theory-of-the-circulation-of-blood?arti
cleTypeId=1
[2] William Harvey Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/William+H
arvey?cat=health
[1629 CE]
(CE 1598-1647), Italian mathematician,
develops his "method of indivisibles",
a method of determining the size of
geometric figures similar to the
methods of integral calculus.
[1] Bonaventura Cavalieri PD
source: http://matematica.uni-bocconi.it
/galeazzi/capitolo12.htm
[2] Monument to Cavalieri in
Milan. CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:IMG_4064_-_Milano%2C_Palazzo_di_Brera
_-_Cavalieri%2C_Bonaventura_-_Foto_Giova
nni_Dall%27Orto_19-jan_2007.jpg
[1630 CE]
Flemish astronomer repeats the
experiment done by Aristarchos to
measure the distance to the sun during
a half moon, and gets an estimate 12
times Aristachos' estimate, but still
1/3 of the distance too short.
[1631 CE]
1574-1660), English mathematician
publishes "Clavis Mathematicae" ("The
Key to Mathematics"), in which he
introduces the "X" symbol for
multiplication, and the abbreviations
sin, cos, and tan used for the
trigonometric functions sine, cosine,
and tangent still used today.
(presumably)
[1] Portrait of William Oughtred, from
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~hist
ory/PictDisplay/Oughtred.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Oughtred.jpg
[1631 CE]
1584-1637), French mathematician,
invents the "vernier scale" (pronounced
with the r in England and the USA), a
device capable of precise measurement.
death location)
[1] using the vernier caliper to
measure a nut Source own image Date
October 2006 Author Joaquim Alves
Gaspar GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Using_the_caliper_new_en.gif
[2] Zoom-in on ''Messschieber.jpg''
from commons made by danish user
Ultraman. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Close_up_of_vernier_scale.jpg
[1631 CE]
1592-1655), observes the transit of
Mercury.
Gassendi is the first person to see
the transit of a planet across the face
of the Sun. This transit is predicted
by Kepler, and arrives within 5 hours
of Kepler's estimated time. One reason
for these variable times are the
incalculable affects, such as the
movement of liquids such as water, and
metals that planets and stars are
composed of, in addition to the many
asteroids which exert small
gravitational affects. A perfect system
of planetary and star prediction
appears to be impossible, and because
the affects of uncountable atoms and
molecules can not be accurately
calculated, estimates of position for
all larger composite pieces of matter
must be constantly updated.
[1] Pierre Gassendi
(1592-1655). Peinture de Louis
Édouard Rioult. (Base Joconde du
Ministère de la Culture) PD
source: http://www.voltaire-integral.com
/Html/14/04CATALO_1_2.html
[2] Scientist: Gassendi, Pierre
(1592 - 1655) Discipline(s): Physics
; Astronomy Print Artist: Jacques
Lubin, 1637-1695 Medium: Engraving
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 17.6 x
14.1 cm / Sheet: 27.9 x 21.7 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Gassen
di
[1631 CE]
1592-1655), measures the velocity of
sound.
Gassendi is the first person to
measure the velocity of sound, and
shows that the velocity of sound is
independent of it's(sic) pitch.
Aristotle had claimed that high notes
travel faster than low notes.
[1] Pierre Gassendi
(1592-1655). Peinture de Louis
Édouard Rioult. (Base Joconde du
Ministère de la Culture) PD
source: http://www.voltaire-integral.com
/Html/14/04CATALO_1_2.html
[2] Scientist: Gassendi, Pierre
(1592 - 1655) Discipline(s): Physics
; Astronomy Print Artist: Jacques
Lubin, 1637-1695 Medium: Engraving
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 17.6 x
14.1 cm / Sheet: 27.9 x 21.7 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Gassen
di
[1632 CE]
the Two Chief World Systems" in support
of the sun-centered system.
[1] Galileo's Letter to Prince of
Venice PD
source: http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo
/ganymede/manuscript1.jpg
[2] Galileo's illustrations of the
Moon, from his Sidereus Nuncius (1610;
The Sidereal Messenger). Courtesy of
the Joseph Regenstein Library, The
University of Chicago PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2914/Galileos-illustrations-of-the-Moon
-from-his-Sidereus-Nuncius?articleTypeId
=1
[06/22/1633 CE]
condemned to life imprisonment by the
Inquisition.
[1] Galileo's Letter to Prince of
Venice PD
source: http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo
/ganymede/manuscript1.jpg
[2] Galileo's illustrations of the
Moon, from his Sidereus Nuncius (1610;
The Sidereal Messenger). Courtesy of
the Joseph Regenstein Library, The
University of Chicago PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2914/Galileos-illustrations-of-the-Moon
-from-his-Sidereus-Nuncius?articleTypeId
=1
[1633 CE]
Comparison of light to a
ball.
René Descartes (CE 1596-1650)
(DAKoRT), French philosopher and
mathematician completes his books "Le
Monde ou Traité de la lumière" ("The
World or Treatise on Light"), and
"L'Homme..." ("Man..."), which describe
a mechanical heliocentric universe, and
human beings and other species as
mechanical devices. But abandons these
works when hearing that Galileo has
been condemned for heresy.
"Le Monde" includes the earliest clear
statement of the principle of inertia,
that a body in motion will stay in
motion until collision with some other
body.
Decartes compares reflection of light
to reflection of a ball against the
wall of a tennis court, but does not
explicitly state that light is made of
particles. Newton will use the example
of a tennis ball in being the first to
publish the clearly stated theory of
light being made of globular bodies in
1672.
[1] The balls of the ''second element''
which I think is a theory of particles
similar to an aether that fill empty
space, but its not clear[t] PD/Corel
source: http://www.princeton.edu/~hos/mi
ke/texts/descartes/world/Image9.gif
[2] Drawing of star systems together
from Le Monde[t] PD/Corel
source: http://www.princeton.edu/~hos/mi
ke/texts/descartes/world/world2.gif
[1635 CE]
1588-1648), French Mathematician, forms
the informal, private "Académie
Parisienne" (the precursor to the
French Academy of Sciences).
[1] Marin Mersenne PD
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/576/0
00107255/
[2] Mersenne, Marin (1588-1648) PD
source: http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/the
mes/biographies/MainBiographies/M/Mersen
ne/1.html
[1636 CE]
Province of Massachusetts Bay, and is
the first college in America.
[1] Lt Gov William Stoughton
(1631-1701) overlooking one of the
buildings of Harvard College, quite
probably Stoughton Hall for which he
was its main benefactor. The painting
dates to circa 1700. This picture,
which was taken from: Albert Bushnell
Hart, Commonwealth History of
Massachusetts (1927, vol. 1) opposite
p. 562; was originally taken from an
original portrait presumably still in
the possession of Harvard
University. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:HarvardStaughton.jpg
[1636 CE]
c1612-1644), invents the micrometer (a
device for precision measurement)
[1] ''Gascoigne''s micrometer'' - via
Richard Towneley - as drawn by Robert
Hooke for the Royal Society,1667. PD
source: http://www.narrowbandimaging.com
/Northern%20Astronomical%20Review.htm
[2] [t Modern micrometer] Outside
micrometer, inside micrometer, and
depth micrometer. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Micrometers.jpg
[1637 CE]
1588-1648) may be the first to measure
the frequency of any sound.
[1] Marin Mersenne PD
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/576/0
00107255/
[2] Mersenne, Marin (1588-1648) PD
source: http://www.cartage.org.lb/en/the
mes/biographies/MainBiographies/M/Mersen
ne/1.html
[1637 CE]
(DAKoRT) describes the Cartesian
coordinate system.
René Descartes (CE
1596-1650) (DAKoRT) describes the
Cartesian coordinate system where
points are plotted on a surface.
René
Descartes (CE 1596-1650) (DAKoRT)
describes the Cartesian coordinate
system, in "La Géométrie"
("Geometry") which is published as an
appendix to "Discours de la méthode"
("Discourse on Method").
The Cartesian coordinate
system is the familiar two dimensional
graph where points on a plane can be
drawn, x along a horizontal line, and y
along a vertical line, in order to plot
curves. Descartes is the first to
recognize that every point in a plane
can be represented by two numbers, for
example (-2,3), which can represent two
units left and three units up. This
makes a new way to visualize
mathematical functions such as y=2x+3.
This connects algebra and geometry.
[1] Portrait of René Descartes by
Frans Hals (1648) Description René
Descartes, french philosopher (Oil on
canvas, 68 x 77, Owned by the Musée du
Louvre Paris) Source No source
specified. Please edit this image
description and provide a source. Date
1648 Author Frans Hals PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Descartes.jpg
[2] Scientist: Descartes, René (1596
- 1650) Discipline(s): Physics ;
Mathematics Print Artist: William
Holl Medium: Engraving Original
Artist: Franz Hals, ca.1582-1666
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 12.7 x
10.3 cm / Sheet: 25.5 x 17.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=d
[1638 CE]
speed of light.
Italy
[1] Galileo's Letter to Prince of
Venice PD
source: http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo
/ganymede/manuscript1.jpg
[2] Galileo's illustrations of the
Moon, from his Sidereus Nuncius (1610;
The Sidereal Messenger). Courtesy of
the Joseph Regenstein Library, The
University of Chicago PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-2914/Galileos-illustrations-of-the-Moon
-from-his-Sidereus-Nuncius?articleTypeId
=1
[1639 CE]
Western Hemisphere is the Hôtel-Dieu
du Précieux Sang, established in
Quebec city in New France.
Canada)
[1] L'hôtel Dieu de Québec Copyright
© 2002-04 (Créations Chez
Magy) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.ph-ludwigsburg.de/htm
l/2b-frnz-s-01/overmann/baf4/quebec/inde
x.html
[1639 CE]
observes the transit of Venus.
Jeremiah
Horrocks (CE 1618-1641), is the first
human to observe the transit of Venus.
(presumably)
[1] This illustration, recreated from
Horrocks's notes by the prominent
Polish astronomer Hevelius, shows three
positions of the planet Venus as it
crosses the face of the Sun. Notice the
two black and one white dot (the
progression of Venus) in the lower left
portion of the central circle (the
Sun). PD
source: http://www.adlerplanetarium.org/
research/collections/transit-of-venus/jh
evelius1662b.jpg
[2] Jeremiah Horrocks observand
tranzitul lui Venus PD
source: http://aira.astro.ro/2004/Venus2
/Importanta_fisa%20scurta.htm
[1640 CE]
1592-1655), performs the experiment of
releasing a ball from the mast of a
moving ship, and as he expects, the
ball falls to the foot of the mast in a
straight line.
[1] Pierre Gassendi
(1592-1655). Peinture de Louis
Édouard Rioult. (Base Joconde du
Ministère de la Culture) PD
source: http://www.voltaire-integral.com
/Html/14/04CATALO_1_2.html
[2] Scientist: Gassendi, Pierre
(1592 - 1655) Discipline(s): Physics
; Astronomy Print Artist: Jacques
Lubin, 1637-1695 Medium: Engraving
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 17.6 x
14.1 cm / Sheet: 27.9 x 21.7 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Gassen
di
[1641 CE]
1614-1672), French physician,publishes
"Praxeos medicae idea nova" (1671, "New
idea in medical practice").
Sylvius is one of the
earliest and strongest defenders of
Harvey's view of blood circulation.
Sylvius is the
first to reject health being dependent
on the balance of 4 humors (blood,
phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile), a
theory that goes back to Greek health
science (medicine).
Sylvius is the first to make
gin and uses it to treat kidney
ailments.
Sylvius correctly views digestion as a
chemical process.
[1] Franciscus Sylvius, detail of an
engraving. BBC Hulton Picture Library
PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-14633/Franciscus-Sylvius-detail-of-an-e
ngraving
[2] Franciscus Sylvius Pildiallkiri:
Franciscus Deleboe Sylvius, Medicinæ,
practicæ in academia Lugduno-Batava
professor. Allikas:
http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc/sylvius
f.jpg PD
source: http://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pil
t:Sylviusf.jpg
[1642 CE]
1623-1662) invents a mechanical
calculating machine that can add and
subtract.
[1] A Pascaline, an early
calculator. (Machine à calculer de
Blaise Pascal sans sous ni deniers,
signed by Pascal 1652) English: This
item is on display at the Musée des
Arts et Métiers, Paris Inv 823-1 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Arts_et_Metiers_Pascaline_dsc03869.jp
g
[2] Scientist: Pascal, Blaise (1623
- 1662) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Physics Print Artist: T. Dale
Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.4 x 8.1 cm /
Sheet: 27.8 x 21.3 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Pascal
[1643 CE]
Earliest vacuum.
Evangelista Torricelli
(TORriceLlE) (CE 1608-1647), Italian
physicist is the first human to create
a sustained vacuum. Pursuing a
suggestion from Galileo, Torricelli
fills a glass tube 4 feet (1.2 m) long
(units) with mercury and inverts the
tube into a dish. Torricelli observes
that some of the mercury does not flow
out and that the space above the
mercury in the tube is a vacuum.
Torricelli
observes that the height of the mercury
in the tube changes from day to day and
correctly concludes that this is caused
by changes in atmospheric pressure (the
weight of the air on earth).
This device is
also the first barometer, a measure of
pressure exerted by air.
[1] Frontispiece to ''Lezioni
accademiche d'Evangelista
Torricelli....'', published in 1715.
Library Call Number Q155 .T69
1715. Image ID: libr0367, Treasures of
the NOAA Library Collection
Photographer: Archival Photograph by
Mr. Steve Nicklas, NOS, NGS Secondary
source: NOAA Central Library National
Oceanic & Atmospheric Adminstration
(NOAA), USA
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/library/lib
r0367.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Libr0367.jpg
[2] Frontispiece and title page to
''Lezioni accademiche d'Evangelista
Torricelli ....'', published in 1715.
Library Call Number Q155 .T69
1715. Image ID: libr0366, Treasures of
the NOAA Library Collection
Photographer: Archival Photograph by
Mr. Steve Nicklas, NOS, NGS Secondary
source: NOAA Central Library National
Oceanic & Atmospheric Adminstration
(NOAA),
USA http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/librar
y/libr0366.htm PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Libr0366.jpg
[1644 CE]
1611-1687), German astronomer, is the
first to see the phases of Mercury.
[1] Johannes Hevelius. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johannes_Helvelius.jpg
[2] llustration from ''Geschichte der
Astron. Messwerkzeuge, 1907, Autor J.A.
Repsold † 1919'' German subtitle says
(Peter) Crüger's large azimuthal
quadrant, completed by Hevel, according
to Hevel's Machina coelestis (taken
from German Wikipedia) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hevelius-Quadrant.jpg
[1645 CE]
theorizes that the force of gravity
follows an inverse-squared distance
law.
Ismaël Bullialdus (CE 1605-1694),
theorizes that the force of gravity
follows an inverse-square distance law
in his "Astronomia philolaica".
[1] Ismaël Bullialdus PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Boulliau.jpeg
[2] Ismaelis Bvllialdi Astronomia
Philolaica : title page Photo:
COPYRIGHTED Book: PD
source: http://diglib.hab.de/wdb.php?dir
=drucke/2-1-4-astron-2f-1&image=00005
[1647 CE]
1611-1687), German astronomer,
publishes "Selenographia" ("Pictures of
the Moon"), and atlas of the moon's
surface, using hand-engraved copper
plates for the illustrations. Hevelius
names parts of the moon after places on
earth, calling the dark flat areas
"seas" (maria in Latin).
[1] Subject : map of the moon
(Selenographia) Author : Johannes
Hevelius Date : 1647 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hevelius_Map_of_the_Moon_1647.jpg
[2] Johannes Hevelius. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johannes_Helvelius.jpg
[09/19/1648 CE]
1623-1662) proves that atmospheric
pressure changes at different
elevations. This implies that empty
space (a vacuum) exists above the
atmosphere.
[1] Scientist: Pascal, Blaise (1623 -
1662) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Physics Print Artist: T. Dale
Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.4 x 8.1 cm /
Sheet: 27.8 x 21.3 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Pascal
[2] Blaise Pascal source :
http://www.thocp.net/biographies/pascal_
blaise.html PD
source: %20Blaise
[1648 CE]
alchemist, Jan Baptista van Helmont's
(CE 1580-1644), "Ortus Medicinæ (1648;
"Origin of Medicine") is published
(posthumously) in which Helmont is the
first to label a substance as a "gas"
and to identify the gas "carbon
dioxide".
[1] Portrait of Helmont, mistakenly
thought to be Robert Hooke see
http://www.libraries.uc.edu/source/volfo
ur/oesper2.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:HOOKE_Robert.jpg
[2] Fig. 2. Etching of Joan Baptista
Van Helmont (1579-1644) and his son
Franciscus Mercurius Van Helmont
(1614-1699), from J.B. Van Helmont,
Ortus medicinae (Amsterdam: Elsevier,
1648) (Oesper Collection). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jan_Baptist_van_Helmont.jpg
[1648 CE]
1604-1670), German chemist, finds that
hydrochloric acid can be formed by
sulfuric acid and common salt (sodium
chloride) and finds that the residue
sodium sulfate (also know as "sal
mirabile" and "Glauber's salt") works
as a laxative (makes defecation
easier).
Glauber also records a method for
forming nitric acid, from potassium
nitrate and sulfuric acid in 1648.
Glauber
prepares compounds of many metals known
at this time, for example an antimony
salt.
Glauber builds the largest chemistry
lab of the time in his house, at one
point employing 5 or 6 people.
Glauber prepares
acetone and benzene.
(presumably)
[1] Glauber, engraving PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johann_Rudolf_Glauber.jpg
[2] Glauber, Furni novi philosophici :
sive Description artis destillatoriae
novae, 1651 PD
source: http://hdelboy.club.fr/chevreul_
hoefer_2.html
[05/19/1649 CE]
the replacement of the English monarchy
with first the Commonwealth of England
(1649-1653).
[1] Image from University of Texas
Libraries
http://utopia.utexas.edu/project/portrai
ts/cromwell.jpg in the public domain.
Original source for this picture:
Hundred Greatest Men, The. New York: D.
Appleton & Company, 1885. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Oliver_CromwellUT.jpg
[2] Description: Unfinished portrait
miniature of Oliver Cromwell by Samuel
Cooper. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cooper%2C_Oliver_Cromwell.jpg
[1650 CE]
(rETcOlE) (CE 1598-1671), is the first
to observe a double (binary) star
system (Mizar in Ursa Major).
Riccioli calculates the earth's
acceleration due to gravity at 30 feet
(9.144 meters) per second per second
(close to the current value of 9.80665
meters per second per second accepted
today). (place chronologically)
Riccioli measures the parallax of the
Sun (from two points on earth?), and
calculates the distance at 24 million
miles {units} (the actual average
distance of the Sun from Earth is 150
million km, 93 million miles).
[1650 CE]
1601-1680), German Scholar produces a
vacuum (by using Guericke's method) to
prove that sound cannot be produced in
the absence of air.
[1] Cornelius Bloemart (1603-1680) -
Athanasius Kircher (1602-1680),
pictured in his book Mundus
Subterraneus, 1664 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Athanasius_Kircher.jpg
[2] non-expressive scan of out of
copyright (1636) image from Athanasius
Kircher's Prodromus Coptus, p. 283.
from
http://kircher.stanford.edu/gallery/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kirchercopticalpha.jpg
[1650 CE]
1602-1686) constructs the first air
pump.
Otto von Guericke (GAriKu) (CE
1602-1686) German physicist, constructs
the first air pump and uses it to
produce a vacuum chamber in which he
examines the role of air in combustion
and respiration.
[1] Apparatus of Otto von Guerricke
with water receptacle at base
removed. PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=f2dMAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA239&dq=%22geissler+pu
mp%22#PPA238,M1
[2] Otto von Guericke PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Guericke.png
[1650 CE]
1623-1662) understands (Pascal's law)
that pressure applied to a confined
liquid is transmitted equally through
the liquid in all directions regardless
of the area to which the pressure is
applied. This is the basis of the
hydraulic press.
[1] Scientist: Pascal, Blaise (1623 -
1662) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Physics Print Artist: T. Dale
Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.4 x 8.1 cm /
Sheet: 27.8 x 21.3 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Pascal
[2] Blaise Pascal source :
http://www.thocp.net/biographies/pascal_
blaise.html PD
source: %20Blaise
[1650 CE]
1628-1694) is one of the first people
to use a microscope to study animal and
vegetable structure.
[1] Description Marcello
Malphigi Source L C Miall. The
History of Biology. Watts and Co. Date
1911 Author L C Miall PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:MarcelloMalphigiMiall.jpg
[2] from http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/
* 11:57, 27 August 2002 Magnus Manske
432x575 (78,604 bytes) (from
meta) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is (was)
here Date Commons upload by Magnus
Manske 10:03, 10 May 2006 (UTC) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Marcello_Malpighi_large.jpg
[1651 CE]
writings are published after his death
as "De Mundo Nostro Sublunari
Philosophia Nova" ("A New Philosophy of
Our Sublunar World").
Gilbert is the first to speculate on
what keeps the planets in their orbits
if the celestial spheres first invented
by Pythagoras do not exist, deciding
that magnetic attraction keeps the
planets in their orbits.
[1] Paiting of William Gilbert (1544 -
1603) Source
http://physics.ship.edu/~mrc/pfs/110/in
side_out/vu1/Galileo/Images/Port/gilbert
.gif Date Author Unknown, after
title page of De Magnete (1600) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Gilbert.jpg
[1651 CE]
publishes "Exercitationes de
Generatione Animalium" (1651,
"Anatomical Exercitations Concerning
the Generation of Animals") in which
Harvey correctly supports the theory
that the embryo builds gradually from
its parts, as opposed to existing
complete and preformed in the ovum.
[1] William Harvey Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/William+H
arvey?cat=health
[2] William Harvey Source
University of Texas Libraries, The
University of Texas at Austin PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Harvey.jpg
[1651 CE]
publishes "De generatione" (1651; "On
the Generation of Animals") which
describes the theory that an embryo
builds gradually from its parts,
instead of existing preformed in the
ovum.
[1] William Harvey Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/William+H
arvey?cat=health
[2] William Harvey Source
University of Texas Libraries, The
University of Texas at Austin PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Harvey.jpg
[1651 CE]
(rETcOlE) (CE 1598-1671), publishes
"Almagestum novum" ("The New Almagest")
in which he names the craters on the
moon after astronomers.
[1] Riccioli, Almagestum novum (1651).
Lunar map. PD
source: http://hsci.cas.ou.edu/images/jp
g-100dpi-5in/17thCentury/Riccioli/1651/R
iccioli-1651-Moon.jpg
[2] G.B. Riccioli, Almagestum Novum
(1651). The image portrays Urania, the
muse of astronomy, weighing up the
rival systems of Copernicus, in which
the earth moves round the sun, and
Riccioli himself, in which the earth
remains stationary at the center of the
universe. The older system of Ptolemy
has already been discarded and lies on
the ground alongside. PD
source: http://microcosmos.uchicago.edu/
ptolemy/almagestum_novum_detail.html
[1652 CE]
1630-1702) identifies lymphatic
vessels.
.jpg)
[1] Portrait of the Swedish physician
and polyhistor Olaus Rudbeck (also
known as Olof Rudbeck, Olaus
Rudbeckius) the Elder (1630-1702).
Rudbeck was an anatomist, and one of
the discoverers of the lymphic vessels
in 1651-52 (discovered independently by
the Dane Thomas Bartholin at about the
same time), and was long professor of
Medicine at Uppsala University. He also
founded the earliest botanical garden
in Uppsala (later named after Carolus
Linnaeus) and initiated a major
botanical work with detailed
copperplate engravings, some of which
were printed but many of which were
destroyed in the Uppsala fire in 1702
before publication. He is also known as
an engineer and architect, who, among
other things, designed the anatomical
theatre in the Gustavianum building in
Uppsala, and as a speculative
historical writer who tried to prove
that Sweden was in fact the lost
Atlantis. Source First version:
This photograph was first uploaded as
Bild:Olof Rudbeck dä målad av Martin
Mijtens dä 1696.jpg to the Swedish
Wikipedia on 8 October 2003, 21.50 by
sv:Användare:Den fjättrade ankan and
then had the size 340x360 (11 386
bytes). Second version: less
cropped, fetched from [1] Date
1696 Author Martin Mijtens the
Elder (1548-1736), Dutch-Swedish
painter. A detail of this painting in
black and white is used to illustrate
the article on Rudbeck in Svenskt
biografiskt lexikon, vol. 30, p. 643.
It is discussed in the article on
Mijtens in SBL 25, p. 501. PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Olaus_Rudbeck_Sr_%28portrait_by_
Martin_Mijtens_Sr%2C_1696%29.jpg
[2] The archaeologist Olof Rudbeck
(1630 - 1702) reveals his
„Predecessors'' Hesiod, Platon,
Aristoteles, Apollodor, Tacitus,
Odysseus, Ptolemäus, Plutarch and
Orpheus the „Truth'' about Atlantis.
From „Atland eller Manheim'', 1679-89.
PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Rudbeck_Atlantis.jpg
[1654 CE]
1623-1662) and Pierre de Fermat (FARmo)
(CE 1601-1665) through their
correspondence create the science of
probability.
[1] Scientist: Pascal, Blaise (1623 -
1662) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Physics Print Artist: T. Dale
Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.4 x 8.1 cm /
Sheet: 27.8 x 21.3 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Pascal
[2] Blaise Pascal source :
http://www.thocp.net/biographies/pascal_
blaise.html PD
source: %20Blaise
[03/25/1655 CE]
identifies the (first?) moon of
Jupiter, Titan.
Christiaan Huygens (HOEGeNZ)
(CE 1629-1695) identifies the (first?)
moon of Jupiter, Titan.
(presumably)
[1] This natural color composite was
taken during the Cassini spacecraft's
April 16, 2005, flyby of Titan. It is a
combination of images taken through
three filters that are sensitive to
red, green and violet light. It
shows approximately what Titan would
look like to the human eye: a hazy
orange globe surrounded by a tenuous,
bluish haze. The orange color is due to
the hydrocarbon particles which make up
Titan's atmospheric haze. This
obscuring haze was particularly
frustrating for planetary scientists
following the NASA Voyager mission
encounters in 1980-81. Fortunately,
Cassini is able to pierce Titan's veil
at infrared wavelengths (see
PIA06228). North on Titan is up and
tilted 30 degrees to the right. The
images to create this composite were
taken with the Cassini spacecraft wide
angle camera on April 16, 2005, at
distances ranging from approximately
173,000 to 168,200 kilometers (107,500
to 104,500 miles) from Titan and from a
Sun-Titan-spacecraft, or phase, angle
of 56 degrees. Resolution in the images
is approximately 10 kilometers per
pixel. The Cassini-Huygens mission
is a cooperative project of NASA, the
European Space Agency and the Italian
Space Agency. The Jet Propulsion
Laboratory, a division of the
California Institute of Technology in
Pasadena, manages the mission for
NASA's Science Mission Directorate,
Washington, D.C. The Cassini orbiter
and its two onboard cameras were
designed, developed and assembled at
JPL. The imaging team is based at the
Space Science Institute, Boulder,
Colo. For more information about the
Cassini-Huygens mission, visit
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov and the
Cassini imaging team home page,
http://ciclops.org. Source *
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog
/PIA06230 (cropped and rotated from the
original) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Titan_in_natural_color_Cassini.jpg
[2] Christiaan Huygens, the
astronomer. source:
http://ressources2.techno.free.fr/inform
atique/sites/inventions/inventions.html
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christiaan_Huygens-painting.jpeg
[1655 CE]
extends exponents to include negative
numbers and fractions (for example
x-2=1/x2, and x1/2=sqrt(x)).
England
[1] John Wallis, English mathematician
with important contributions to
analysis. Source:
en:Image:John_Wallis.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Wallis.jpg
[2] John Wallis, oil painting after a
portrait by Sir Godfrey Kneller; in the
National Portrait Gallery,
London Courtesy of the National
Portrait Gallery, London PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15126/John-Wallis-oil-painting-after-a-
portrait-by-Sir-Godfrey?articleTypeId=1
[1656 CE]
invents the first pendulum clock.
Christaan
Huygens (HOEGeNZ) (CE 1629-1695)
invents the first pendulum clock.
(presumably)
[1] Reconstruction of the pioneer
pendulum clock designed by the Dutch
scientist, Christiaan Huygens
(1629-1693), in 1656. Huygens
commissioned the clockmaker Salomon
Coster of the Hague to make the clock
and a patent was issued in Coster's
name in 1657. It was described and
illustrated by Huygen in his book,
'Horologium' in 1658. Although Galileo
had suggested the use of a pendulum to
count the time, Huygen's design, where
the dial and hands of a clock were
controlled by a pendulum, was the first
truly practical pendulum clock. Huygens
attached a pendulum to the gears of a
clock. The regular swing of the
pendulum allowed the clock to achieve
greater accuracy, as the hands are
turned by the falling weight, which
releases the same amount of energy with
each tick. Side view. Image
number: 10239953 Credit:
Science Museum/Science & Society
Picture Library Date taken: 12
January 2004 13:57 Image rights:
Science Museum
source: http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/
images/I010/10239953.aspx
[2] Buy the rights or a
print COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/
images/I022/10284689.aspx
[1657 CE]
creates the infinity symbol ∞.
[1] John Wallis, English mathematician
with important contributions to
analysis. Source:
en:Image:John_Wallis.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Wallis.jpg
[2] John Wallis, oil painting after a
portrait by Sir Godfrey Kneller; in the
National Portrait Gallery,
London Courtesy of the National
Portrait Gallery, London PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15126/John-Wallis-oil-painting-after-a-
portrait-by-Sir-Godfrey?articleTypeId=1
[1657 CE]
invents the spiral spring which he
calls the "circular pendulum".
[1] Hooke memorial window, St Helen's
Bishopsgate (now
destroyed) http://www.roberthooke.org.u
k/
on http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.mart
in/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm PD
source: http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.
martin/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm
.jpg)
[2] Frontispiece to Cyclopædia, 1728
edition View an enlarged 1000 x 811
pixel JPG image (271KB) the engraved
frontispiece to the 1728 edition of
Chambers' Cyclopedia shows as an
interesting detail a bust of Robert
Hooke.[3] [t there are busts of Newton
in the upper left, and a few on the
bottom
right] [Frontispiece] COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.she-philosopher.com/g
allery/cyclopaedia.html
[1658 CE]
1601-1680), proposes that disease is
caused by tiny living creatures.
Kircher also
proposes hygienic measures to prevent
the spread of disease.
[1] Cornelius Bloemart (1603-1680) -
Athanasius Kircher (1602-1680),
pictured in his book Mundus
Subterraneus, 1664 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Athanasius_Kircher.jpg
[1658 CE]
1637-1680) is the first to observe and
describe red blood cells.
(presumably)
[1659 CE]
1601-1665), French mathematician
independently of Descartes, Fermat
invents analytic geometry (which is
plotting points from a function on to a
graph).
Fermat uses three dimensional
coordinates (or triordinates) where
Descartes only uses two dimensional
coordinates.
Through correspondence, Fermat and
Blaise Pascal form the theory of
probability.
Fermat is famous for scribbling in the
margin of a book of Diofantos what is
called "Fermat's last theorem", that
the equation (xn + yn = zn for n>2) has
no solution for whole numbers, but that
there is no room for the simple proof
in the margin. This theorem will
remain unsolved until the late 1900s.
Fermat finds a summation process for
areas bounded by curves, that is
equivalent to the formula used in
modern integral calculus. (integration,
but not differentiation?)
[1] Fermat, portrait by Roland
Lefèvre; in the Narbonne City Museums,
France Courtesy of the Musees de la
Ville de Narbonne, France PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-10637/Fermat-portrait-by-Roland-Lefevre
-in-the-Narbonne-City-Museums?articleTyp
eId=1
[2] A portrait of Pierre de Fermat,
French lawyer and
mathematician. Source
http://www.mathe.tu-freiberg.de/~hebisc
h/cafe/fermat.html Date 17th century
A.D. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pierre_de_Fermat.jpg
[1659 CE]
1628-1694) Malpighi is first to note
the lymph glands (or lymph nodes),
which Rudbeck will include as part of
the lymphatic system.
[1] Description Marcello
Malphigi Source L C Miall. The
History of Biology. Watts and Co. Date
1911 Author L C Miall PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:MarcelloMalphigiMiall.jpg
[2] from http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/
* 11:57, 27 August 2002 Magnus Manske
432x575 (78,604 bytes) (from
meta) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is (was)
here Date Commons upload by Magnus
Manske 10:03, 10 May 2006 (UTC) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Marcello_Malpighi_large.jpg
[1659 CE]
is the first to note surface markings
on Mars.
(presumably)
[1] Sketch of Mars by Christiaan
Huygens This sketch, made in 1659, is
the first known recording of markings
on the surface of Mars. As is
traditional for sketches drawn based on
the view through a telescope, it is
inverted, with south at the top. PD
source: http://www.planetary.org/explore
/topics/timelines/timeline_to_1698.html
[2] Christiaan Huygens, the
astronomer. source:
http://ressources2.techno.free.fr/inform
atique/sites/inventions/inventions.html
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christiaan_Huygens-painting.jpeg
[11/28/1660 CE]
[1] The Fame of the Royal Society. From
Thomas Sprat's History of the Royal
Society In the Center is a bust of the
Society's Founder - Charles II Left is
William Brouncker- The first
President On the Right is Francis
Bacon the Inspiration of the Royal
Society PD
source: http://www.sirbacon.org/esquire.
html
[2] John Wallis, English mathematician
with important contributions to
analysis. Source:
en:Image:John_Wallis.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Wallis.jpg
[1660 CE]
1622-1703) and Giovanni Alfonso Borelli
measure a more accurate speed of sound
as 350 meters per second (current:
331.29 meters/s {1,086.91 feet/s 741
miles/hour} at 0°C).
[1] Vincenzo Viviani aus:
http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/hist
ory/PictDisplay/Viviani.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vincenzo_Viviani.jpeg
[2] Portrait of Giovanni Borelli from
this web site:
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timel
ine/people/borelli.html The portrait
is made in 17th century. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GBorelli.jpg
[1660 CE]
performs experiments sending
electricity through an evacuated
container and states that electrical
attraction is transmitted through empty
space (a vacuum).
(verify if electrical current can move
through empty space, Plucker stated
that it can't)
[1] Scientist: Boyle, Robert (1627 -
1691) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Physics Original Dimensions: Graphic:
13.1 x 8.2 cm / PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Boyle
[2] Scientist: Boyle, Robert (1627
- 1691) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Physics Print Artist: George Vertue,
1684-1756 Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: Johann Kerseboom,
d.1708 Original Dimensions: Graphic:
39.5 x 24.3 cm / PD
source: %20Robert
[1661 CE]
recognizes acids, bases and neutral
liquids using acid-base indicators.
Boyle defines
an element as any substance that cannot
be broken down farther into another
substance.
[1] The Skeptical Chymist title
page PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:000a.jpg
[2] Scientist: Boyle, Robert (1627 -
1691) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Physics Original Dimensions: Graphic:
13.1 x 8.2 cm / PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Boyle
[1661 CE]
1628-1694) observes the connection of
arteries and veins.
Marcello Malpighi
(moLPEJE), (CE 1628-1694) observes
microscopic blood vessels, eventually
named "capillaries", in the wings of
bats, that connect the smallest parts
of the arteries with the smallest parts
of the veins.
[1] Description Marcello
Malphigi Source L C Miall. The
History of Biology. Watts and Co. Date
1911 Author L C Miall PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:MarcelloMalphigiMiall.jpg
[2] from http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/
* 11:57, 27 August 2002 Magnus Manske
432x575 (78,604 bytes) (from
meta) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is (was)
here Date Commons upload by Magnus
Manske 10:03, 10 May 2006 (UTC) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Marcello_Malpighi_large.jpg
[1661 CE]
1638-1686) discovers the duct of the
parotid gland (the salivary gland
located near the angle of the jaw),
(still called the duct of Steno).
In addition, Steno demonstrates the
existence of the pineal gland in
animals other than humans.
demonstrates the
existence of the pineal gland in
animals other than humans. René
Descartes had considered the pineal
gland the location of the soul, wrongly
believing that both were found only in
humans.
views fossils {as does his contemporary
Hooke} as ancient animals that had
lived normal lives and in death were
petrified.
[1] Niels Steensen (da) - Nicholas
Steno (1638 - 1686) var en pioner både
indenfor anatomi og geologi. - Danish
Scientist image from/fra J. P. Trap:
berømte danske mænd og kvinder,
1868 The portrait originated around
the time Steno died in the German city
Schwerin. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Niels_stensen.jpg
[2] Nicolaus Steno STAnO [t
accurate?] PD
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/070/0
00097776/
[1662 CE]
explains that the pressure and volume
of a gas are inversely related (this is
called Boyle's Law).
Robert Boyle (CE
1627-1691) explains his and Robert
Hooke's experimental finding that the
pressure and volume of a gas are
inversely related (this is called
Boyle's Law).
Boyle finds this when using a
17 foot J-shaped tube to trap air using
mercury. Boyle recognizes that when he
adds twice the amount of mercury, he is
adding twice the pressure on the air
trapped in the end of the tube. When
Boyle does this the air volume is
reduced by a half, and in reverse, if
pressure is lowered by removing half of
the mercury, the volume of the air
expands by two times.
[1] Scientist: Boyle, Robert (1627 -
1691) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Physics Original Dimensions: Graphic:
13.1 x 8.2 cm / PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Boyle
[2] Scientist: Boyle, Robert (1627 -
1691) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Physics Print Artist: George Vertue,
1684-1756 Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: Johann Kerseboom,
d.1708 Original Dimensions: Graphic:
39.5 x 24.3 cm / PD
source: %20Robert
[1663 CE]
publishes the earliest design of a
reflecting telescope.
James Gregory (1638-1675)
publishes the earliest design of a
reflecting telescope in "Optica
Promota" (1663; "The Advance of
Optics").
[1] Portrait of the Astronomer James
Gregory. Description James
Gregory Source
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~his
tory/PictDisplay/Gregory.html Date
? Author ? Permission
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~his
tory/Miscellaneous/Copyright.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:James_Gregory.jpeg
[2] Gregorian reflecting telescope
(1663) Long before the technology
existed to make it, James Gregory
envisioned a telescope with a parabolic
primary mirror. The telescope''s
images would have been free of both
chromatic and spherical aberration. By
using a mirror, rather than a lens,
Gregory eliminated chromatic
aberration. The mirror's shape was
parabolic, not spherical, eliminating
spherical aberration. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://amazing-space.stsci.edu/r
esources/explorations/groundup/lesson/ba
sics/g10b/index.php
[1663 CE]
1602-1686) builds the first static
electricity generator.
Otto von Guericke (GAriKu)
(CE 1602-1686) builds the first static
electricity generator by rotating a
sulfur globe against a cloth.
[1] Otto Guericke electrical device.
Footage is claimed to be PD old.
Picture was obtained from
http://www.corrosion-doctors.org/Biograp
hies/GuerickeBio.htm PD
source: http://www.answers.com/topic/gue
ricke-electricaldevice-png
[2] Otto von Guericke PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Guericke.png
[07/??/1664 CE]
measures the frequency of sound (that
is the pitch, the number of beats per
second).
Hooke measures two hundred seventy two
vibrations in one second of time as
being the note "G" (although this is
now recognized as C#).
Possibly Marin Mersenne was the first
of record to record a frequency for any
sound by 1637, that of 84 cycles per
second.
[1] Hooke memorial window, St Helen's
Bishopsgate (now
destroyed) http://www.roberthooke.org.u
k/
on http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.mart
in/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm PD
source: http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.
martin/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm
[2] Frontispiece to Cyclopædia, 1728
edition View an enlarged 1000 x 811
pixel JPG image (271KB) the engraved
frontispiece to the 1728 edition of
Chambers' Cyclopedia shows as an
interesting detail a bust of Robert
Hooke.[3] [t there are busts of Newton
in the upper left, and a few on the
bottom
right] [Frontispiece] COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.she-philosopher.com/g
allery/cyclopaedia.html
[11/23/1664 CE]
publishes "Micrographia", which
contains beautiful drawings of
microscopic observations.
Hooke is first to use the word "cells"
to describe the tiny rectangular holes
he identifies in a thin sliver of cork
viewed under a microscope.
Hooke suggests a transverse wave theory
of light with a transparent homogenius
medium, comparing the spreading of
light vibrations to that of waves in
water. Hooke's wave theory in
"Micrographia" (1665), and Francesco
Grimaldi's wave theory in
"Physico-mathesis de lumine, coloribus,
et iride" (1665; "Physicomathematical
Studies of Light, Colors, and the
Rainbow") are curiously both released
to the public in the same year and are
the earliest recorded wave theories for
light that I am aware of.
[1] The title page of Hooke's famous
'Micrographia', published in 1665. PD
source: http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.
martin/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm
[2] Suber cells and mimosa leaves.
Robert Hooke, Micrographia,
1665.[3] Robert Hooke's drawings of
the cellular structure of cork and a
sprig of sensitive plant from
Micrographia (1665). Oxford Science
Library/Heritage-Images [2] PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:RobertHookeMicrographia1665.jpg
[1664 CE]
publishes "Cerebri Anatome, cui
accessit Nervorum descriptio et usus"
(1664; "Anatomy of the Brain, with a
Description of the Nerves and Their
Function"), the most complete and
accurate account of the nervous system
to this time.
Willis gives the first reliable
description of typhoid fever.
Willis is the
first to describe myasthenia gravis and
childbed fever, naming it "puerperal
fever" from Latin phrase for "child
bearing" (is?)
Willis recognizes (as earlier Greek
physicians may have known) the
(unusually high quantity of) sugar
content in urine among some people with
diabetes. (Perhaps this fact is
recognized from oral sex?)
[1] Scientist: Willis, Thomas (1621 -
1675) Discipline(s):
Medicine Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 15.8 x 9.6 cm / Sheet: 17.5 x
11 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=w
[2] Thomas Willis, engraving by G.
Vertue, 1742, after a portrait by D.
Loggan, c. 1666 Archiv fur Kunst und
Geschichte, Berlin PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-33103/Thomas-Willis-engraving-by-G-Vert
ue-1742-after-a-portrait?articleTypeId=1
[1665 CE]
(CE 1608-1679), proposes that comets
also move in elliptical orbits.
Borelli understands that a hollow
copper sphere is buoyant (in air) when
evacuated, but that it soon collapses
under air pressure. The Montgolfier
brothers will recognize in 150 years
that by putting in a lighter than air
gas, a sphere can be used as a balloon.
(place chronologically)
[1] Portrait of Giovanni Borelli from
this web site:
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timel
ine/people/borelli.html The portrait
is made in 17th century. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GBorelli.jpg
[2] Giovanni Alfonso Borelli. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Giovanni_Alfonso_Borelli.jpg
[1665 CE]
1618-1663) observes what he calls
"diffraction" of light through two
narrow openings. This double-slit
experiment will be an obstacle to the
correct interpretation of light as a
particle that obeys the law of gravity
for 300 and counting years. The more
accurate and surprisingly obvious
interpretation of photons reflecting
off the sides of the slit will not be
explored until modern times, however
humans should keep open minds and
explore as many theories as possible.
Grimaldi to create a wave theory of
light. Robert Hooke in England
publishes a wave theory for light in
this year too. These two wave theories
for light are the earliest recorded
wave theories for light I am aware of.
This debate over light being a particle
or wave phenomenon will continue for
the next 350 years into the present
time.
[1] Physico-mathesis de lvmine,
coloribvs, et iride, aliisqve adnexis;
libri dvo ... Avctore Francisco Maria
Grimaldo. Bononiae, Ex Typographia
Haeredis V. Benatij; impensis H.
Berniae, 1665, [London, Dawsons, 1966]
Latin Light through two holes between
diffracts in the transmission, we see a
large widening that shows its stretched
out direction. (my own translation, and
needs correction) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: Physico-mathesis de lvmine,
coloribvs, et iride, aliisqve adnexis;
libri dvo ... Avctore Francisco Maria
Grimaldo. Bononiae, Ex Typographia
Haeredis V. Benatij; impensis H.
Berniae, 1665, [London, Dawsons, 1966
Latin 9
[2] Francesco Maria Grimaldi (Bologna,
2 aprile 1618 - Bologna 28 dicembre
1663), astronomo e fisico italiano, in
un'incisione seicentesca. PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Franc
escomaria_Grimaldi.jpg
[1665 CE]
Cassini (Ko SEnE) (French:) Jean
Dominique Cassini (KoSE nE) (CE
1625-1712) measures the period of
rotation of Mars as 24 hours and 40
minutes.
[1] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni
Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Print Artist: N.
Dupuis Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.3 x 10.2 cm /
Sheet: 24.6 x 16.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c
[2] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni
Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 25.2 x 18.5 cm /
Sheet: 27.4 x 19.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c
[1665 CE]
performs the first blood transfusion.
[1] Richard Lower PD
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/lower.jpg
[2] Richard Lower. PD
source: http://clendening.kumc.edu/dc/pc
/lower.jpg
[12/22/1666 CE]
(Académie des sciences) is founded.
[1] A celebratory engraving of the
activities of the Académie des
Sciences from 1698. Source:
http://www.princeton.edu/~his291/Jpegs/A
cademie.JPG PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Acad%C3%A9mie_des_Sciences_1698.jpg
[2] Louis XIV visiting the Académie
in 1671 An engraving by Sebastien Le
Clerc from Mémoires pour servir a
l'Histoire Naturelle des Animause
(Paris, 1671), depicting King Louis XIV
visting the Académie des
Sciences. Source:
http://www.phys.uu.nl/~huygens/images/ac
ademie_royale_paris.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Acad%C3%A9mie_des_Sciences_1671.jpg
[1666 CE]
1624-1689) is first to differentiate
scarlet fever from measles and names
"Scarlet fever". (place
chronologically)
Sydenham is the first to use a
derivative of opium, laudanum (alcohol
tincture of opium) to relieve pain and
induce rest.
Sydenham uses iron in the
treatment of anemia. (place
chronologically)
Sydenham popularizes the use of
cinchona (quinine) to treat malaria.
(effective?)
[1] Scientist: Sydenham, Thomas (1624
- 1689) Discipline(s):
Medicine Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 7.2 x 6.5 cm / Sheet: 17.5 x
7.9 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Sydenh
am
[2] Sydenham, detail of an oil
painting by Mary Beale, 1688; in the
National Portrait Gallery,
London Courtesy of the National
Portrait Gallery, London PD
source: %20Thomas
[1666 CE]
1628-1694) publishes "De viscerum
structura execitatio anatomica" (1666)
which gives a detailed and fairly
accurate account of the structure of
the liver, spleen, and kidney.
[1] Description Marcello
Malphigi Source L C Miall. The
History of Biology. Watts and Co. Date
1911 Author L C Miall PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:MarcelloMalphigiMiall.jpg
[2] from http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/
* 11:57, 27 August 2002 Magnus Manske
432x575 (78,604 bytes) (from
meta) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is (was)
here Date Commons upload by Magnus
Manske 10:03, 10 May 2006 (UTC) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Marcello_Malpighi_large.jpg
[1666 CE]
1628-1694) publishes "De bombyce"
(1669), on the internal organs of the
silk-worm moth, which is the first
detailed account of the structure of an
invertebrate.
[1] Description Marcello
Malphigi Source L C Miall. The
History of Biology. Watts and Co. Date
1911 Author L C Miall PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:MarcelloMalphigiMiall.jpg
[2] from http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/
* 11:57, 27 August 2002 Magnus Manske
432x575 (78,604 bytes) (from
meta) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is (was)
here Date Commons upload by Magnus
Manske 10:03, 10 May 2006 (UTC) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Marcello_Malpighi_large.jpg
[1666 CE]
publishes his theory that a single
attractive force from the sun, which
varies in inverse proportion to the
square distance between the sun and
planet, is responsible for the planets'
elliptical orbits.
Hooke will inform Isaac
Newton to this theory in correspondence
in 1679. Hooke can not prove this
theory mathematically, and when Newton
does (by including a gravitational
constant and object mass), Newton will
fail to credit Hooke with the inverse
distance squared portion of the theory
of gravity.
[1] Hooke memorial window, St Helen's
Bishopsgate (now
destroyed) http://www.roberthooke.org.u
k/
on http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.mart
in/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm PD
source: http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.
martin/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm
[2] Frontispiece to Cyclopædia, 1728
edition View an enlarged 1000 x 811
pixel JPG image (271KB) the engraved
frontispiece to the 1728 edition of
Chambers' Cyclopedia shows as an
interesting detail a bust of Robert
Hooke.[3] [t there are busts of Newton
in the upper left, and a few on the
bottom
right] [Frontispiece] COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.she-philosopher.com/g
allery/cyclopaedia.html
[1666 CE]
understands that light is a mixture of
differently refractable colored rays.
Isaac
Newton (CE 1642-1727) understands that
"Light itself is a heterogeneous
mixture of differently refrangible
rays."
Newton shows that the colors from a
prism are part of the white light
itself by passing the rainbow or
"spectrum" through a second prism in
order to reverse the effect of the
first prism, and observes that white
light is produced again. Newton shows
that if only a single color is passed
through a second prism, that band of
color might be widened or shortened,
but always remains the same color.
Newton explains that the color of
bodies can be explained by their
varying reflection or absorption of
different colors contained in white
light. (verify that Newton actually
understands this)
[1] Description Isaac Newton Date
1689 Author Godfrey Kneller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg
[2] Sir Isaac Newton Description
National Portrait Gallery
London Source
http://www.nd.edu/~dharley/HistIdeas/Ne
wton.html (not actual); first uploaded
in German Wikipedia by Dr. Manuel Date
26. Jan. 2005 (orig. upload) Author
Godfrey Kneller (1702) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Isaac_Newton.jpeg
[06/15/1667 CE]
1640-1704), French physician, performs
the firsthuman blood transfusion.
[1] Jean-Baptiste Denis PD
source: http://vietsciences.free.fr/lich
su/lichsutruyenmau.htm
[2] Starr's book opens with an account
of this early transfusion, illustrated
in a 1692 German medical textbook. The
physician, Jean-Baptiste Denis,
believed the lamb's blood -- rich in
gentle ''humors'' -- would pacify the
madman Antoine Mauroy. PD
source: http://www.bu.edu/bridge/archive
/1998/09-18/features7.html
[1667 CE]
1638-1686) publishes a short essay "The
Dissection of the Head of a Shark" at
the end of his "Elements of Myology".
This essay marks the beginning of the
science of paleontology.
[1] Steno's shark teeth from
Elementorum myologiæ specimen, seu
musculi descriptio geometrica : cui
accedunt Canis Carchariæ dissectum
caput, et dissectus piscis ex Canum
genere Source
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/im
ages/stenoshark.jpg Date 1667 Author
Niels Stensen (Steno) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Stenoshark.jpg
[2] none PD
source: http://epswww.unm.edu/facstaff/z
sharp/106/lecture%202%20steno.htm
[1667 CE]
first to study a "convergent series", a
series with an infinite number of
members but has a finite sum.
[1] Portrait of the Astronomer James
Gregory. Description James
Gregory Source
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~his
tory/PictDisplay/Gregory.html Date
? Author ? Permission
http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~his
tory/Miscellaneous/Copyright.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:James_Gregory.jpeg
[2] Gregorian reflecting telescope
(1663) Long before the technology
existed to make it, James Gregory
envisioned a telescope with a parabolic
primary mirror. The telescope''s
images would have been free of both
chromatic and spherical aberration. By
using a mirror, rather than a lens,
Gregory eliminated chromatic
aberration. The mirror's shape was
parabolic, not spherical, eliminating
spherical aberration. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://amazing-space.stsci.edu/r
esources/explorations/groundup/lesson/ba
sics/g10b/index.php
[1668 CE]
Cassini (Ko SEnE) (French:) Jean
Dominique Cassini (KoSE nE) (CE
1625-1712) establishes Jupiter's period
of rotation as nine hours fifty-six
minutes.
Cassini issues a table of the motions
of Jupiter's moons, which will later
serve the Danish astronomer Ole Rømer
(Roemer) in his measuring the velocity
of light and proving that this velocity
is finite in 1675.
[1] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni
Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Print Artist: N.
Dupuis Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.3 x 10.2 cm /
Sheet: 24.6 x 16.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c
[2] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni
Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 25.2 x 18.5 cm /
Sheet: 27.4 x 19.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c
[1668 CE]
1626-1697) disproves "spontaneous
regeneration" of flies from meat.
[1] Scientist: Redi, Francesco (1626 -
1698) Discipline(s): Medicine Print
Artist: Lodovico Pelli, 1814-1876
Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11 x 11 cm /
Sheet: 19.2 x 14.3 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d
iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D
iscipline_1=Medicine
[2] Francesco Redi Esperienze intorno
alla generazione degl'insetti fatte da
Francesco Redi ... e da lvi scritte in
vna lettera all'illvstrissimo Signor
Carlo Dati.. Firenze, All'insegna
della Stella, 1668. 3 p. l., 228 p.
illus., plates (part fold.) 24
cm. Call no.: QL496.R35 1668 PD
source: http://www.library.umass.edu/spc
oll/exhibits/herbal/redi.htm
[1668 CE]
builds the first reflecting telescope
that can compete with a refracting
telescope, and the first with a second
mirror angeled at 45 degrees to send
the image to the side of the telescope.
[1] Presumably Newton's first
reflecting telescope COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.newton.cam.ac.uk/newt
on.html
[2] Description Isaac Newton Date
1689 Author Godfrey Kneller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg
[07/??/1669 CE]
invents calculus, a system of
calculating, using two main tools:
differentiation and integration.
Differentiation (differential calculus)
determines the rate of change of an
equation, and integration (integral
calculus) uses the summation of
infinitely many small pieces to
determine the length, area or volume of
an equation.
[1] Description Isaac Newton Date
1689 Author Godfrey Kneller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg
[2] Sir Isaac Newton Description
National Portrait Gallery
London Source
http://www.nd.edu/~dharley/HistIdeas/Ne
wton.html (not actual); first uploaded
in German Wikipedia by Dr. Manuel Date
26. Jan. 2005 (orig. upload) Author
Godfrey Kneller (1702) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Isaac_Newton.jpeg
[1669 CE]
1625-1698) is the first to record the
"double refraction" phenomenon of
calcite (Iceland feldspar).
Erasmus Bartholin
(BoRTUliN) (CE 1625-1698), Danish
physician, is the first to record the
"double refraction" phenomenon of
calcite (Iceland feldspar).
[1] 1693-1698 Bartholin, Rasmus (1625-
4/11 1698) Universitetsprofessor,
læge, matematiker, fysiker, Valgt
25/1 1693 som den ældste Senium in
Academia Læs om ham i Dansk
Biografisk Lexicon PD
source: http://kilder.rundetaarn.dk/biog
rafisketavler/bibliotekarer.htm
[2] 1625 Rasmus
Bartholin PD
source: http://www.roskildehistorie.dk/1
600/billeder/personer/Bartholin/Bartholi
n.htm
[1669 CE]
identifies phosphorus which is the
first known element.
[1] The Alchemist in Search of the
Philosophers Stone (1771) by Joseph
Wright depicting Hennig Brand
discovering phosphorus (the glow shown
is exaggerated) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Henning_brand.jpg
[2] A retort. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:My_retort.jpg
[1669 CE]
1637-1680) publishes "Historia
Insectorum Generalis" ("A General
History of Insects").
(presumably)
[1] Jan Swammerdam Historia insectorum
generalis, ofte, Algemeene verhandeling
van de bloedeloose dierkens : waar in,
de waaragtige gronden van haare
langsaame aangroeingen in leedemaaten,
klaarelijk werden voorgestelt :
kragtiglijk, van de gemeene dwaaling
der vervorming, anders metamorphosis
genoemt, gesuyvert : ende beknoptelijk,
in vier onderscheide orderen van
veranderingen, ofte natuurelijke
uytbottingen in leeden,
begreepen t'Utrrecht : By Meinardus
van Dreunen ..., 1669. [28], 168, 48
p., XIII, [1] leaves of plates (some
folded) : ill. (engravings) ; 21 cm.
(4to) Call no.: QL463.S8 1669 PD
source: http://www.library.umass.edu/spc
oll/exhibits/herbal/29.jpg
[2] The SCUA copy of Historia
insectorum generalis includes a scarce
additional plate depicting a mosquito
as seen under magnification. title
page metamorphosis of insects ''The
manner in which worms and caterpillars
change into pupae.'' scorpion
Scorpion mosquito Additional plate
depicting a mosquito PD
source: http://www.library.umass.edu/spc
oll/exhibits/herbal/28.jpg
[1669 CE]
1638-1686) published his geological
observations in "De solido intra
solidum naturaliter contento
dissertationis prodromus" ("The
Prodromus of Nicolaus Steno's
Dissertation Concerning a Solid Body
Enclosed by Process of Nature Within a
Solid").
[1] none PD
source: http://epswww.unm.edu/facstaff/z
sharp/106/lecture%202%20steno.htm
[2] Niels Steensen (da) - Nicholas
Steno (1638 - 1686) var en pioner både
indenfor anatomi og geologi. - Danish
Scientist image from/fra J. P. Trap:
berømte danske mænd og kvinder,
1868 The portrait originated around
the time Steno died in the German city
Schwerin. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Niels_stensen.jpg
[1671 CE]
the first to describe myasthenia gravis
in 1671, a chronic muscular fatigue
marked by progressive paralysis, and
puerperal (childbed) fever, which he
names.
[1] Scientist: Willis, Thomas (1621 -
1675) Discipline(s):
Medicine Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 15.8 x 9.6 cm / Sheet: 17.5 x
11 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=w
[2] Thomas Willis, engraving by G.
Vertue, 1742, after a portrait by D.
Loggan, c. 1666 Archiv fur Kunst und
Geschichte, Berlin PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-33103/Thomas-Willis-engraving-by-G-Vert
ue-1742-after-a-portrait?articleTypeId=1
[1671 CE]
1625-1712) identifies the moon of
Saturn, Iapetus (IoPeTuS).
(Italian:) Giovanni
Domenico Cassini (Ko SEnE) (French:)
Jean Dominique Cassini (KoSE nE) (CE
1625-1712) identifies the first known
moon of Saturn, Iapetus.
[1] Approximately natural color mosaic
of Iapetus taken on December 31, 2004
at a distance of about 173 000 km and
phase angle of 52 degrees. The mosaic
consists of two footprints which were
the only ones where multispectral
coverage exists at this point in the
flyby. The missing portions for
full-disk coverage were filled in with
three clear filter frames which were
colorized. The view is dominated by
the dark Cassini Regio. Brighter
terrain is visible high on Iapetus'
northern latitudes. Hints of much
brighter terrain can also be seen at
the limb at approx. 7 o'clock position
where slight camera saturation
occured. Two huge and ancient impact
basins are visible as well as a
mysterious mountain range running
precisely along the equator. North pole
is approximately at 1 o'clock position
and is in darkness here. Credit: NASA
/ JPL / SSI / Gordan Ugarkovic [t
looks very like a terrestrial with
meteor impacts, might this have been
orbiting the Sun? or absorbs impacts
around Saturn? If around the Sun and
then fell back to Saturn that might be
important. It's a classic question of
moon form around planets or only around
stars.] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Iapetus_mosaic_color.jpg
[2] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni
Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Print Artist: N.
Dupuis Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.3 x 10.2 cm /
Sheet: 24.6 x 16.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c
[1671 CE]
(LIPniTS) (CE 1646-1716), constructs a
calculating machine that can add,
subtract, multiply and divide.
[1] Description Deutsch: Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz (Gemälde von Bernhard
Christoph Francke, Braunschweig,
Herzog-Anton-Ulrich-Museum, um
1700) Source
http://www.hfac.uh.edu/gbrown/philosoph
ers/leibniz/BritannicaPages/Leibniz/Leib
nizGif.html Date ca. 1700 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gottfried_Wilhelm_von_Leibniz.jpg
[2] Source:
http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedi
a/L/Leibniz.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leibniz_231.jpg
[1671 CE]
describes the reaction between iron
filings and dilute acids that results
in the release of gaseous hydrogen
(which Boyle describes as an)
("inflammable solution of Mars"
{iron}).
[1] Scientist: Boyle, Robert (1627 -
1691) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Physics Original Dimensions: Graphic:
13.1 x 8.2 cm / PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Boyle
[2] Scientist: Boyle, Robert (1627 -
1691) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Physics Print Artist: George Vertue,
1684-1756 Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: Johann Kerseboom,
d.1708 Original Dimensions: Graphic:
39.5 x 24.3 cm / PD
source: %20Robert
[02/19/1672 CE]
revives the view that light is a
particle.
Isaac Newton (CE 1642-1727) theorizes
that rays of light might be particles
(globular) like tennis balls.
Newton explains
that white light is a mixture of
differently refractable (refrangible)
primary colors.
Newton explains that white
light is a mixture of differently
refractable (refrangible) primary
colors, and that the colors produced
from a prism cannot be changed into
other colors.
Newton states that color
is a property of light, and not a
property of objects light is reflected
off.
All these finds are described by Newton
in a letter to the Royal Society
Secretary (February 6, 1672) which is
published in the Society's
"Philosophical Transactions" with the
title "New Theory about Light and
Colors" (February 19th).
In 55 BCE, Lucretius, wrote in his "De
Natura Rerum ("On the Nature of
Things"):
"The light and heat of the sun; these
are composed of minute atoms". Which is
the oldest known clear description of
light as being particle in nature.
However, to my knowledge, there is no
other record of a particle theory of
light after Lucretius and before
Newton, which implies that Newton was
the first to revive the light as a
particle idea, and certainly that he
was smart enough to support the light
as a particle theory when most others
did not.
This divides scientists into two
groups, those who support the
corpuscular interpretation of light
(light as a particle), and those who
view light as being like sound, a wave
where particles of a medium, thought to
be ether, move a signal (cause the
effects of light). These two sides
actually continue to this day, however
currently a large group of people
accept a compromise that light is both
a particle and a wave.
[1] Description Isaac Newton Date
1689 Author Godfrey Kneller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg
[2] Sir Isaac Newton Description
National Portrait Gallery
London Source
http://www.nd.edu/~dharley/HistIdeas/Ne
wton.html (not actual); first uploaded
in German Wikipedia by Dr. Manuel Date
26. Jan. 2005 (orig. upload) Author
Godfrey Kneller (1702) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Isaac_Newton.jpeg
[1672 CE]
English physician publishes the
earliest English work on so-called
mental disease, "De Anima Brutorum"
("Discourses Concerning the Souls of
Brutes"), which reveals a violent
brutal side to Willis and the people of
this time. As the title implies people
labeled with mental disorders are
viewed as "brutes". In this book
describes so-called "insane" people as
having super human strength, and
advocates violence as a useful
treatment, writing: "Discipline,
threats, fetters, blows are needed as
much as medical treatment...".
[1] Willis, Thomas, 1621-1675 De anima
brutorum quae hominis vitalis ac
sentitiva est : exercitationes duae /
studio Thomae Willis M.D.
Publisher Londini : Typis E.F.
impensis Ric. Davis, Oxon, 1672. PD
source: http://www.library.usyd.edu.au/l
ibraries/rare/medicine/WillisAnima1672.j
pg
[2] Thomas Willis British Anatomist
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Thomas_Willis.jpg
[1672 CE]
1625-1712) identifies a moon of Saturn,
Rhea (rEo).
(Italian:) Giovanni Domenico
Cassini (Ko SEnE) (French:) Jean
Dominique Cassini (KoSE nE) (CE
1625-1712) identifies a moon of Saturn,
Rhea.
[1] 2005-12-06 Rhea
mission:Cassini Imaging Science
Subsystem - Narrow
Angle 4500x4500x1 Rhea: Full Moon
PIA07763: Full Resolution: TIFF
(20.29 MB) JPEG (2.354 MB) PD
source: http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov
/target/Rhea?start=50
[2] Ancient Craters on Saturn's
Rhea Credit: Cassini Imaging Team,
SSI, JPL, ESA, NASA Explanation:
Saturn's ragged moon Rhea has one of
the oldest surfaces known. Estimated as
changing little in the past billion
years, Rhea shows craters so old they
no longer appear round - their edges
have become compromised by more recent
cratering. Like Earth's Moon, Rhea's
rotation is locked on Saturn, and the
above image shows part of Rhea's
surface that always faces Saturn.
Rhea's leading surface is more highly
cratered than its trailing surface.
Rhea is composed mostly of water-ice
but is thought to have a small rocky
core. The above image was taken by the
robot Cassini spacecraft now orbiting
Saturn. Cassini swooped past Rhea two
months ago and captured the above image
from about 100,000 kilometers away.
Rhea spans 1,500 kilometers making it
Saturn's second largest moon after
Titan. Several surface features on Rhea
remain unexplained including large
light patches. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap0605
30.html
[1672 CE]
calculated to be 86 million miles from
Earth.
America
[1] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni
Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Print Artist: N.
Dupuis Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.3 x 10.2 cm /
Sheet: 24.6 x 16.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c
[2] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni
Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 25.2 x 18.5 cm /
Sheet: 27.4 x 19.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c
[1672 CE]
1628-1694) sends the Royal Society "De
formatione pulli in ovo" (1672).
[1] Description Marcello
Malphigi Source L C Miall. The
History of Biology. Watts and Co. Date
1911 Author L C Miall PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:MarcelloMalphigiMiall.jpg
[2] from http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/
* 11:57, 27 August 2002 Magnus Manske
432x575 (78,604 bytes) (from
meta) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is (was)
here Date Commons upload by Magnus
Manske 10:03, 10 May 2006 (UTC) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Marcello_Malpighi_large.jpg
[1673 CE]
publishes "Horologium oscillatorium".
[1] Huygens, Horologium oscillatorium,
1673. PD
source: http://kinematic.library.cornell
.edu:8190/kmoddl/toc_huygens1.html
[2]
http://www.kanazawa-it.ac.jp/dawn/167301
.html Huygens, Christiaan.
(1629-1695). Horologium
Oscillatorium,,,. Parisiis, 1673,
First edition. PD
source: http://www.kanazawa-it.ac.jp/daw
n/photo/167301.jpg
[1673 CE]
is the first to describe the follicles
of the ovary, but does not understand
that the follicle contains the oocyte
or ovum cell.
[1] Regnier de Graaf, Dutch
anatomist. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Regnier_de_graaf.jpeg
[2] Regnier de Graaf the Graafian
follicles and female ejaculation, PD
source: http://www2.hu-berlin.de/sexolog
y/GESUND/ARCHIV/GIF/XA_GRAAF.JPG
[09/07/1674 CE]
1632-1723) is the first to observe
protists (single-cell organisms with
one or more nucleus).
Antoni van Leeuwenhoek
(lAVeNHvK) (CE 1632-1723) is the first
to observe protists (single-cell
organisms with one or more nucleus).
[1] Description w:Antoni van
Leeuwenhoek Source Project Gutenberg
ebook of Den Waaragtigen Omloop des
Bloeds http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1
8929 http://www.gutenberg.org/files/189
29/18929-h/18929-h.htm Date
1686 Author J. Verkolje PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Antoni_van_Leeuwenhoek.png
[2] Leeuwenhoek Antonie van
Leeuwenhoek, detail of a portrait by
Jan Verkolje; in the Rijksmuseum,
Amsterdam.[2] COPYRIGHTED photo but
PD painting
source: http://www.abdn.ac.uk/mediarelea
ses/release.php?id=197
[1674 CE]
the concept of "species" in terms of
structural qualities.
[1] John Ray From Shuster & Shipley,
facing p. 232. In turn from an original
portrait, by a painter not identified,
in (1917) the British Museum. PD
source: http://www.marcdatabase.com/~lem
ur/lemur.com/gallery-of-antiquarian-tech
nology/worthies/
[1674 CE]
identifies "spiritus nitroaereus"
(oxygen) as a distinct atmospheric
entity, about 100 years before Joseph
Priestley and Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier
will identify it.
[1] John Mayow PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Mayow.jpg
[2] John Mayow, 1641-1679. Tractatus
quinque medico-physici. [Five
medico-physical tracts] Oxford: E
Theatro Sheldoniano, 1674. Gift of
John F. Fulton. PD
source: http://www.med.yale.edu/library/
historical/founders/images/tractatus.jpg
[1674 CE]
notices that colors are produced by
light reflected from small scratches
made in metal. This will lead to the
diffraction gratings.
[1675 CE]
1625-1712) identifies the space between
the ring of Jupiter, called "Cassini's
division".
Giovanni Cassini (Ko SEnE) (CE
1625-1712) identifies the "Cassini
division", the dark gap between the
rings A and B of Saturn.
[1] What's That Speck? Cassini's climb
to progressively higher elevations
reveals the ''negative'' side of
Saturn's rings. As the Sun shines
through the rings, they take on the
appearance of a photonegative: the
dense B ring (at the center) blocks
much of the incoming light, while the
less dense regions scatter and transmit
light. Close inspection reveals not
one, but two moons in this scene. Mimas
(397 kilometers, or 247 miles across)
is easily visible near the upper right,
but the shepherd moon Prometheus (102
kilometers, or 63 miles across) can
also be seen. Prometheus is a dark spot
against the far side of the thin,
bright F ring. Most of Prometheus'
sunlit side is turned away from Cassini
in this view. The image was taken in
visible light with the Cassini
spacecraft wide-angle camera on April
15, 2005, at a distance of
approximately 570,000 kilometers
(350,000 miles) from Saturn. The image
scale is 30 kilometers (19 miles) per
pixel. The Cassini-Huygens mission
is a cooperative project of NASA, the
European Space Agency and the Italian
Space Agency. The Jet Propulsion
Laboratory, a division of the
California Institute of Technology in
Pasadena, manages the mission for
NASA's Science Mission Directorate,
Washington, D.C. The Cassini orbiter
and its two onboard cameras were
designed, developed and assembled at
JPL. The imaging team is based at the
Space Science Institute, Boulder,
Colo. For more information about the
Cassini-Huygens mission visit
http://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov . For
additional images visit the Cassini
imaging team homepage
http://ciclops.org . Image Credit:
NASA/JPL/Space Science Institute PD
source: http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/mult
imedia/display.cfm?IM_ID=3943
[2] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni
Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Print Artist: N.
Dupuis Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.3 x 10.2 cm /
Sheet: 24.6 x 16.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c
[1675 CE]
describes "Newton's rings", concentric
colored rings in the thin film of air
between a lens and a flat sheet of
glass, the distance between these
concentric rings (Newton's rings)
depends on the increasing thickness of
the film of air between the lens and
glass.
[1] Description Isaac Newton Date
1689 Author Godfrey Kneller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg
[2] Sir Isaac Newton Description
National Portrait Gallery
London Source
http://www.nd.edu/~dharley/HistIdeas/Ne
wton.html (not actual); first uploaded
in German Wikipedia by Dr. Manuel Date
26. Jan. 2005 (orig. upload) Author
Godfrey Kneller (1702) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Isaac_Newton.jpeg
[1675 CE]
is founded.
[1] John Flamsteed. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Flamsteed.jpg
[2] Bust of John Flamsteed in the
Museum of the Royal Greenwich
Observatory, London PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Flamsteed_Royal_Greenwich_Observ
atory_Museum.jpg
[10/09/1676 CE]
1632-1723) is the first to observe
bacteria.
Antoni van Leeuwenhoek (lAVeNHvK) (CE
1632-1723) is the first to observe
bacteria (prokaryotes, single-cell
organisms without a nucleus).
[1] Description w:Antoni van
Leeuwenhoek Source Project Gutenberg
ebook of Den Waaragtigen Omloop des
Bloeds http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1
8929 http://www.gutenberg.org/files/189
29/18929-h/18929-h.htm Date
1686 Author J. Verkolje PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Antoni_van_Leeuwenhoek.png
[2] Leeuwenhoek Antonie van
Leeuwenhoek, detail of a portrait by
Jan Verkolje; in the Rijksmuseum,
Amsterdam.[2] COPYRIGHTED photo but
PD painting
source: http://www.abdn.ac.uk/mediarelea
ses/release.php?id=197
[1676 CE]
1620-1684) independently of Boyle
identifies that the volume of a gas
varies inversely with its pressure, and
goes further than Boyle by saying that
this is true only if there is no change
in temperature.
[1] Edme Mariotte PD?
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/112/0
00095824/
[1676 CE]
1624-1689) writes "Observationes
Medicae" (1676), a standard textbook
for two centuries.
[1] Scientist: Sydenham, Thomas (1624
- 1689) Discipline(s):
Medicine Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 7.2 x 6.5 cm / Sheet: 17.5 x
7.9 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Sydenh
am
[2] Sydenham, detail of an oil
painting by Mary Beale, 1688; in the
National Portrait Gallery,
London Courtesy of the National
Portrait Gallery, London PD
source: %20Thomas
[1676 CE]
publishes "Ornithologia" (1676) which
contains 230 species of birds.
[1] John Ray From Shuster & Shipley,
facing p. 232. In turn from an original
portrait, by a painter not identified,
in (1917) the British Museum. PD
source: http://www.marcdatabase.com/~lem
ur/lemur.com/gallery-of-antiquarian-tech
nology/worthies/
[1676 CE]
publishes "Historia piscium" (1686)
which classifies species of fishes.
[1] John Ray From Shuster & Shipley,
facing p. 232. In turn from an original
portrait, by a painter not identified,
in (1917) the British Museum. PD
source: http://www.marcdatabase.com/~lem
ur/lemur.com/gallery-of-antiquarian-tech
nology/worthies/
[1676 CE]
distinguishes between monocotyledons
and dicotyledons, plants whose seeds
germinate with one leaf and those with
two.
[1] John Ray From Shuster & Shipley,
facing p. 232. In turn from an original
portrait, by a painter not identified,
in (1917) the British Museum. PD
source: http://www.marcdatabase.com/~lem
ur/lemur.com/gallery-of-antiquarian-tech
nology/worthies/
[1676 CE]
Ole (or
Olaus) Rømer (ROEmR) (CE 1644-1710)
explains that the speed of light is
finite, and calculates the speed of
light as (in modern units) 225,000 km
(140,000 miles) per second (too small
according to the modern estimate:
299,792 km, or 186,282 miles per
second).
[1] Ole Rømer PD
source: http://www.rundetaarn.dk/dansk/o
bservatorium/grafik/roemer1.jpg
[2] Ole Rømer PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ole_roemer.jpg
[1677 CE]
(CE 1632-1723) is the first to describe
spermatozoa.
[1] Spermatozoa (Dutch =
''zaaddiertjes'') after an image
published in Phil.Trans. XII,nov. 1678)
: 1-4 Human, 5-8 Dog. PD
source: http://www.euronet.nl/users/warn
ar/leeuwenhoek.html
[2] Description w:Antoni van
Leeuwenhoek Source Project Gutenberg
ebook of Den Waaragtigen Omloop des
Bloeds http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1
8929 http://www.gutenberg.org/files/189
29/18929-h/18929-h.htm Date
1686 Author J. Verkolje PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Antoni_van_Leeuwenhoek.png
[1678 CE]
1629-1695) presents his "Traité de la
lumière" ("Treatise on Light") which
puts forward a theory of light as a
longitudinal wave like sound.
Huygens is the first to describe
polarization of light.
[1] Christiaan Huygens, the
astronomer. source:
http://ressources2.techno.free.fr/inform
atique/sites/inventions/inventions.html
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christiaan_Huygens-painting.jpeg
[2] Christiaan Huygens Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Christiaa
n+Huygens?cat=technology
[1678 CE]
describes "Hooke's Law", that the force
that restores a spring (or any elastic
system) to its equilibrium position is
proportional to the distance by which
it is displaced from that equilibrium
position.
[1] Hooke memorial window, St Helen's
Bishopsgate (now
destroyed) http://www.roberthooke.org.u
k/
on http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.mart
in/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm PD
source: http://freespace.virgin.net/ric.
martin/vectis/hookeweb/roberthooke.htm
[2] Frontispiece to Cyclopædia, 1728
edition View an enlarged 1000 x 811
pixel JPG image (271KB) the engraved
frontispiece to the 1728 edition of
Chambers' Cyclopedia shows as an
interesting detail a bust of Robert
Hooke.[3] [t there are busts of Newton
in the upper left, and a few on the
bottom
right] [Frontispiece] COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.she-philosopher.com/g
allery/cyclopaedia.html
[1678 CE]
publishes the first catalog of
telescopically located stars seen only
from the southern hemisphere.
[1] Portrait of Edmond Halley painted
around 1687 by Thomas Murray (Royal
Society, London) uploaded from
http://www.phys.uu.nl/~vgent/astrology/n
ewton.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edmund_Halley.gif
[2] Portrait of Edmond Halley PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edmond_Halley_5.jpg
[1678 CE]
engine design.
[1678 CE]
different metals.
(presumably)
[1] One of Galvani’s decisive
experiments was to show that movement
could be induced by stroking an iron
plate against a brass hook inserted
into the frog’s spinal column, which
generated a small electric current. In
one version of Swammerdam’s nerve
muscle experiment, the nerve was
suspended in a brass hook, which was
then stroked with a silver
wire: PD/Corel
source: http://www.janswammerdam.net/Ima
ges/Fig4.jpg
[05/27/1679 CE]
passed by the Parliament of England (31
Cha. 2 c. 2) during the reign of King
Charles II to define and strengthen the
ancient writ of habeas corpus, whereby
persons unlawfully detained can be
ordered to be prosecuted before a court
of law.
[1679 CE]
1628-1694) publishes "Anatome
plantarum" (part 1: 1675, part 2:
1679).
England)
[1] Anatome plantarum y De ovo incubato
PD
source: http://www.unav.es/biblioteca/im
agenes/hufa-anatome-plantarum.jpg
[2] Malpighi, Anatomia plantarum,
1675, fol. PD
source: http://gbamici.sns.it/img/ednaz/
malpighi.jpg
[1679 CE]
1647-1712) builds the first pressure
cooker which reawakens work with
steam.
Papin also suggests the first cylinder
and piston steam engine.
[1] subject: Denis Papin, unknown
artist, 1689. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Denis_Papin.jpg
[2]
http://www.chemistryexplained.com/Bo-Ce/
Boyle-Robert.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Boyle-Papin-Digester.jpg
[1680 CE]
(CE 1608-1679), correctly explains
muscular action and the movements of
bones in terms of levers.
[1] Portrait of Giovanni Borelli from
this web site:
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/optics/timel
ine/people/borelli.html The portrait
is made in 17th century. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GBorelli.jpg
[2] Giovanni Alfonso Borelli. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Giovanni_Alfonso_Borelli.jpg
[1680 CE]
prepares phosphorus from urine (second
to Brand who ten years before had been
first to find a new element) (how did
they know it was an element?).
[1] Scientist: Boyle, Robert (1627 -
1691) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Physics Original Dimensions: Graphic:
13.1 x 8.2 cm / PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/cf/by_n
ame_display_results.cfm?scientist=Boyle
[2] Scientist: Boyle, Robert (1627 -
1691) Discipline(s): Chemistry ;
Physics Print Artist: George Vertue,
1684-1756 Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: Johann Kerseboom,
d.1708 Original Dimensions: Graphic:
39.5 x 24.3 cm / PD
source: %20Robert
[1680 CE]
(combustion) vacuum engine.
[1] Christiaan Huygens, the
astronomer. source:
http://ressources2.techno.free.fr/inform
atique/sites/inventions/inventions.html
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christiaan_Huygens-painting.jpeg
[2] Christiaan Huygens Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Christiaa
n+Huygens?cat=technology
[03/03/1682 CE]
(CE 1632-1723) describes the first cell
nucleus.
[1] Description w:Antoni van
Leeuwenhoek Source Project Gutenberg
ebook of Den Waaragtigen Omloop des
Bloeds http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1
8929 http://www.gutenberg.org/files/189
29/18929-h/18929-h.htm Date
1686 Author J. Verkolje PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Antoni_van_Leeuwenhoek.png
[2] Leeuwenhoek Antonie van
Leeuwenhoek, detail of a portrait by
Jan Verkolje; in the Rijksmuseum,
Amsterdam.[2] COPYRIGHTED photo but
PD painting
source: http://www.abdn.ac.uk/mediarelea
ses/release.php?id=197
[1682 CE]
identifies the sex organs of plants,
the pistils (female) and stamens (male)
with a microscope.
Grew also understands how grains of
pollen produced by the stamens are the
equivalent to sperm cells in the animal
world.
[1] Title Page of ''The Anatomy of
Plants'' PD
source: http://www.wsulibs.wsu.edu/holla
nd/masc/masctour/earlyprinting/images/50
.jpg
[2] Vine-Root Cut Transversely PD
source: http://www.wsulibs.wsu.edu/holla
nd/masc/masctour/earlyprinting/images/51
.jpg
[09/12/1683 CE]
(CE 1632-1723) draws the first picture
of bacteria.
[1] Fig. 7. Bacteria from a human
mouth, letter of 17 September 1683. A
is a motile Bacillus, B is Selenomonas
sputigena, with CÂ…D its path, E is
Micrococci, F is Leptothrix buccalis,
and G is a spirochaete, probably
Spirochaeta buccalis (Dobell 1932:Plate
24 or Leeuwenhoek 1939-1999, IV:Plate
8). COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://esapubs.org/bulletin/back
issues/087-1/bulletin_jan2006.htm
[2] Description w:Antoni van
Leeuwenhoek Source Project Gutenberg
ebook of Den Waaragtigen Omloop des
Bloeds http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1
8929 http://www.gutenberg.org/files/189
29/18929-h/18929-h.htm Date
1686 Author J. Verkolje PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Antoni_van_Leeuwenhoek.png
[1683 CE]
Cassini (Ko SEnE) (French:) Jean
Dominique Cassini (KoSE nE) (CE
1625-1712) is the first to study
"zodiacal light", a faint illumination
of the night sky stretching from the
sun along the line of the ecliptic (the
orbit of the planets), which Swiss
mathematician Nicolas Fatio de Duillier
(CE 1664-1753) will correctly explain
as dust particles in interplanetary
space.
[1] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni
Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Print Artist: N.
Dupuis Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.3 x 10.2 cm /
Sheet: 24.6 x 16.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c
[2] Scientist: Cassini, Giovanni
Domenico (1625 - 1712) Discipline(s):
Astronomy ; Geodesy Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 25.2 x 18.5 cm /
Sheet: 27.4 x 19.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c
[10/??/1684 CE]
(LIPniTS) (CE 1646-1716) publishes a
system of differential and integral
calculus. This form of calculus is the
one used today (as opposed to Newton's
"fluxions") (uses integral symbol?).
in) Hannover, Germany
[1] Description Deutsch: Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz (Gemälde von Bernhard
Christoph Francke, Braunschweig,
Herzog-Anton-Ulrich-Museum, um
1700) Source
http://www.hfac.uh.edu/gbrown/philosoph
ers/leibniz/BritannicaPages/Leibniz/Leib
nizGif.html Date ca. 1700 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gottfried_Wilhelm_von_Leibniz.jpg
[2] Source:
http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedi
a/L/Leibniz.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leibniz_231.jpg
[1684 CE]
1625-1712) identifies the moons Dione
(DIOnE) (Greek
Διώνη) and
Tethys (TEtuS) (Greek
Τηθύς) of
Saturn.
[1] Bright Cliffs Across Saturn's Moon
Dione Credit: Cassini Imaging Team,
SSI, JPL, ESA, NASA Explanation:
What causes the bright streaks on
Dione? Recent images of this unusual
moon by the robot Cassini spacecraft
now orbiting Saturn are helping to
crack the mystery. Close inspection of
Dione's trailing hemisphere, pictured
above, indicates that the white wisps
are composed of deep ice cliffs
dropping hundreds of meters. The cliffs
may indicate that Dione has undergone
some sort of tectonic surface
displacements in its past. The bright
ice-cliffs run across some of Dione's
many craters, indicating that the
process that created them occurred
later than the impacts that created
those craters. Dione is made of mostly
water ice but its relatively high
density indicates that it contains much
rock inside. Giovanni Cassini
discovered Dione in 1684. The above
image was taken at the end of July from
a distance of about 263,000 kilometers.
Other high resolution images of Dione
were taken by the passing Voyager
spacecraft in 1980. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap0609
05.html
[2] 4,500 Kilometers Above
Dione Credit : Cassini Imaging Team,
SSI, JPL, ESA, NASA Explanation:
What does the surface of Saturn's moon
Dione look like? To find out, the robot
Cassini spacecraft currently orbiting
Saturn flew right past the fourth
largest moon of the giant planet
earlier this month. Pictured above is
an image taken about 4,500 kilometers
above Dione's icy surface, spanning
about 23 kilometers. Fractures,
grooves, and craters in Dione's ice and
rock are visible. In many cases,
surface features are caused by unknown
processes and can only be described.
Many of the craters have bright walls
but dark floors, indicating that
fresher ice is brighter. Nearly
parallel grooves run from the upper
right to the lower left. Fractures
sometimes across the bottom of craters,
indicating a relatively recent
formation. The lip of a 60-kilometer
wide crater runs from the middle left
to the upper center of the image, while
the crater's center is visible on the
lower right. Images like this will
continue to be studied to better
understand Dione as well as Saturn's
complex system of rings and moons. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap0510
26.html
[1687 CE]
describes the universal law of
gravitation, that all matter attracts
other matter in a force that is the
product of their masses, and the
inverse of their distance squared.
Isaac Newton
(CE 1642-1727) describes the universal
law of gravitation, that all matter
attracts other matter in a force that
is the product of their masses, and the
inverse of their distance squared.
In this book
Newton codifies Galileo's findings into
three laws of motion. The first is the
principle of inertia: a body at rest
remains at rest and a body in motion
remains in motion at a constant
velocity as long as outside forces are
not involved. This first law confirms
Buridan's suggestion 300 years before
and ends the theory that angels or
spirits constantly push the planets.
They move because nothing exists in the
space they move to stop them after the
initial impulse. The second law of
motion defines a force in terms of mass
and acceleration and this is the first
clear distinction between the mass of a
body (representing its resistance to
acceleration; or in other words the
quantity of inertia it possesses), and
its weight (representing the amount of
gravitational force between itself and
another body). The third law of motion
states that for every action there is
an equal and opposite reaction.
The famous equation Newton publishes
is: F=Gm1m2/d^2 where m1 and m2 are the
masses of two objects (for example, the
earth and moon), d is the distance
between their centers, G is the
gravitational constant, and F is the
force of gravitational attraction
between them. Newton holds that this
law is true for any two objects in the
universe. So this laws comes to be
called the law of "universal
gravitation".
Newton's second law describes the
equation F=ma, that the force used to
move an object, and likewise the force
a moving object has, is proportional to
the object's mass and acceleration.
Substituting a=F/m in the F=Gm1m2/d^2
equation, the force of acceleration on
any mass from another mass can be
calculated as a2=Gm1/r^2.
Newton is the first to
estimate the mass or amount of matter
contained in a planet.
Newton illustrates in a
drawing the way in which gravitation
would control the motion of what we
today call an artificial satellite.
That the Sun
attracts planets with a inverse
distance force was already known from
Ismaël Bullialdus in a book he
published in 1645 titled "Astronomia
philolaica". In addition Robert Hooke
had explained this inverse distance
relation to Newton in his letter of
1679.
[1] Sir Isaac Newton's own first
edition copy of his Philosophiae
Naturalis Principia Mathematica with
his handwritten corrections for the
second edition. The first edition was
published under the imprint of Samuel
Pepys who was president of the Royal
Society. By the time of the second
edition, Newton himself had become
president of the Royal Society, as
noted in his corrections. The book can
be seen in the Wren Library of Trinity
College, Cambridge. CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:NewtonsPrincipia.jpg
[2] Description Isaac Newton Date
1689 Author Godfrey Kneller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg
[1690 CE]
known as Polhem) (CE 1661-1751), a
Swedish scientist, inventor and
industrialist invents a gear-cutting
machine (a machine for cutting gears
out of cylinders of metal).
[1] Christopher Polhem in 1741. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christopher_Polhem_painted_by_Johan_H
enrik_Scheffel_1741.jpg
[1690 CE]
1611-1687), star catalog with 1564
stars is published posthumously as
"Prodromus Astronomiae" ("Guide to
Astronomy") (1690).
[1] Figur A: Ursa Minor - Lille
Bjørn PD
source: http://www.kb.dk/udstillinger/St
jernebilleder/atlasser/hevelius/index.ht
ml
[2] Johannes Hevelius. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johannes_Helvelius.jpg
[1690 CE]
[1] First Piston Steam Engine, by
Papin. 19th century encyclopedia. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Papinengine.jpg
[2] subject: Denis Papin, unknown
artist, 1689. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Denis_Papin.jpg
[1691 CE]
publishes a book in which he describes
fossils as petrified remains of extinct
creatures, but this will not be
accepted by biologists for 100 years.
(is first to correctly identify
fossils?)
[1] John Ray From Shuster & Shipley,
facing p. 232. In turn from an original
portrait, by a painter not identified,
in (1917) the British Museum. PD
source: http://www.marcdatabase.com/~lem
ur/lemur.com/gallery-of-antiquarian-tech
nology/worthies/
[1693 CE]
publishes a book that contains the
first logical classification of
animals, based mainly of hoofs, toes,
and teeth.
[1] John Ray From Shuster & Shipley,
facing p. 232. In turn from an original
portrait, by a painter not identified,
in (1917) the British Museum. PD
source: http://www.marcdatabase.com/~lem
ur/lemur.com/gallery-of-antiquarian-tech
nology/worthies/
[1693 CE]
publishes "Synopsis Methodica Animalium
Quadrupedum et Serpentini Generis"
(1693; "Synopsis of Quadrupeds and
Reptiles").
[1] John Ray From Shuster & Shipley,
facing p. 232. In turn from an original
portrait, by a painter not identified,
in (1917) the British Museum. PD
source: http://www.marcdatabase.com/~lem
ur/lemur.com/gallery-of-antiquarian-tech
nology/worthies/
[1694 CE]
founded by Lutherans in 1694. This
progressive-minded school is one of the
first to renounce religious orthodoxy
of any kind in favour of rational and
objective intellectual inquiry, and is
the first where teachers lecture in
German (the venacular or common
language) instead of Latin. Halle's
innovations will be adopted by the
University of Göttingen (founded 1737)
a generation later and subsequently by
most German and many American
universities.
The Encyclopedia
Brittanica describes the university in
Halle the first modern university.
Until the end of
the 1700s, the curriculum of most
universities is based on the seven
liberal arts: grammar, logic, rhetoric,
geometry, arithmetic, astronomy, and
music. Students then proceeded to study
under one of the professional faculties
of medicine, law, and theology. Final
examinations are grueling, and many
students fail.
[1] Faculty of Theology. This page
provides a closer look at the Faculty
of Theology at the University of
Halle-Wittenberg. Click on the images
to enlarge. The Faculty of Theology is
located in the Francke Foundations.
This is the Main House of the
Foundations, a regular site of
exhibits, concerts and other events. To
its right is the entrance to the
Foundations and the home of their
founder, August Hermann Francke. At the
extreme right of the picture you may
catch a glimpse of the Faculty's main
building. COPYRIGHTED EDU
source: http://www.theologie.uni-halle.d
e/81_207025/?lang=en
_University_Library_Building_(Feb-2006).jpg)
[2] University Library building in
Halle (Saale).GNU
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
_University_Library_Building_(Feb-2006).jpg){kind=link}
i/Image:Halle_(Saale)_University_Library
_Building_(Feb-2006).jpg
[06/10/1695 CE]
(CE 1632-1723) identifies
parthenogenesis in aphids.
[1] Fig. 10. Leeuwenhoek''s Fig. 1 is a
''green louse'' (aphid) natural size;
his Fig. 2 is an aphid shell seen under
a microscope, from which a fly had
emerged at the bottom; his Fig. 3 is a
parasitic fly that emerged from an
aphid (26 October 1700, Royal Society
of London Philosophical Transactions
22:facing p. 655). COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://esapubs.org/bulletin/back
issues/087-1/bulletin_jan2006.htm
[2] Description w:Antoni van
Leeuwenhoek Source Project Gutenberg
ebook of Den Waaragtigen Omloop des
Bloeds http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1
8929 http://www.gutenberg.org/files/189
29/18929-h/18929-h.htm Date
1686 Author J. Verkolje PD
source: http://www.abdn.ac.uk/mediarelea
ses/release.php?id=197
[07/02/1698 CE]
builds the first practical steam
engine.
[1]
URL:http://www.humanthermodynamics.com/H
T-history.html Description: Savery
Steam Engine [1698] PD
source: http://www.answers.com/topic/sav
ery-engine-jpg
[2]
http://www.history.rochester.edu/steam/t
hurston/1878/Chapter1.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Thomas_Savery.gif
[1698 CE]
1629-1695) book "Cosmotheoros" in which
he speculates in detail about life on
other planets, is published
posthumously.
(presumably)
[1] Cosmotheoros (1698) PD
source: http://www.phys.uu.nl/~huygens/c
osmotheoros_en.htm
[2] The Proportion of the Magnitude of
the Planets, in respect of one another,
and the Sun PD
source: http://www.phys.uu.nl/~huygens/c
osmotheoros_nl.htm
[1698 CE]
1629-1695) makes the first specific
estimate of the distance of the stars
by comparing the size of Sirius to a
fractional portion of the Sun.
(presumably)
[1] Christiaan Huygens, the
astronomer. source:
http://ressources2.techno.free.fr/inform
atique/sites/inventions/inventions.html
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Christiaan_Huygens-painting.jpeg
[2] Christiaan Huygens Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Christiaa
n+Huygens?cat=technology
[1699 CE]
1638-1715) introduces the concept of
frequency to light and is the first to
theorize that color is based on
frequency of light (not because of
different sizes as Newton supposed, or
because of the velocity of light
particles as Thomas Melville will
suppose).
[1] Engraving by N. Edelinck after I.
B. Santerre - Nicolas Malebranche PD
source: http://www.archiv.cas.cz/english
/foto/malebra.htm
[1704 CE]
publishes a three-volume encyclopedia
of plant life (1686-1704), in which he
describes 18,600 different plant
species, and lays the groundwork for
systematic classification which will be
done by Linneaus.
[1] John Ray From Shuster & Shipley,
facing p. 232. In turn from an original
portrait, by a painter not identified,
in (1917) the British Museum. PD
source: http://www.marcdatabase.com/~lem
ur/lemur.com/gallery-of-antiquarian-tech
nology/worthies/
[1704 CE]
of light as a motion through a medium
in favor of a universe mostly made of
empty space and supports the theory
that light moves in a straight line.
In
"Opticks", appears initially to accept
an aether medium through all of space,
in Queries 18-24, however Newton later
in Query 28 appears to explicitly
reject any medium for light, and in
particular a dense fluid medium
favoring a universe of mostly empty
space (vacuum), but does allow the
possible exception of vapors of planets
and comets, and a very thin (rare)
aetherial medium.
Isaac Newton (CE 1642-1727) publishes
"Opticks" summarizing his work on light
written in English.
Newton's first Query is "Do not Bodies
act upon Light at a distance, and by
their action bend its Rays; and is not
this action strongest at the least (t
smallest) distance?". This implies that
Newton viewed light corpuscles as
matter that respond presumably to the
force of gravity (although Newton
expands this in Query 31 to include
Magnetism and Electricity).
Query 4 implies that reflection,
refraction and inflection (diffraction)
are all controlled by one principle.
Query 5 reveals that Newton accepts the
view of heat as motion.
Query 6 reveals that Newton understands
that objects absorb light, and can be
reflected and refracted within them.
Newton does not recognize that all
matter may be made of particles of
light, but does theorize in Query 30
that bodies and Light may be
convertible into one another.
[1] The first, 1704, edition of Opticks
or a treatise of the reflections,
refractions, inflections and colours of
light PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Opticks.jpg
[2] Description Isaac Newton Date
1689 Author Godfrey Kneller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:GodfreyKneller-IsaacNewton-1689.jpg
[1705 CE]
the first to understand that comets
orbit the Sun and to calculate the path
of a comet.
[1] Description Comet P/Halley as
taken March 8, 1986 by W. Liller,
Easter Island, part of the
International Halley Watch (IHW) Large
Scale Phenomena Network. Source
NSSDC's Photo Gallery (NASA): *
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/photo_gallery
/photogallery-comets.html *
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image/planeta
ry/comet/lspn_comet_halley1.jpg Date
image taken on 8. Mar. 1986 Author
NASA/W. Liller Permission (Reusing
this image) Copyright information
from
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/photo_gallery
/photogallery-faq.html - All of the
images presented on NSSDC's Photo
Gallery are in the public domain. As
such, they may be used for any purpose.
[...] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lspn_comet_halley.jpg
[2] Portrait of Edmond Halley painted
around 1687 by Thomas Murray (Royal
Society, London) uploaded from
http://www.phys.uu.nl/~vgent/astrology/n
ewton.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edmund_Halley.gif
[1705 CE]
proves that stars move over long
periods of time. Before this most
people believed that stars unlike the
planets never move in relation to each
other.
[1] Description Comet P/Halley as
taken March 8, 1986 by W. Liller,
Easter Island, part of the
International Halley Watch (IHW) Large
Scale Phenomena Network. Source
NSSDC's Photo Gallery (NASA): *
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/photo_gallery
/photogallery-comets.html *
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image/planeta
ry/comet/lspn_comet_halley1.jpg Date
image taken on 8. Mar. 1986 Author
NASA/W. Liller Permission (Reusing
this image) Copyright information
from
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/photo_gallery
/photogallery-faq.html - All of the
images presented on NSSDC's Photo
Gallery are in the public domain. As
such, they may be used for any purpose.
[...] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lspn_comet_halley.jpg
[2] Portrait of Edmond Halley painted
around 1687 by Thomas Murray (Royal
Society, London) uploaded from
http://www.phys.uu.nl/~vgent/astrology/n
ewton.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edmund_Halley.gif
[1710 CE]
"Historia insectorum" (1710) is
published posthumously and records some
300 species of insects.
[1] John Ray From Shuster & Shipley,
facing p. 232. In turn from an original
portrait, by a painter not identified,
in (1917) the British Museum. PD
source: http://www.marcdatabase.com/~lem
ur/lemur.com/gallery-of-antiquarian-tech
nology/worthies/
[1712 CE]
(CE 1663-1729) designs an improved
steam engine that does not use
high-pressure steam.
England
[1] Il disegno rappresenta il principio
di funzionamento della macchina
realizzata da Newcomen nel 1712 PD
source: http://www.racine.ra.it/ungarett
i/SeT/macvapor/wattbiog.htm
[2] Newcomen engine from Practical
physics for secondary schools.
Fundamental principles and applications
to daily life, publ. 1913 by Macmillan
and Company, p. 219 A full version of
the book can be found at
http://www.archive.org/details/practical
physics00blacrich, including
high-resultion colour scans (300 dpi)
of every page
(ftp://ia310940.us.archive.org/1/items/p
racticalphysics00blacrich). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Newcomen6325.png
[1714 CE]
1686-1736), invents a thermometer that
uses mercury and the Fahrenheit
temperature scale (still in use
today).
Fahrenheit notices that boiling point
changes with change in pressure.
(presumably)
[1] Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (1686 -
1736) PD
source: http://sabaoth.infoserve.pl/danz
ig-online/sl.html
[2] Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit
(Quecksilberthermometer) (* 24. Mai
1686 in Danzig, † 16. September 1736
in Den Haag) PD
source: http://www.erfinder.at/tag-der-e
rfinder/Daniel-Gabriel-Fahrenheit.php
[1725 CE]
star catalog "Historia Coelestis
Britannica" ("British Celestial
Record") is published posthumously.
[1] John Flamsteed. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Flamsteed.jpg
[2] Bust of John Flamsteed in the
Museum of the Royal Greenwich
Observatory, London PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:John_Flamsteed_Royal_Greenwich_Observ
atory_Museum.jpg
[1725 CE]
make textiles.
[1] Basile Bouchon's loom,
1725 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://cs-exhibitions.uni-klu.ac
.at/uploads/pics/Basile_Bouchons_loom_01
.jpg
[01/??/1729 CE]
the apparent change in position of
stars.
[1] Figure from Bradley's paper PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?pg
=PA260&dq=%22Mr.+B+considered+this+matte
r%22&id=MPg4AAAAMAAJ#v=onepage&q=%22Mr.%
20B%20considered%20this%20matter%22&f=fa
lse
[2] James Bradley (1693-1762), English
astronomer. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:James_Bradley.jpg
[1729 CE]
1703-1771), a British lawyer, produces
the first achromatic lenses in 1729.
[1] Diagram of an achromatic lens
(doublet). PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/46/Achromat_doublet_en.s
vg
[1730 CE]
men independently, John Hadley
(1682-1744), an English mathematician,
and Thomas Godfrey (1704-1749), an
American inventor. Isaac Newton
invented the principle of the doubly
reflecting navigation instrument, but
never published it. The sextant, along
with the octant, replace the astrolabe
as the main instruments for
navigation.
The main advantage ofthe sextant over
the astrolabe is that celestial objects
are measured relative to the horizon,
rather than to the instrument, which
allows much better precision.
The angle, and the
time when a celestial object is
measured, can be used to calculate a
position line on a nautical or
aeronautical chart. A common use of the
sextant is to sight the sun at noon to
find what latitude a person is at. Held
horizontally, the sextant can be used
to measure the angle between any two
objects.
Traditional sextants have a
half-horizon mirror. It divides the
field of view in two. On one side,
there is a view of the horizon; on the
other side, a view of the celestial
object. The advantage of this type is
that both the horizon and celestial
object are bright, and as clear as
possible. Whole-horizon sextants use a
half-silvered horizon mirror to provide
a full view of the horizon. This makes
it easy to see when the bottom limb of
a celestial object touches the horizon.
[1] Black-and-white image of a sextant.
Not detailed. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sextant.gif
.jpg)
[2] Grand Turk, a replica of a
three-masted 6th rate frigate from
Nelson's days - sextant and logbook.
GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Grand_Turk%2835%29.jpg
[1730 CE]
Swedish chemist names a blue iron-like
metal "cobalt".
[1] Appearance metallic with gray
tinge PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cobalt-sample.jpg
[2] Cobalt GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Co-TableImage.png
[12/??/1733 CE]
identifies two kinds of electricity:
"vitreous" (Franklin will name
"positive") and "resinous" (Franklin
will name "negative").
[1] 1733 AD: Charles Francois de
Cisternay Du FayThe French chemist
Charles Francois de Cisternay Du Fay
(1698-1739) discovered that when
objects are rubbed together they either
repel or attract each other and
therefore that electricity came in two
forms, which he called ''resinous'' (-)
and ''vitreous'' (+). PD
source: http://www.worldofenergy.com.au/
07_timeline_world_1675_1780.html
[1733 CE]
invents the "flying shuttle", which
increases the speed of weaving, and
allows one person to weave greater
widths of cloth. The original shuttle
is a piece of wood that contains a
bobbin on to which the weft yarn (the
yarn that goes crossways) is wound. The
shuttle is pushed from one side of the
warp (the series of yarns extended
lengthways in a loom) to the other
side. Before the flying shuttle, large
looms required two people. The flying
shuttle is thrown by a lever that can
be operated by only one weaver.
In 1753 Kay's house is attacked by
textile workers who are angry that his
inventions might take work away from
them. Kay fleas to France where he will
die in poverty.
[1] Flying shuttles COPYRIGHTED
source: http://inventors.about.com/libra
ry/inventors/blflyingshuttle.htm
[1734 CE]
Réaumur (rAOmYOR) (CE 1683-1757)
publishes (in six volumes) "Memoires
pour servir à l'histoire des insectes"
(1734-42; "Memoirs Serving as a Natural
History of Insects"), the first serious
and comprehensive book on insects.
[1] René-Antoine Ferchault de
Réaumur Source Galerie des
naturalistes de J. Pizzetta, Ed.
Hennuyer, 1893 (tombé dans le domaine
public) Date Author J.
Pizzetta PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Reaumur_1683-1757.jpg
[1734 CE]
1688-1772), Swedish scientist, suggests
an early form of the nebular
hypothesis, the theory that the star
system formed from a nebula (cloud of
particles).
[1] * Emanuel Swedenborg at the age of
75, holding the soon to be published
manuscript of Apocalypsis Revelata
(1766). * Painting by Per Kraft.
Currently located at the Government
collection of paintings, w:Gripsholm,
Sweden. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Emanuel_Swedenborg_full_portrait.jpg
[1735 CE]
English instrument maker, builds the
first clock that can keep accurate time
at sea.
[1] John Harrison était autodidacte.
Son frère James et lui mirent au point
une première horloge en 1735: le H1,
elle ne ressemblait pas du tout à une
horloge au sens propre, mais elle
fonctionnait plutôt bien. Ce fût
le début des premiers chronomètres de
marine avec balancier et spiral. Il est
en outre l'inventeur du pendule
compensateur à gril et d'un système
de compensation pour les
montres. From [2]: John Harrison,
detail of an oil painting by Thomas
King; in the Science Museum,
London Courtesy of the Science Museum,
London, lent by W.H. Barton[2] PD
source: http://www.worldtempus.com/wt/1/
903
[2] Scientist: Harrison, John (1693 -
1776) Discipline(s): Scientific
Instruments Print Artist: William
Holl, 1807-1871 Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: King Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 12.5 x 10.2 cm /
Sheet: 27.3 x 18.1 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=h
[1735 CE]
1707-1778) creates a uniform system for
categorizing living objects of earth,
including the human species.
Carolus Linnaeus
(linAus) (CE 1707-1778) Swedish
botanist creates a uniform system for
categorizing living objects of earth,
including the human species
(overshadowing the earlier work of Ray)
and is considered the founder of
taxonomy.
Linnaeus groups species into genus,
class, order.
Linnaeus rejects the theory of
evolution.
[1] Artist Alexander Roslin Title
Carl von Linné 1707-1778 Year
1775 Technique Oil on
canvas Dimensions 56 x 46 cm Current
location Royal Science Academy of
Sweden (Kungliga vetenskapsakademin)
Stockholm Permission Public
domain Carl von Linné painted by
Alexander Roslin in 1775. The original
painting can be viewed at the Royal
Science Academy of Sweden (Kungliga
vetenskapsakademin). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Carl_von_Linn%C3%A9.jpg
[2] Carl von Linné (Carolus
Linnaeus) (1707 - 1778) ''The Father
of Taxonomy'' PD
source: http://www.mun.ca/biology/scarr/
Linnaeus.htm
[1736 CE]
(CE 1698-1759) verifies that the Earth
is an oblate spheroid (a sphere
flattened at the poles).
[1] Scientist: Maupertuis,
Pierre-Louis Moreau de (1698 -
1759) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Biology ; Physics Print Artist:
Johann Jakob Haid, 1704-1767 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: R.
Tourmere Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 31 x 19 cm / PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d
iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D
iscipline_1=Biology
[2] Scientist: Maupertuis,
Pierre-Louis Moreau de (1698 -
1759) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Biology ; Physics Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 13.9 x 11 cm / Sheet: 30.7 x
21.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d
iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D
iscipline_1=Biology
[1737 CE]
posthumously Jan Swammerdam's (Yon
SVoMRDoM) (CE 1637-1680) many
manuscripts in two volumes called
"Biblia naturae" ("Bible of Nature").
(presumably)
[1]
http://www.dvjb.kvl.dk/English/ul/exhibi
tions/web%20exhibitions/insects.aspx Ja
n Swammerdam (1637-80): Biblia naturae.
1737/38 og 1752 DVJB has the first
edition of this major scientific work
made up of three folio volumes with
Dutch and Latin text from 1737/38 and a
single-volume German edition from 1752.
PD
source: http://www.dvjb.kvl.dk/upload/dv
jb/ill/roeseninsect/swammerdam-a.jpg
[2] same PD
source: http://www.dvjb.kvl.dk/upload/dv
jb/ill/roeseninsect/swammerdam-b.jpg
[1740 CE]
20 June 1776), English inventor and
steel-manufacturer, creates the
"crucible" method to make "crucible
steel", in an effort to make a better
steel for clock springs. Huntsman's
system used a coke-fired furnace
capable of reaching 1600 °C, into
which ten or twelve clay crucibles,
each holding about 15 kg of iron, were
placed. When the pots are at a white
heat they are charged with blister
steel broken into lumps of about ½ kg,
and a flux to help remove impurities.
The pots are removed after about 3
hours in the furnace, impurities
skimmed off, and the molten steel
poured into ingots.
Crucible steels will remain the best
steel on earth, although very
expensive, until the introduction of
the Bessemer process will replace it.
The Bessemer process will be able to
produce steel of similar (or better)
quality for a fraction of the time and
cost. The Besemer process and more
modern methods instead remove carbon
from the pig iron, stopping before all
the carbon is removed.
[1740 CE]
1720-1793), Swiss naturalist
identifies parthenogenesis
(reproduction without fertilization) in
female aphids.
[1] engraving of Charles Bonnet Source
http://www.ville-ge.ch/musinfo/mhng/pag
e1/ins-ill-04.htm Date paint in
1777 Author Paint by I. Iuel et
engraved by IF. Clemens PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Charles_Bonnet_engraved.jpg
[2] Charles Bonnet
(1720-1793). Source:
http://www.univie.ac.at/science-archives
/wissenschaftstheorie_2/bonnet.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CharlesBonnet.jpg
[1742 CE]
1701-1744) invents the Celsius
temperature scale (often called the
centigrade scale).
[1] Painting by Olof Arenius (1701 -
1766) Uppsala University -
Astronomical Observatory PD
source: http://www.astro.uu.se/history/i
mages/celsius2.jpg
[2] Anders Celsius, detail from a
drawing by an unknown artist, 18th
century. Archiv fur Kunst und
Geschichte, Berlin PD
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
/print?id=9261&articleTypeId=0
[1742 CE]
1720-1793), Swiss naturalist,
identifies that insects breathe through
pores he names "stigmata".
[1] engraving of Charles Bonnet Source
http://www.ville-ge.ch/musinfo/mhng/pag
e1/ins-ill-04.htm Date paint in
1777 Author Paint by I. Iuel et
engraved by IF. Clemens PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Charles_Bonnet_engraved.jpg
[2] Charles Bonnet
(1720-1793). Source:
http://www.univie.ac.at/science-archives
/wissenschaftstheorie_2/bonnet.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CharlesBonnet.jpg
[1743 CE]
(CE 1713-1765) confirms that the orbit
of the Moon follows the inverse
distance law.
[1] Scientist: Clairaut, Alexis Claude
(1713 - 1765) Discipline(s):
Mathematics ; Astronomy Print Artist:
Cathelin Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: Charles-Nicolas
Cochin, 1715-1790 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 23.5 x 17 cm /
Sheet: 29.8 x 21.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c
[11/04/1745 CE]
Sea between Germany and Poland)
[1]
http://books.google.com/books?id=ko9BAAA
AIAAJ&pg=PA71&dq=jar+%22von+Kleist%22&lr
=&as_brr=1&ei=aniTR_uCJ5HwsgOQ5bU4#PPA71
,M1 page with text and figure about
von Kleist's invention of the Leyden
jar Source Electricity in Every-day
Life Date 1905 Author Edwin J.
Houston PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Von_Kleist_Leyden_jar_1905.png
[1745 CE]
Germany
[1] a is connected to the electrified
conductor; b is the insulated clapper;
c the grounded gong. PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=TFLkGa4bDCIC
[2] Franklin's Bells COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.arcsandsparks.com/fra
nklin.html
[04/20/1746 CE]
(mOESeNBrvK v=oo in book) (CE
1692-1761), Dutch physicist invents
the first device that can store a large
amounts of electric charge. This device
will come to be called a "Leiden jar".
This is an early form of the capacitor.
[1] Pieter van Musschenbroek aus:
http://20eeuwennederland.nl/actueel/1113
.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pieter_van_Musschenbroek.jpeg
[2] AD 1745 E.G. Von Kliest & Pieter
van Musschenbroek PD
source: http://itp.nyu.edu/~nql3186/elec
tricity/pages/leyden.html
[1746 CE]
1707-1783), Swiss mathematician,
understands that color of light depends
on so-called wavelength (or "photon
interval").
[1] portrait by Johann Georg
Brucker From English Wikipedia:
Leonhard Euler Source:
http://www.mathematik.de/mde/information
/kalenderblatt/differentialrechnung/eule
r-1000.png PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Leonhard_Euler_2.jpg
[2] From:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Leonh
ard_Euler.jpg Leonhard_Euler.jpg (219
× 283 pixel, file size: 13 KB, MIME
type: image/jpeg) Picture of Leonhard
Euler by Emanuel Handmann. Retrieved
from: http://www.kunstkopie.de/static/m
otive/Bildnis-des-Mathematikers-Leonhard
-Euler-Emanuel-Handmann-1010890.html PD
source: http://www.croeos.net/Mambo/inde
x.php?Itemid=67&id=527&option=com_conten
t&task=view
[07/11/1747 CE]
a single fluid.
(letter to London, England)
[1] Credit: ''White House Historical
Association (White House Collection)''
(981) Painted in 1759 by British
artist and scientist Benjamin Wilson
-who disagreed with Franklin's findings
about electrical polarity -this
portrait hung in Franklin's dining room
in Philadelphia until Captain Andre'
stole it during the British occupation
of Philadelphia. Returned to the U.S.
in 1906, it is now in the White House,
in Washington, D. C. PD
source: http://www.explorepahistory.com/
displayimage.php?imgId=668
[2] Multimedia Gallery -
Image Portrait of Benjamin Franklin by
artist David Martin
(1737-1797) Portrait of Benjamin
Franklin by artist David Martin
(1737-1797) Credit: Library of
Congress, LC-USZC4-3576 PD
source: http://www.nsf.gov/news/mmg/medi
a/images/benfranklin2_h3.jpg
[1747 CE]
Scottish physician, performs one of the
earliest clinical experiments and shows
that citrus fruits work well in curing
scurvy.
[1] Painted by Sir George Chalmers, c
1720-1791. painting: PD image:
COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://www.jameslindlibrary.org/
trial_records/17th_18th_Century/lind/lin
d_portrait.html
[2] James Lind painting: PD image:
COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://dodd.cmcvellore.ac.in/hom
/17%20-%20James%20Lind.html
[1747 CE]
gas lowers temperature, the basis of
refrigeration.
Russia
[1] St. Petersburg, 6 August 1783.
Prof. Richman and his assistant being
struck by lightning while charging
capacitors. The assistant escaped
almost unharmed, whereas Richman was
dead immediately. The pathologic
analysis revealed that ''he only had a
small hole in his forehead, a burnt
left shoe and a blue spot at his foot.
[...] the brain being ok, the front
part of the lung sane, but the rear
being brown and black of blood.'' The
conclusion was that the electric
discharge had taken its way through
Richmann's body. The scientific
community was shocked. [t notice
difference in dates] PD/Corel
source: http://www.hp-gramatke.net/histo
ry/english/page4000.htm
[2] Description Black and white
print of a William Cullen
portrait Source Medical Portrait
Gallery Date 1834 Author Thomas
Pettigrew PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0c/Cullen_William.jpg
[02/14/1748 CE]
English Astronomer, announces his
finding of the "annual change of
declination in some of the fixed stars"
(which Bradley calls "nutation"), that
result because of the movement of the
nodes of the Moon's orbit around the
earth.
[1] James Bradley (1693-1762), English
astronomer. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:James_Bradley.jpg
[1748 CE]
[1] Jean-Antoine Nollet PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Abbenollet.jpg
[2] Scientist: Nollet, Jean-Antoine,
abbé (1700 - 1770) Discipline(s):
Physics Print Artist: Pasqual Pere
Moles I Corones, 1741-1797 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Georges
de a Tour, 1593-1652 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 13.8 x 11.8 cm /
Sheet: 27.4 x 19.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=n
[1749 CE]
1713-1784), French writer , presents a
theory of survival by superior
adaptation.
[1] Portrait of Denis
Diderot 1767 Oil on canvas, 81 x 65
cm Musée du Louvre, Paris PD
source: http://www.wga.hu/art/l/loo/loui
s/diderot.jpg
[2] Scientist: Diderot, Denis (1713 -
1784) Discipline(s):
Encyclopedist Print Artist: Pierre
Pelee, 1801-1871 Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: Felix Emmanuel
Henri Philippoteaux, 1815-1884
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 15.7 x
13.1 cm / Sheet: 26.4 x 18.3 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=d
[1751 CE]
1713-1784), French writer , begins
publishing "Encyclopédie" (1751-1772),
a twenty-eight volume encyclopedia.
[1] Info: Cover of the Encyclopédie.
Resized to 600px width Credit: See
List of contributors to the
Encyclopédie Source:
http://ets.lib.uchicago.edu/ARTFL/OLDENC
YC/images PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:ENC_1-NA5_600px.jpeg
[2] Info: ''Figurative System of
organisation of human knowledge from
the en:Encyclopédie. For an English
translation see: en:Figurative system
of human knowledge
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Figurativ
e_system_of_human_knowledge Credit:
See en:List of contributors to the
Encyclopédie Source:
http://ets.lib.uchicago.edu/ARTFL/OLDENC
YC/images PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:ENC_SYSTEME_FIGURE.jpeg
[1751 CE]
(KrUNSTeT), (CE 1722-1765), Swedish
mineralogist isolates the element
Nickel.
[1] Axel Fredrik Cronstedt
(1722-1765) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jergym.hiedu.cz/~cano
vm/objevite/objev/cron.htm
[2] Axel Fredrik Cronstedt
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.bgf.nu/ljus/u/cronste
dt.html
[02/20/1752 CE]
(producing X-Ray light).
[1] William Watson (1715â€''1787)
* Print Artist: J. Thornwaite *
Medium/Year: Line engraving, 1784
* Original Artist: after an oilpainting
by Lemuel Francis Abbott *
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 9.8 x 7.7
cm / Sheet: 14.5 x 10.2 cm PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Willi
am_Watson.jpg
[2] Figure from a Watson 1746
paper PD/Corel
source: A Sequel to the Experiments and
Observations Tending to Illustrate the
Nature and Properties of Electricity;
In a Letter to the Royal Society from
the Same Journal Philosophical
Transactions (1683-1775) Issue Volume
44 - 1746/1747 Author William
Watson DOI 10.1098/rstl.1746.0119 Wats
on_William_1746_Sequel.pdf
[1752 CE]
Réaumur (rAOmYOR) (CE 1683-1757),
proves that digestion is chemical and
not mechanical by putting food in small
metal cylinders which are then
regurgitated by birds with partially
digested food.
Réaumur also isolates gastric juice.
[1] René-Antoine Ferchault de
Réaumur Source Galerie des
naturalistes de J. Pizzetta, Ed.
Hennuyer, 1893 (tombé dans le domaine
public) Date Author J.
Pizzetta PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Reaumur_1683-1757.jpg
[1753 CE]
1708-1777), Swiss physiologist, is the
first to demonstrate experimentally
that sensibility (the ability to
produce sensation) exists only in
organs supplied with nerves, while
irritability (a reaction to stimuli,
known today as contractility) is a
property of the organ or tissue.
[1] Albrecht von Haller PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Albrecht_von_Haller.jpg
[2] Haller, of Swiss origin, was a
leading figure in eighteenth-century
physiology. He conceived the idea of
'sensibility' and 'irritability' to
explain the body's reaction to
stimulus. In his formulation of the
concept of irritability to account for
muscle contraction, he first
acknowledged, although in an implicit
way, the importance of information flow
in biological systems. (Image courtesy
of the library G. Romiti of the
Anatomical Institute of the University
of Pisa.) PD
source: http://www.nature.com/nrm/journa
l/v1/n2/fig_tab/nrm1100_149a_F2.html
[01/25/1755 CE]
University (Russian:
Москоk
4;ский
госудk
2;рстве
085;ный
унивеl
8;ситет
имени
М.В.Лом
086;носов&
#1072;), the oldest university in
mainland Russia is founded.
Moscow University is established on the
instigation of Ivan Shuvalov and
Mikhail Lomonosov by a decree of
Russian Empress Elizabeth. First
lessons are held on April 26. January
25 is still celebrated as Students' Day
in Russia.
[1] Lomonosov University in Moscow,
Russia GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Moskau_Uni.jpg
[2] Building of the Moscow State
University on the Mokhovaya Street (now
the dean's office). 18th-century
watercolour. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mgu_1798.jpg
[11/??/1755 CE]
first democratic republic
(representative democracy) and first
Constitution (the design and laws of a
government usually recorded on a hand
written document) of the Enlightenment.
This Republic is formed under the
leadership of Pasquale Paoli against
the rulers of Genoa.
[1] Buste of the Corsican politician
Pasquale Paoli, by John Flaxman, at
Westminster Abbey, London. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Buste_Pasquale_Paoli.jpg
[1755 CE]
German philosopher puts forward a
nebular hypothesis, that the star
system formed as a result of the
gravitational interaction of atoms, and
that the Milky Way is a lens shaped
collection of stars and that other such
"island universes" exist.
.jpg)
[1] Steel engraving by J. L. Raab, 1791
after a painting by Döbler Source:
[1]
http://www.jhu.edu/~phil/kant-hegelconfe
rence/main.htm PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
.jpg){kind=link}
i/Image:Immanuel_Kant_(portrait).jpg
[2] Kant PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kant_2.jpg
[1755 CE]
Scottish chemist rediscovers carbon
dioxide (which he calls "fixed air").
[1] Scan of an old picture of Joseph
Black Source The Gases of the
Atmosphere (old book) Date
1896 Author William Ramsay PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Black_Joseph.jpg
[1757 CE]
(CE 1713-1765) is the first to estimate
the mass of celestial objects based on
the perturbations they have on the
earth's motion. Using this method,
Clairaut estimates the mass of Venus to
be 2/3 (.667) of earth (actual: around
4/5 {0.815} Earths) and the moon to be,
and the mass of moon to be 1/67 (.0149)
of earth (actual: 1/81 {0.0123}), which
are the most accurate for the time.
[1] Scientist: Clairaut, Alexis Claude
(1713 - 1765) Discipline(s):
Mathematics ; Astronomy Print Artist:
Cathelin Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: Charles-Nicolas
Cochin, 1715-1790 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 23.5 x 17 cm /
Sheet: 29.8 x 21.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=c
[1758 CE]
the water frame, by adapting a water
wheel to a spinning frame (a device
invented by Lewis Paul that uses draw
rollers to stretch, or attenuate, the
yarn. A thick 'string' of cotton roving
is passed between three sets of
rollers, each set rotating faster than
the previous one. In this way the
cotton is reduced in thickness and
increased in length before a
strengthening twist is added by a
bobbin-and-flyer mechanism). Highs (or
possibly James Hargreaves) may also be
the inventor of the "Spinning Jenny", a
multi-spool spinning wheel.
[1] An image of Thomas Highs' spinning
jenny design, taken Edward Baines's
History of the Cotton Manufacture in
Great Britain. Since Baine has been
dead for over 100 years, this image is
now in the public domain. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Thomashighsjenny.JPG
[1760 CE]
oxygen using electricity.
Giovanni Beccaria (CE
1716-1781), Italian physicist, passes
electricity sparks through water and
observes bubbles (of Hydrogen and
Oxygen gas) released from the water but
incorrectly supposes that the action of
the electric matter promotes the
evaporation of water.
Beccaria does not
recognize that the gases produced are
the components of water.
[1] Anonimo, Giambattista Beccaria,
fine secolo XVIII PD?
source: http://www.torinoscienza.it/img/
orig/it/s00/00/000c/00000c89.jpg
[2] Beccaria, Giovanni Battista
(1716-1781) PD?
source: http://bms.beniculturali.it/ritr
atti/ritratti.php?chiave=ritr0079
[1761 CE]
(lumunOSuF) (CE 1711-1765) Russian
chemist and writer, is the first to
observe the atmophere of Venus which
Lomonosov does through the transit of
Venus across the sun, concluding that
Venus has an atmosphere "similar to, or
perhaps greater than that of the
earth".
[1] from
http://www.peoples.ru/science/founder/lo
monosov/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lomonosov.jpg
[1763 CE]
(LoKoYu) (CE 1713-1762) prepares a
catalog of the positions of nearly
10,000 stars, including nearly two
thousand stars seen only from the
Southern Hemisphere of earth. (This
book also contains) a star map which is
much more extensive and accurate than
Halley's.
Lacaille identifies Alpha Centauri, the
closest star to the sun, and names 14
new southern constellations after
astronomical instruments.
[1] Nicolas Louis de Lacaille Born:
15-May-1713 Birthplace: Rumigny,
France Died: 21-Mar-1762 Location of
death: Paris, France Cause of death:
unspecified PD
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/370/0
00105055/
[2] Nicolas Louis de Lacaille PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nicolas_Louis_de_Lacaille.jpg
[1764 CE]
Scottish chemist recognizes the
difference between intensity
(temperature) and quantity of heat.
Black discovers the idea of "latent
heat", which is the characteristic
amount of heat absorbed or released by
a substance during a change in its
physical state that occurs without
changing its temperature. Black
identifies the principle of "specific
heat", which is the temperature change
in a substance that results from a
specific quantity of heat.
[1] Scan of an old picture of Joseph
Black Source The Gases of the
Atmosphere (old book) Date
1896 Author William Ramsay PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Black_Joseph.jpg
[05/??/1765 CE]
Scottish engineer improves Newcomen's
steam engine by inventing the "separate
condenser", so that heat is not lost
when cooling and reheating the steam
chamber.
[1] From
http://www.lib.utexas.edu/photodraw/port
raits/index.html, in the public
domain original source: Helmolt, H.F.,
ed. History of the World. New York:
Dodd, Mead and Company, 1902. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:James_Watt.jpg
[2] James Watt, oil painting by H.
Howard; in the National Portrait
Gallery, London. Courtesy of The
National Portrait Gallery, London
PD COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15159/James-Watt-oil-painting-by-H-Howa
rd-in-the-National?articleTypeId=1
[1766 CE]
English chemist and physicist, produces
hydrogen by dissolving metals in acids
and carbon dioxide by dissolving
alkalis in acids, and collects these
and other gases in bottles inverted
over water or mercury.
[1] By Henry Cavendish Published
1921 The University Press PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=ygqYnSR3oe0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=the
+scientific+papers+cavendish#PPA78-IA
[2] Figures from Cavendish's 1766 3
papers PD
source: http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac.
uk/content/k22512528480nx11/?p=d80161c90
5fe4831aa63484ba66ccb98&pi=2 cavendish_
3gases.pdf
[1768 CE]
(CE 1728-1777) German mathematician,
introduces the hyperbolic trigonometric
functions (sinh, cosh, etc., just as
the ordinary sine and cosine functions
trace (or parameterize) a circle, so
the sinh and cosh parameterize a
hyperbola). Also in this year, Lambert
provides the first rigorous proof that
pi (the ratio of a circle's
circumference to its diameter) is an
irrational quantity, meaning that it
cannot be expressed as the quotient (or
ratio) of two integers.
[1] copied from
http://www.galerie-universum.de/gu_2003/
ausstellungstafeln/ahnengalerie_wissensc
haftler/lambert_lang.htm Johann H.
Lambert PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:JHLambert.jpg
[2] Lambert, Johann Heinrich (1728 -
1777) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Physics ; Astronomy Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 7.6 x 8.8 cm
PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/by_d
iscipline_display_results.cfm?Research_D
iscipline_1=Physics
[1768 CE]
(CE 1729-1799), Italian biologist,
provides evidence against the theory of
spontaneous generation by showing that
after 30-45 minutes of boiling, no
microorganisms appear in sealed
solutions of food.
[1] Lazzaro Spallanzani, Italian
biologist,
1729-99 Source:http://home.tiscalinet.c
h/biografien/biografien/spallanzani.htm
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Spallanzani.jpg
[2] Spallanzani, detail of an oil
painting by an unknown artist; in the
collection of the Universita degli
Studi di Pavia, Italy Courtesy of the
Universita degli Studi di Pavia,
Italy Related Articles: Spallanzani,
Lazzaro (Encyclopædia
Britannica) Italian physiologist who
made important contributions to the
experimental study of bodily functions
and animal reproduction. His
investigations into the development of
microscopic life in nutrient culture
solutions paved the way for the
research of Louis Pasteur. To cite
this page: * MLA style:
''Spallanzani, Lazzaro.'' Online
Photograph. Encyclopædia Britannica
Online. 12 Nov. 2007
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-31518/Spallanzani-detail-of-an-oil-pain
ting-by-an-unknown-artist?articleTypeId=
1
[1769 CE]
February 1725 - 2 October 1804), a
French inventor, builds what may be the
first self-propelled vehicle built on
earth using a steam engine.
Cugnot may be the first to convert the
back-and-forth motion of a steam piston
into rotary motion (James Watt does
this too in 1781 in England).
[1] Nicolas-Joseph Cugnot's steam auto,
from 7 August, 1869 issue of Appleton's
Journal of Popular Literature, Science,
and Art. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CugnotAppleton.jpg
[2] Fardier de Cugnot, modèle de
1771. Musée des Arts et Métiers,
Paris. 11 janvier 2005. (Note that
this is the second fardier, the
full-size one. It is not a 'model' (as
has been mis-translated
elsewhere)) Source : Photo et
photographisme © Roby 19:13, 12 Jan
2005 (UTC). Avec l'aimable permission
du Musée des Arts et Métiers, Paris.
GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/56/FardierdeCugnot200501
11.jpg
[1769 CE]
English inventor, patents a device that
will spin thread by mechanically
reproducing the motions ordinarily made
by the human hand, that will come to be
called the "water frame".
[1] Description Richard Arkwright
portrait Source
http://utopia.utexas.edu/project/port
raits/arkwright.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Richard_arkwright.jpg
[2] Richard Arkwright
1732-92 COPYRIGHTED?
source: http://www.derwentvalleymills.or
g/04_his/his_003b.htm
[1772 CE]
1713-1784), French writer , completes
his "Encyclopédie" (1751-1772), in 28
volumes, 17 of text and 11 of
illustrates plates.
[1] Portrait of Denis
Diderot 1767 Oil on canvas, 81 x 65
cm Musée du Louvre, Paris PD
source: http://www.wga.hu/art/l/loo/loui
s/diderot.jpg
[2] Scientist: Diderot, Denis (1713 -
1784) Discipline(s):
Encyclopedist Print Artist: Pierre
Pelee, 1801-1871 Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: Felix Emmanuel
Henri Philippoteaux, 1815-1884
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 15.7 x
13.1 cm / Sheet: 26.4 x 18.3 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=d
[1772 CE]
1724-1793) attempts to detect the
momentum of light particles by allowing
sunlight to reflect off of a square
copper plate balanced by a harpsichord
wire attached to a counterweight.
According to Joseph Priestly, the
copper plate does turn (in the
direction the light is moving in?).
In 1792 Abraham Bennet, using a
vibration magnetometer, will claim to
get a null result.
(presumably)
[1772 CE]
describes how to dissolve carbon
dioxide ("fixed air") in water which is
the beginning of the soda-water
industry.
Before this there are only 3 known
gases: air, carbon dioxide and
hydrogen. Priestley identifies 10 new
gases: nitric oxide ((which Priestley
calls) "nitrous air"), nitrogen dioxide
(red nitrous vapour), nitrous oxide
(inflammable nitrous air, later called
"laughing gas"), hydrogen chloride
(marine acid air), ammonia (alkaline
air), sulfur dioxide (vitriolic acid
air), silicon tetrafluoride (fluor acid
air), nitrogen (phlogisticated air),
oxygen (dephlogisticated air,
independently codiscovered by Carl
Wilhelm Scheele), and a gas later
identified as carbon monoxide.
[1] Portrait of Joseph
Priestley Source
http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=h
ttp://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/im
ages/priestlyc.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.
chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/PortraitsHH_
Detail.asp%3FHH_LName%3DPriestley&h=640&
w=462&sz=57&hl=en&start=9&tbnid=ipHldQCy
TukivM:&tbnh=137&tbnw=99&prev=/images%3F
q%3Djoseph%2Bpriestley%26gbv%3D2%26svnum
%3D10%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DG Date
1794 Author Ellen Sharples PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Priestley.jpg
[2] Description Portrait of Joseph
Priestley Source
http://www.search.revolutionaryplayers.
org.uk/engine/resource/default.asp?theme
=47&originator=%2Fengine%2Ftheme%2Fdefau
lt%2Easp&page=3&records=58&direction=1&p
ointer=2784&text=0&resource=4501 Date
c.1763 Author Artist is unknown. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:PriestleyLeeds.jpg
[1772 CE]
1742-1786) isolates oxygen
(independently of Joseph Priestley).
[1] Karl Wilhelm Scheele Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Karl+Wilh
elm+Scheele+?cat=technology
[2] Chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele from
Svenska Familj-Journalen 1874. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Carl_Wilhelm_Scheele_from_Familj-Jour
nalen1874.png
[1772 CE]
Scottish chemist, (is credited with
being) the first to isolate nitrogen.
[1] Description Scan of an old
picture of Daniel Rutherford Source
The Gases of the Atmosphere (old
book) Date 1896 Author William
Ramsay PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Rutherford_Daniel.jpg
[08/01/1774 CE]
isolates oxygen (independently of Karl
Scheele).
[1] Portrait of Joseph
Priestley Source
http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=h
ttp://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/im
ages/priestlyc.jpg&imgrefurl=http://www.
chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/PortraitsHH_
Detail.asp%3FHH_LName%3DPriestley&h=640&
w=462&sz=57&hl=en&start=9&tbnid=ipHldQCy
TukivM:&tbnh=137&tbnw=99&prev=/images%3F
q%3Djoseph%2Bpriestley%26gbv%3D2%26svnum
%3D10%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DG Date
1794 Author Ellen Sharples PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Priestley.jpg
[2] Description Portrait of Joseph
Priestley Source
http://www.search.revolutionaryplayers.
org.uk/engine/resource/default.asp?theme
=47&originator=%2Fengine%2Ftheme%2Fdefau
lt%2Easp&page=3&records=58&direction=1&p
ointer=2784&text=0&resource=4501 Date
c.1763 Author Artist is unknown. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:PriestleyLeeds.jpg
[1774 CE]
1742-1786) isolates chlorine gas.
[1] Karl Wilhelm Scheele Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Karl+Wilh
elm+Scheele+?cat=technology
[2] Chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele from
Svenska Familj-Journalen 1874. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Carl_Wilhelm_Scheele_from_Familj-Jour
nalen1874.png
[1774 CE]
1742-1786) studies or isolates for the
first time many organic acids
including: tartaric, citric, benzoic,
oxalic, malic (which he calls "acid of
apples"), and gallic from plant
sources; lactic, mucic and uric from
animal sources; and molybdic and
arsenious acid from mineral sources.
In addition
Scheele studies or isolates for the
first time other organic substances
such as casein, aldehyde, and glycerol.
(need dates for all finds)
Scheele studies copper arsenite which
is called Scheele's green, and a
calcium tungstate mineral that is now
called scheelite.
[1] Karl Wilhelm Scheele Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Karl+Wilh
elm+Scheele+?cat=technology
[2] Chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele from
Svenska Familj-Journalen 1874. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Carl_Wilhelm_Scheele_from_Familj-Jour
nalen1874.png
[1774 CE]
(loVWoZYA) (CE 1743-1794) shows how
material in the air combines with
metals when heated, which will end the
phlogiston theory of combustion, and
demonstrates the conservation of mass.
Antoin
e Laurent Lavoisier (loVWoZYA) (CE
1743-1794) heats tin and lead in closed
contained with air. Both metals form a
layer of calx on the surface. The calx
is heavier than the original metal, but
the vessel still weighs the same after
heating, so Lavoisier concludes that
there must be a weight loss elsewhere,
possibly in the air or in the vessel.
If the air, then a partial vacuum must
exist in the vessel, and sure enough
air rushes in when Lavoisier opens the
vessel, and then the vessel and its
contents gain weight. (It is
interesting that atoms in air bonding
with a solid creates a vacuum, as I
suppose any gas chemically combining
with a solid in a closed container will
create a vacuum of empty space and
pressure difference with the atmosphere
of Earth.) Lavoisier therefore shows
that the calx (now known as oxide) is
made of a combination of the metal with
air, and that rusting (and combustion)
do not involve a loss of phlogiston but
a gain of at least a portion of the
air. This experiment will finally end
the popularity of the phlogiston
theory, and establish chemistry on its
modern basis (in terms of oxygen
combustion). Lavoisier also shows that
mass is only shifted from one place to
another and cannot be created or
destroyed, which is the law of
conservation of mass.
The mass loss from particles of light
in the form of particles of light of
various frequencies is apparently too
small to be measured and Lavoisier
(presumably) misses this concept. One
modern view is that electrons are
composed of photons and vary in mass
depending on their orbit as the Bohr
model requires, and in combustion, the
photons observed are released from
electrons around the oxygen and fuel
atoms, the electrons losing mass in the
form of photons, while the nucleus of
all atoms is still preserved. Another
view holds that some atoms completely
separate into their source photons in
oxygen combustion.
[1] Creator/Artist Name English:
Jacques-Louis David Alternative names
English: David Date of birth/death
1748-08-30 1825-12-29 Location of
birth/death English: Paris Work
location Title English: Portrait
of Monsieur de Lavoisier and his
Wife Year 1788 Technique English:
Oil on canvas Dimensions 259.7 x 196
cm Current location Metropolitan
Museum of Art New York PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisie
r_and_His_Wife.jpg
[2] Scientist: Lavoisier, Antoine
Laurent (1743 - 1794) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: William G.
Jackman, fl. 1841-1860 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Jacques
Louis David, 1744-1825 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 15.2 x 10.8 cm /
Sheet: 24.7 x 13.9 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=L
[1774 CE]
1745-1818) isolates metallic manganese.
[1] Manganese GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mangan_1.jpg
[2] Johan Gottlieb Gahn Ljus från
Sverige Född: 1745, Samtida med:
Gustav III, Gustav IV Adolf Nyckelord:
kemist, mangan Död:
1818 PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.bgf.nu/ljus/u/gahn.ht
ml
[07/04/1776 CE]
"Declaration of Independence" from the
Kingdom of Great Britain.
United States)
[1] The original image of the
Declaration of Independence (with
annotations on it) This is a
high-resolution image of the United
States Declaration of Independence
(article
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Us_declaration_independence.jpg
[1778 CE]
- June 26, 1827), invents the "spinning
mule" by combining the Water Frame and
Spinning Jenny.
[1] Samuel Crompton (1753-1827),
English inventor. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Samuel_Crompton.jpg
[1778 CE]
1742-1786) identifies the element
Molybdenum.
[1] Karl Wilhelm Scheele Library of
Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Karl+Wilh
elm+Scheele+?cat=technology
[2] Chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele from
Svenska Familj-Journalen 1874. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Carl_Wilhelm_Scheele_from_Familj-Jour
nalen1874.png
[1778 CE]
(loVWoZYA) (CE 1743-1794) announces
that air consists of two gases, one
that supports combustion and one which
does not.
[1] Creator/Artist Name English:
Jacques-Louis David Alternative names
English: David Date of birth/death
1748-08-30 1825-12-29 Location of
birth/death English: Paris Work
location Title English: Portrait
of Monsieur de Lavoisier and his
Wife Year 1788 Technique English:
Oil on canvas Dimensions 259.7 x 196
cm Current location Metropolitan
Museum of Art New York PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisie
r_and_His_Wife.jpg
[2] Scientist: Lavoisier, Antoine
Laurent (1743 - 1794) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: William G.
Jackman, fl. 1841-1860 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Jacques
Louis David, 1744-1825 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 15.2 x 10.8 cm /
Sheet: 24.7 x 13.9 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=L
[1779 CE]
1730-1799) describes photosynthesis, by
showing that plants take in carbon
dioxide but only in the light, and in
the dark, plants, like animals give off
carbon dioxide and absorb oxygen.
[1] Jan Ingenhousz PD?
source: http://www.americanchemistry.com
/s_acc/sec_learning.asp?CID=1020&DID=401
6
[2] Ingenhousz, detail of an
engraving BBC Hulton Picture
Library Related Articles: Ingenhousz,
Jan (Encyclop�dia
Britannica) Dutch-born British
physician and scientist who is best
known for his discovery of the process
of photosynthesis, by which green
plants in sunlight absorb carbon
dioxide and release oxygen. To cite
this page: * MLA style:
''Ingenhousz, Jan.'' Online Photograph.
Encyclop�dia Britannica Online. 12
Nov. 2007
PD COPYRIGHTED
source: http://images.google.com/imgres?
imgurl=http://cache.eb.com/eb/image%3Fid
%3D10796%26rendTypeId%3D4&imgrefurl=http
://www.britannica.com/ebc/art-11958/Inge
nhousz-detail-of-an-engraving&h=300&w=24
8&sz=20&hl=en&start=6&um=1&tbnid=t9wu82P
uoXVatM:&tbnh=116&tbnw=96&prev=/images%3
Fq%3DJan%2BIngenhousz%26ndsp%3D18%26svnu
m%3D10%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26safe%3Doff%2
6sa%3DN
[1779 CE]
(loVWoZYA) (CE 1743-1794) names the gas
that can support combustion "oxygen"
and the gas in the air that does not
support combustion "Azote" (in 1790
renamed Nitrogen by Chaptal)
[1] Creator/Artist Name English:
Jacques-Louis David Alternative names
English: David Date of birth/death
1748-08-30 1825-12-29 Location of
birth/death English: Paris Work
location Title English: Portrait
of Monsieur de Lavoisier and his
Wife Year 1788 Technique English:
Oil on canvas Dimensions 259.7 x 196
cm Current location Metropolitan
Museum of Art New York PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisie
r_and_His_Wife.jpg
[2] Scientist: Lavoisier, Antoine
Laurent (1743 - 1794) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: William G.
Jackman, fl. 1841-1860 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Jacques
Louis David, 1744-1825 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 15.2 x 10.8 cm /
Sheet: 24.7 x 13.9 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=L
[1780 CE]
chemist, improves the oil lamp,
inventing the Argand lamp. The argand
lamp greatly improves on the home
lighting oil lamp of the day, producing
5 to 10 times the light of a candle,
and significantly brighter than the
traditional oil lamp. It has a circular
wick mounted between two cylindrical
metal tubes so that air moves through
the center of the wick, as well as
outside of it. A cylindrical glass
chimney around the wick is used to
steady the flame and to improve the
flow of air. The argand lamp uses
liquid oil. Argand finds that purified
spermaceti (whale) oil is optimal,
though a good grade of olive oil can be
used too. Aside from the improvement in
brightness, the more complete
combustion of the wick and oil requires
much less frequent snuffing (trimming)
of the wick.
The Argand lamp will quickly replace
all other varieties of oil lamps until
about 1850 when kerosene lamps, which
use a flat wick in a cup with a bellied
chimney, are introduced. Kerosene is
considerably cheaper than whale oil,
and many Argand lamps will be converted
to the new form.
In France, these lamps are known as
"Quinquets" named after the man that
copied the design from Argand and
popularized it in France.
[03/13/1781 CE]
German-English astronomer, identifies
the planet Uranus.
This is the first new
planet to be discovered since
prehistoric times.
[1] Wilhelm Herschel, German-British
astronomer. from fr. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Herschel01.jpg
[2] William Herschel AKA Frederick
William Herschel Born:
15-Nov-1738 Birthplace: Hannover,
Hanover, Germany Died:
25-Aug-1822 Location of death: Slough,
Buckinghamshire, England Cause of
death: unspecified Gender: Male Race
or Ethnicity: White Occupation:
Astronomer Nationality:
England Executive summary: Mapped
heavens, discovered
Uranus PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/661/0
00096373/
[1781 CE]
credited for inventing the
sun-and-planet gear, which converts the
reciprocating (back and forth) motion
of a steam engine into a rotary motion.
[1] Schematic animation of Watt's sun
and planet gears. The Sun is yellow,
the planet red, the reciprocating crank
is blue, the flywheel is green and the
driveshaft is grey. Notice that the sun
and flywheel rotate twice for every
rotation of the planet. Schematic
animation of Watt's Sun and Planet
gears, drawn by me using Xarax
Emoscopes 03:36, 4 March 2006
(UTC) GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun
_and_planet_gear
[2] William Murdoch, reproduction of a
portrait by John Graham Gilbert in the
City Museum and Art Gallery,
Birmingham. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Murdoch_%281754-1839%29.jpg
[1781 CE]
1740-1784), is the first to show that
the orbit of Hershel's object (Uranus)
is that of a planet and not a comet as
Hershel had thought.
(presumably)
[1] Anders Johan Lexell
(1740-1784) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.astro.utu.fi/kurssit/
ttpk1/ttpkI/22Suomi.html
[1781 CE]
isolates molybdenum.
[1] Molybdenum sample GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Mo%2C42.jpg
[2] Molybdenum ingot COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.molybdenum.com/molyin
fo/molyinfo.html
[1782 CE]
Scottish engineer patents the
double-acting engine, in which the
piston pushes as well as pulls.
[1] From
http://www.lib.utexas.edu/photodraw/port
raits/index.html, in the public
domain original source: Helmolt, H.F.,
ed. History of the World. New York:
Dodd, Mead and Company, 1902. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:James_Watt.jpg
[2] James Watt, oil painting by H.
Howard; in the National Portrait
Gallery, London. Courtesy of The
National Portrait Gallery, London
PD COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15159/James-Watt-oil-painting-by-H-Howa
rd-in-the-National?articleTypeId=1
[1782 CE]
1740-1825) identifies the new element
"tellurium".
time)
[1] Image by Daniel Mayer or
GreatPatton and released under terms of
the GNU FDL GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Te-TableImage.png
[2] English: Tellurium sample. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Te%2C52.jpg
[05/26/1783 CE]
understood to change because of
gravity.
[06/04/1783 CE]
empty hot air balloon.
.jpg)
[1] First public demonstration in
Annonay, 1783-06-04. Library of
Congress PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Early_flight_02562u_%282%29.jpg
[2] Jacques Étienne Montgolfier
(1745-1799), inventor of the hot air
balloon. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jacques_%C3%89tienne_Montgolfier.jpg
[07/15/1783 CE]
d'Abbans (CE 1751-1832) travels
upstream on the Saône River near Lyon,
France in his "Pyroscaphe", the first
successful steamboat.
[1] Model of a steamship, built by
d'Abbans in 1784. Musee de la Marine.
GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:D%27AbbansSteamshipModel.jpg
[08/27/1783 CE]
1746-1823) constructs the first
hydrogen balloon.
.jpg)
[1] First flight by Prof. Jacques
Charles with Ainé Roberts, December 1,
1783. Illustration from the late 19th
Century. N°. 5 - Premier voyage
aérien par Charles et Robert
(1783) First aerial voyage by Charles
and Robert · Erste Flugreise mit
Charles und Robert Library of
Congress PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Early_flight_02562u_%285%29.jpg
[2] Jacques Alexandre César Charles,
1820 Jacques Alexandre César Charles,
French scientist, mathematician, and
balloonist. This image is from the
Library of Congress online collection,
and is in the public domain. It has
been cropped for concision. See catalog
information below. TITLE: Charles,
(Jacques Alexandre César.) né
Beaugency-sur-Loire, le 11 novembre
1746, élu en 1793 / Jul. Bailly,
1820. CALL NUMBER: LOT 13400, no. 22
[P&P] Check for an online group
record (may link to related
items) REPRODUCTION NUMBER:
LC-DIG-ppmsca-02185 (digital file from
original print) LC-USZ62-70373 (b&w
film copy neg.) No known restrictions
on publication. SUMMARY:
Head-and-shoulders portrait of French
balloonist Jacques Alexandre César
Charles, who made the first flight in a
hydrogen balloon, Dec. 1,
1783. MEDIUM: 1 print :
lithograph. CREATED/PUBLISHED: [S.l.
: s.n., 1820] NOTES: ''Institut
royal de France, Académie des sciences
(physique génle.)''--printed above
title. Title from
item. Tissandier
collection. SUBJECTS: Charles,
Jacques Alexandre César, 1746-1823.
Balloonists--French--1820. FORMAT:
Portrait prints 1820. Lithographs
1820. REPOSITORY: Library of
Congress Prints and Photographs
Division Washington, D.C. 20540
USA DIGITAL ID: (digital file from
original print) ppmsca 02185
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/ppmsca.02185
(b&w film copy neg.) cph 3b17771
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3b17771
CARD #: 2002716398 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jacques_Alexandre_C%C3%A9sar_Charles.
jpg
[11/21/1783 CE]
flight with a human passenger is made
by François de Rozier (CE 1754-1785)
and the Marquis d'Arlandes in Paris.
.jpg)
[1] This image is available from the
United States Library of Congress
Prints and Pictures division under the
digital ID ppmsca.02562 The first
untethered balloon flight, by Rosier
and the Marquis d'Arlandes on 21
November 1783. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Early_flight_02562u_%284%29.jpg
[2] REPRODUCTION NUMBER:
LC-DIG-ppmsca-02227 (digital file from
original print) LC-USZ62-15586 (b&w
film copy neg.) No known restrictions
on publication. SUMMARY: Oval
head-and-shoulders portrait of French
balloonist Jean-François Pilâtre de
Rozier, who took the first balloon
flight in 1783. MEDIUM: 1 print :
etching with
engraving. CREATED/PUBLISHED: [S.l.]
: Chez Mr. Pujos, peintre, [between
1783 and 1800] RELATED
NAMES: Pujos, André, 1738-1788,
artist. NOTES: ''Et se trouve
chez Mr. Pujos Peintre, Quai Pelletier
prés la Greve''-- at bottom of
print. Title from
item. Tissandier
collection. SUBJECTS: Pilâtre de
Rozier, Jean-François, 1754-1785.
Balloonists--French--1780-1800. FORMA
T: Portrait prints 1780-1800.
Etchings 1780-1800. REPOSITORY:
Library of Congress Prints and
Photographs Division Washington, D.C.
20540 USA DIGITAL ID: (digital file
from original print) ppmsca 02227
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/ppmsca.02227
(b&w film copy neg.) cph 3a17830
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3a17830
CARD #: 2002724820 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Pilatre_de_Rozier.jpg
[1783 CE]
English iron-maker, invents the
puddling process of iron making. Cort
makes a puddling furnace to create
wrought iron from the pig iron produced
in a blast furnace. Pig iron contains
high amounts of carbon and other
impurities, making it brittle. The
puddling furnace burns off these
impurities to produce a malleable
low-carbon steel or wrought iron.
The furnace is constructed to pull the
hot air over the iron without it coming
into direct contact with the fuel, a
system generally known as a
reverberatory furnace or open-hearth
process. After lighting and being
brought to a low temperature, the
furnace is prepared for use by
"fettling"; painting the grate and
walls around it with iron oxides,
typically hematite. Iron is then placed
on the grate, normally about 600 lbs,
and allowed to melt on top, mixing with
the oxides. The mixture is then stirred
vigorously with a "rabbling-bar", a
long iron rod with a hook formed into
one end. This causes the oxygen from
the oxides to react with impurities in
the pig iron, notably silicon,
manganese (to form slag) and to some
degree sulfur and phosphorus, which
form gases and are removed out the
chimney.
More fuel is then added and the
temperature raised. The iron completely
melts and the carbon starts to burn off
as well. The carbon dioxide formed in
this process causes the slag to "puff
up" on top, giving the rabbler a visual
indication of the progress of the
combustion. As the carbon burns off the
melting temperature of the mixture
rises, so the furnace has to be
continually fed during this process.
Eventually the carbon is mostly burned
off and the iron 'comes to nature',
forming into a spongy plastic material,
indicating that the process is
complete, and the material can be
removed.
The hook on the end of the bar is then
used to pull out large "puddle-balls"
of the material, about 40 kg each.
These are then hammered ('shingled')
using a powered hammer, to expel slag
and weld shut internal cracks, while
breaking off chunks of impurities. The
iron is then re-heated and rolled out
into flat bars or round rods. For this,
grooved rollers are used, the grooves
being of successively descreasing size
so that the bar is progressively
reduced to the desired dimensions. The
quality of this may be improved by
faggoting (a process in which rods or
bars of iron and/or steel are gathered
(like a bundle of sticks or "faggot")
and forge welded together. The faggot
would then be drawn out lengthwise. The
bar might then be broken and the pieces
made into a faggot again or folded
over, and forge welded again).
The puddling furnace will be replaced
with the introduction of the Bessemer
Process, which produces mild steel or
wrought iron for a fraction of the cost
and time. For comparison, an average
size charge for a puddling furnace is
600 lb, for a Bessemer converter it
will be 15 short tons. The puddling
process can not be scaled up, being
limited by the amount that the puddler
can handle. It can only be expanded by
building more furnaces.
[1] Schematic drawing of a puddling
furnace. A, the hearth; F. the grate
or fireplace; C, the chimney with a
damper at the summit to regulate the
draught; D, a bridge separating the
grate from the hearth, for preventing
the direct contact of the fuel with the
iron. Found on the web at
http://www.mspong.org/cyclopedia/metallu
rgy_pics.html Scanned from The
Household Cyclopedia by Henry
Hartshorne, 1881. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Puddling_furnace.jpg
[1783 CE]
English chemist and physicist, is the
first to measure the weight of
particular volumes of gas to determine
their density. (Show how Cavendish does
this) He finds Hydrogen to be very
light with only 1/14 the density of
air. The lightness and flammability of
Hydrogen makes Cavendish think he found
Stahl's phlogiston a view which Scheele
will adopt.
[1] Henry Cavendish Henry
CavendishBorn: 10-Oct-1731 Birthplace:
Nice, France Died:
24-Feb-1810 Location of death:
Clapham, England PD?
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/030/0
00083778/
[2] Old picture from F. Moore's
History of Chemistry, published in
1901 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cavendish_Henry.jpg
[1783 CE]
understands that the Sun is moving
towards the constellation Hercules.
[1] Wilhelm Herschel, German-British
astronomer. from fr. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Herschel01.jpg
[2] William Herschel AKA Frederick
William Herschel Born:
15-Nov-1738 Birthplace: Hannover,
Hanover, Germany Died:
25-Aug-1822 Location of death: Slough,
Buckinghamshire, England Cause of
death: unspecified Gender: Male Race
or Ethnicity: White Occupation:
Astronomer Nationality:
England Executive summary: Mapped
heavens, discovered
Uranus PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/661/0
00096373/
[1783 CE]
(loVWoZYA) (CE 1743-1794) names
Cavendish's inflammable gas "Hydrogen".
[1] Creator/Artist Name English:
Jacques-Louis David Alternative names
English: David Date of birth/death
1748-08-30 1825-12-29 Location of
birth/death English: Paris Work
location Title English: Portrait
of Monsieur de Lavoisier and his
Wife Year 1788 Technique English:
Oil on canvas Dimensions 259.7 x 196
cm Current location Metropolitan
Museum of Art New York PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:David_-_Portrait_of_Monsieur_Lavoisie
r_and_His_Wife.jpg
[2] Scientist: Lavoisier, Antoine
Laurent (1743 - 1794) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: William G.
Jackman, fl. 1841-1860 Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Jacques
Louis David, 1744-1825 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 15.2 x 10.8 cm /
Sheet: 24.7 x 13.9 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=L
[1783 CE]
1755-1833) with his brother Juan José
D'elhuyar, isolate tungsten (also known
as wolfram).
[1] Fausto Elhuyarren urteurrena
(1755-1833) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.zientzia.net/argazkik
onts.asp?Artik_kod=3751
[2] FAUSTO FERMÃN DE ELHUYAR
(1757-1833) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.minas.upm.es/inicio/M
useo%20Historico/Ingles/history.htm
[01/15/1784 CE]
the first to show that water is created
from burning hydrogen gas in oxygen
gas.
Before this both water is thought to be
an element.
[1] Henry Cavendish Henry
CavendishBorn: 10-Oct-1731 Birthplace:
Nice, France Died:
24-Feb-1810 Location of death:
Clapham, England PD?
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/030/0
00083778/
[2] Old picture from F. Moore's
History of Chemistry, published in
1901 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Cavendish_Henry.jpg
[02/17/1785 CE]
[1] David Rittenhouse from an original
Picture in the possession of Mrs.
Sergeant. PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=_J8RAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=dav
id+rittenhouse#PPP6,M1
[04/??/1785 CE]
publishes a catalog with 1000
(previously unknown) "nebulae"
(galaxies) and star clusters.
This enlarges the map of the known
universe.
[1] Wilhelm Herschel, German-British
astronomer. from fr. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Herschel01.jpg
[2] William Herschel AKA Frederick
William Herschel Born:
15-Nov-1738 Birthplace: Hannover,
Hanover, Germany Died:
25-Aug-1822 Location of death: Slough,
Buckinghamshire, England Cause of
death: unspecified Gender: Male Race
or Ethnicity: White Occupation:
Astronomer Nationality:
England Executive summary: Mapped
heavens, discovered
Uranus PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/661/0
00096373/
[1785 CE]
Cartwright (April 24, 1743 - October
30, 1823). The power loom automates the
cloth making process and allows large
amounts of cloth to be made in a
shorter time than can be made by human
labor.
[1] Edmund Cartwright (1743-1823),
English inventor. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edmund_Cartwright_2.jpg
[2] Some of the 1200 power looms at
the Plevna factory building, completed
in 1877, at the Finlayson & Co Cotton
mills in Tampere, Finland source:
http://www.finlayson.fi/kodintekstiilit/
histo07.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Finlayson_%26_Co_-_Plevna_1877.jpg
[1785 CE]
and John Stringfellow (1799-1883)
invent a steam-engine powered airplane
(Aerial Steam Carriage). This design
can not fly, but an improved design in
1848 will be able to fly for small
distances within a hanger. This is the
first device built to use machine
powered flight.
[1] William Samuel Henson and the
Aerial Transit Company's publicity
engraving of the ''Aerial Steam
Carriage'' of 1843. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Henson-Willliam_02.jpg
[2] Patent drawing for the Henson
Aerial Steam Carriage of 1843. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Henson-Willliam_03.jpg
[1785 CE]
Scottish geologist puts forward the
"uniformitarian principle", the theory
that slow changes change the earth's
surface.
[1] JAMES HUTTON (1726-1797) PD
source: http://www.uwmc.uwc.edu/geograph
y/hutton/hutton.htm
[2]
http://www.usgs.gov/museum/575005.html
James Hutton(1726-1797) is considered
to be the founder of modern Geology.
His studies of the rock formations of
his native Scotland helped him to
formulate his most famous work,
''Theory of the Earth''. This work was
interpreted and used by many as the
basis for geological theory. Hutton
made many observations about rock
formations and how they were effected
by erosion. His terminology and rock
formation theories became known as
''Huttonian'' Geology. Several of the
watercolors on this page are
reproductions of works that he did
while in the field. This portrait of
him was done by Abner Lowe in the
1920s. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:James_Hutton.jpg
[1785 CE]
shows that air is a mixture of gases by
using electrolysis. Before this air was
thought to be an element.
Cavendish observes
that air contains a small volume of gas
(1/120) that is not phlogisticated air
(nitrogen) or dephlogisticated air
(oxygen).
[1] Figure from Experiments on Air.
By Henry Cavendish, Esq. F.R.S. and
A.S. Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 75 -
1785 Pages 372-384 DOI 10.1098/rstl.17
85.0023 PD?
source: http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac.
uk/content/002m322p050qv423/?p=d80161c90
5fe4831aa63484ba66ccb98&pi=6
[2] Henry Cavendish Henry
CavendishBorn: 10-Oct-1731 Birthplace:
Nice, France Died:
24-Feb-1810 Location of death:
Clapham, England PD?
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/030/0
00083778/
[1785 CE]
(CE 1736-1806) proves that electrical
and magnetic attraction and repulsion
are both inversely related to distance
squared.
This will eventually lead to the famous
equation now called Coulomb's law:
F=kq1q2/r^
2 (state who is the first to formally
state this equation)
Coulomb finds that the force between
electrical and magnetic objects is
identical, a strong indication that a
magnetic field is actually just an
electrical field. However Coulomb
maintains that the electrical and
magnetic fluids are not identical. I
think that this is strong evidence that
a magnetic field is simply an
electrical field, which implies that in
every permanent magnet has a current of
particles which creates an electric
field running through it.
[1] Portrait by Hippolyte Lecomte PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Coulomb.jpg
[2] Charles-Augustin de Coulomb,
detail of a bronze bust. H.
Roger-Viollet COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-9659/Charles-Augustin-de-Coulomb-detail
-of-a-bronze-bust?articleTypeId=1
[1785 CE]
(CE 1736-1806) finds that electrical
and magnetic attraction and repulsion
are both proportional to amount of
charge and inversely proportional to
distance squared.
This will eventually lead to the famous
equation now called Coulomb's law:
F=kq1q2/r^
2 (state who is the first to formally
state this equation)
Asimov states that: Joseph
Priestly came to this conclusion a few
years earlier.
Henry Cavendish found this before
Coulomb but didn't publish his
results.
The quantity of electric charge will be
named in honor of Coulomb.
In this equation F is the force in
Newtons between two charged objects, k
is a constant which depends on the
medium in which the charged bodies are
immersed, q1 and q2 are the two charges
in Coulombs, and r is the distance in
meters between the centers of the two
charged objects. k in a vacuum equals
8.98 x 10^9 Nm^2/C^2 Newton-meters
squared per coulombs squared.
Coulomb never explicitly states this
relationship in the formal equation
that will be first created by ?.
This view implies to many that there
exists a force of electricity, which is
similar to, but different from a force
of gravity.
[1] Portrait by Hippolyte Lecomte PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Coulomb.jpg
[2] Charles-Augustin de Coulomb,
detail of a bronze bust. H.
Roger-Viollet COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-9659/Charles-Augustin-de-Coulomb-detail
-of-a-bronze-bust?articleTypeId=1
[1786 CE]
modern spelling, threshing machine, is
invented by Scottish mechanical
engineer Andrew Meikle (1719 - November
27, 1811). The threshing machine is
used to separate the seeds (or grains)
of cereal plants from their stalks and
outer husks. For thousands of years,
grain was separated by hand with flails
(two or more sticks attached by a short
chain or leather thong; one stick is
held and swung, causing the other to
strike a pile of grain, loosening the
husks), and was very laborious and time
consuming. Mechanization of this
process will increase the speed and
quantity of production, in addition to
lowering the cost.
Early threshing
machines are hand fed and horse
powered. They are small by today's
standards and are about the size of an
upright piano.
Although threshing removes the
straw and the chaff (seed casing and
other inedible materials of a plant),
it does not remove the bran (Bran is
the hard outer layer of cereal grains,
and consists of combined aleurone and
pericarp. Along with germ (the embyro
of the seed), it is an integral part of
whole grains, and is often produced as
a by-product of milling in the
production of refined grains. When bran
is removed from grains, they lose a
portion of their nutritional value.
Bran is present in and may be milled
from any cereal grain, including rice,
wheat, maize, oats, and millet.).
Kingdom
[1] Threshing machine from
1881 Source: cropped from
http://www.unige.ch/lareh/Archives/Archi
ves-images/Images/Dictionnaire-arts-indu
striels/Page%20585%20-%20batteuse.jpg 1
881 Dictionnaire d'arts industriels. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Batteuse_1881.jpg
[2] Flail PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Dreschflegel.jpg
[08/27/1787 CE]
(soRL) (CE 1746-1823) states that the
volume of a fixed quantity of gas at
constant pressure is inversely
proportional to its temperature
(Charles' law).
[1] Jacques Alexandre César Charles,
1820 Jacques Alexandre César Charles,
French scientist, mathematician, and
balloonist. This image is from the
Library of Congress online collection,
and is in the public domain. It has
been cropped for concision. See catalog
information below. TITLE: Charles,
(Jacques Alexandre César.) né
Beaugency-sur-Loire, le 11 novembre
1746, élu en 1793 / Jul. Bailly,
1820. CALL NUMBER: LOT 13400, no. 22
[P&P] Check for an online group
record (may link to related
items) REPRODUCTION NUMBER:
LC-DIG-ppmsca-02185 (digital file from
original print) LC-USZ62-70373 (b&w
film copy neg.) No known restrictions
on publication. SUMMARY:
Head-and-shoulders portrait of French
balloonist Jacques Alexandre César
Charles, who made the first flight in a
hydrogen balloon, Dec. 1,
1783. MEDIUM: 1 print :
lithograph. CREATED/PUBLISHED: [S.l.
: s.n., 1820] NOTES: ''Institut
royal de France, Académie des sciences
(physique génle.)''--printed above
title. Title from
item. Tissandier
collection. SUBJECTS: Charles,
Jacques Alexandre César, 1746-1823.
Balloonists--French--1820. FORMAT:
Portrait prints 1820. Lithographs
1820. REPOSITORY: Library of
Congress Prints and Photographs
Division Washington, D.C. 20540
USA DIGITAL ID: (digital file from
original print) ppmsca 02185
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/ppmsca.02185
(b&w film copy neg.) cph 3b17771
http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3b17771
CARD #: 2002716398 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jacques_Alexandre_C%C3%A9sar_Charles.
jpg
[2] First flight by Prof. Jacques
Charles with Ainé Roberts, December 1,
1783. Illustration from the late 19th
Century. N°. 5 - Premier voyage
aérien par Charles et Robert
(1783) First aerial voyage by Charles
and Robert · Erste Flugreise mit
Charles und Robert Library of
Congress PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Early_flight_02562u_%285%29.jpg
[1787 CE]
identifies two moons of Uranus, Titania
and Oberon.
[1] Wilhelm Herschel, German-British
astronomer. from fr. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Herschel01.jpg
[2] William Herschel AKA Frederick
William Herschel Born:
15-Nov-1738 Birthplace: Hannover,
Hanover, Germany Died:
25-Aug-1822 Location of death: Slough,
Buckinghamshire, England Cause of
death: unspecified Gender: Male Race
or Ethnicity: White Occupation:
Astronomer Nationality:
England Executive summary: Mapped
heavens, discovered
Uranus PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/661/0
00096373/
[06/21/1788 CE]
ratified by 9 of 13 states and the
United States Government is formed, a
representative democracy, won after an
8 year war against the Kingdom of Great
Britain (a Parliamentary Monarchy).
This is the first major representative
democracy not ruled by any hereditary
king of planet earth.
[1] First page of Constitution of the
United States. Source
http://www.archives.gov/national-archiv
es-experience/charters/charters_download
s.html Date 1787 Author
Constitutional Convention PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Constitution_Pg1of4_AC.jpg
[2] Scene at the Signing of the
Constitution of the United States The
Philadelphia Convention PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Scene_Constitution.jpg
[08/28/1789 CE]
construction of the largest telescope
on earth and identifies two new
satellites of Saturn, Enceladus and
Mimas for a total of 7 moons for
Saturn.
[1] Wilhelm Herschel, German-British
astronomer. from fr. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Herschel01.jpg
[2] William Herschel AKA Frederick
William Herschel Born:
15-Nov-1738 Birthplace: Hannover,
Hanover, Germany Died:
25-Aug-1822 Location of death: Slough,
Buckinghamshire, England Cause of
death: unspecified Gender: Male Race
or Ethnicity: White Occupation:
Astronomer Nationality:
England Executive summary: Mapped
heavens, discovered
Uranus PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/661/0
00096373/
[1789 CE]
(KloPrOT) (CE 1743-1817) identifies the
element Uranium.
(presumably)
[1] # Title: Martin Heinrich
Klaproth # Author:Ambroise Tardieu
(engraving) after original portrait by
Eberhard-Siegfried Henne # Year:
unknown # Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
(reworked) Scientist: Klapproth,
Martin Heinrich (1743 -
1817) Discipline(s): Chemistry Print
Artist: Ambroise Tardieu, 1788-1841
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
Eberhard-Siegfried Henne, 1759-1828
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 7.5 x
10.3 cm / Sheet: 21.2 x 14.3 cm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Martin_Heinrich_Klaproth.jpg
[2] Scientist: Klapproth, Martin
Heinrich (1743 - 1817) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Artist:
Eberhard-Siegfried Henne, 1759-1828
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 10.7 x
9.2 cm / Sheet: 14.9 x 9.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=K
[1789 CE]
(KloPrOT) (CE 1743-1817) identifies the
element "zirconium".
(presumably)
[1] Zircon crystal Origin:Peixes,
Goiás, Brazil Description = One
single brown zircon crystal (2x2
cm) Source = the authors are
owner Date = created
2005-12-07 Authors = Eurico Zimbres
(FGEL-UERJ) / Tom Epaminondas (mineral
collector) Permission = Free for all
use CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Zirc%C3%A3o.jpeg
[2] # Title: Martin Heinrich
Klaproth # Author:Ambroise Tardieu
(engraving) after original portrait by
Eberhard-Siegfried Henne # Year:
unknown # Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
(reworked) Scientist: Klapproth,
Martin Heinrich (1743 -
1817) Discipline(s): Chemistry Print
Artist: Ambroise Tardieu, 1788-1841
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
Eberhard-Siegfried Henne, 1759-1828
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 7.5 x
10.3 cm / Sheet: 21.2 x 14.3 cm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Martin_Heinrich_Klaproth.jpg
[1790 CE]
1724-1793) English geologist and
astronomer, constructs a torsion
balance to measure gravitational
attraction and therefore the (mass) of
the Earth.
Henry Cavendish (1731-1810), will use
the device John Michell, in his famous
experiment to measure gravity between
two test masses.
Michell invents a torsion
balance similar to and independently of
the torsion balance that the French
physicist Charles-Augustin de Coulomb
will invent.
(presumably)
[05/03/1791 CE]
first modern constitution in Europe,
transforming the nation of Poland into
a constitutional parliamentary
monarchy. In this Constitution,
Dynasties must be elected, and
discrimination on religious grounds is
abolished.
[1] May 3rd Constitution (painting by
Jan Matejko, 1891). King Stanisław
August (left, in ermine-trimmed cloak),
enters St. John's Cathedral, where Sejm
deputies will swear to uphold the new
Constitution; in the background,
Warsaw's Royal Castle, where the
Constitution had just been
adopted. Painting by Jan Matejko from
1891 Source:
en:Image:Konstytucja_3_Maja.jpg;
originally at
http://pl.wikipedia.org/upload/3/3c/Ko
nstytucja_3_Maja.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Konstytucja_3_Maja.jpg
[2] Original manuscript of the May 3rd
Constitution. PD with source
statement: Source:
http://www.president.pl/x.node?id=404274
5
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Oryginal_Konstytucji_3_maja.jpg
[12/15/1791 CE]
10 amendments to the United States
Constitution guarantees many human
rights including freedom of religion,
speech, the press, the right of
peaceful assembly and petition, and the
prohibition of "cruel and unusual
punishments".
[1791 CE]
using electric spark and metal
connected to nerve.
Galvani makes an electric
pendulum using a frog leg, brass hook
and silver box.
[1] Italian physicists Luigi
Galvani Source
http://www.museopalazzopoggi.unibo.it
//poggi_eng/palazzo/foto/prot Date
18-19 th century Author
Unknown PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Luigi_Galvani%2C_oil-painting.jpg
[2] The electrochemical behavior of
two dissimilar metals [(zinc (Z) and
copper (C)] in a bimetallic arch, in
contact with the electrolytes of
tissue, produces an electric
stimulating current that elicits
muscular contraction. [Malmivuo, J., &
Plonsey, R. (1995).
Bioelectromagnatism: Principles and
applications of bioelectric and
biomagnetic fields. New York: Oxford
University Press., Ch.1] URL:
http://butler.cc.tut.fi/~malmivuo/bem/be
mbook/01/01.htm Diagram of Luigi
Galvani's frog legs (~1770s) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Galvani%27s_legs.gif
[1791 CE]
identifies titanium.
[1] In 1791, while studying ilmenite
from the Manaccan valley, he isolated
the calx of an unknown metal which he
named manaccanite.[3 wiki] *
Italiano: Ilmenite, dall'Italia. Foto
di Sebastian Socha, 2006. *
Polski: Ilmenit, pochodzenie WÅ‚ochy;
autor zdjęcia Sebastian Socha. 11.10.
2006 r. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ilmenit%2C_W%C5%82ochy.jpg
[09/21/1792 CE]
ends the monarchy and establishes a
republic in France.
[1] Sketch by Jacques-Louis David of
the National Assembly taking the Tennis
Court Oath David, le serment du Jeu de
Paume. Tennis Court Oath. Painting by
Jacques-Louis David (1748-1825) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Serment_du_jeu_de_paume.jpg
[2] The storming of the Bastille, 14
July 1789 Painting by Jean-Pierre
Houël (1735-1813), entitled Prise de
la Bastille (''The Storming of the
Bastille''). Watercolor painting; 37,8
x 50,5 cm. Published 1789. Visible in
the center is the arrest of Bernard
René Jourdan, marquis de Launay
(1740-1789). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Prise_de_la_Bastille.jpg
[1794 CE]
first rare earth (Lanthanoid) element.
[1] Gadolinite The mineral that
Gadolin examined was named gadolinite
in
1800.[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johan
_Gadolin] GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gadolinitas.jpg
[2] Portrait of Johan Gadolin
(1760-1852). Scanned from the book
Johan Gadolin 1760-1852 in memoriam
(published in 1910). Artist unknown but
most probably born many years before
1852, so the copyright has
expired. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Johan_Gadolin.jpg
[1795 CE]
selection before Charles Darwin,
writing that species less adapted are
more like to die while those better
adapted will continue.
[1] JAMES HUTTON (1726-1797) PD
source: http://www.uwmc.uwc.edu/geograph
y/hutton/hutton.htm
[2]
http://www.usgs.gov/museum/575005.html
James Hutton(1726-1797) is considered
to be the founder of modern Geology.
His studies of the rock formations of
his native Scotland helped him to
formulate his most famous work,
''Theory of the Earth''. This work was
interpreted and used by many as the
basis for geological theory. Hutton
made many observations about rock
formations and how they were effected
by erosion. His terminology and rock
formation theories became known as
''Huttonian'' Geology. Several of the
watercolors on this page are
reproductions of works that he did
while in the field. This portrait of
him was done by Abner Lowe in the
1920s. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:James_Hutton.jpg
[07/01/1796 CE]
English physician, confirms that having
cow pox disease provide immunity from
the more severe small pox disease.
[1] Source:
http://www.edward-jenner.com/family-life
.html PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Edward_Jenner2.jpg
[2] Figure 1: Portrait of Edward
Jenner painted in about 1800 by William
Pearce. Note the cows in the
background, the source of the cowpox
virus he used to vaccinate people
against smallpox. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://openlearn.open.ac.uk/file
.php/2642/formats/S320_1_rss.xml
[1797 CE]
produces marble by heating limestone
(calcium carbonate).
[1] Sir James Hall, Scottish chemist
and geologist, late 18th
century. Photo of Sir James Hall,
Scottish chemist and geologist, late
18th century. Oil painting by
Angelica Kauffman of Sir James Hall
(1761-1832), 4th Baronet of Dunglass.
Hall discovered that by heating calcium
carbonate under pressure a rock
substance similar to marble is formed.
His work on the creation of rocks also
proved that igneous rocks in Scotland
had been produced under
heat. Picture Reference:
10301789 Subject: PERSONALITIES >
Personalities > Hall, James'' Credit:
Science Museum PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.scienceandsociety.co.
uk/results.asp?image=10301789&wwwflag=2&
imagepos=1
[1797 CE]
(CE 1763-1829), identifies Chromium.
[1] Chrom Source
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Chr
om_1.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Chrom_1.jpg
[2] Louis Nicolas Vauquelin from
en:Wikipedia PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Louis_Nicolas_Vauquelin.jpg
[1798 CE]
indirectly measures Newton's
gravitational constant by using a
torsion balance created by John Michell
and calculate the density of the Earth.
Cavendish the mass of Earth to be
6.6e21 tons, the density being 5.48
times that of water.
Using this constant
Cavendish calculates the mass and
density of the planet Earth.
[1] Henry Cavendish Henry
CavendishBorn: 10-Oct-1731 Birthplace:
Nice, France Died:
24-Feb-1810 Location of death:
Clapham, England PD?
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/030/0
00083778/
[2] Old picture from F. Moore's
History of Chemistry, published in
1901 PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Caven
dish_Henry.jpg
[1798 CE]
(CE 1763-1829), identifies beryllium.
[1] Louis Nicolas Vauquelin from
en:Wikipedia PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Louis_Nicolas_Vauquelin.jpg
[2] Portrait de Vauquelin situé dans
la Salle des actes de la Faculté de
pharmacie, 4 avenue de l'Observatoire
à Paris PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://euromin.w3sites.net/Nouve
au_site/mineralogiste/biographies/Vauque
linf.htm
[1798 CE]
invents lithography which a printing
process based on the inability of oil
and water to mix.
[1] Two pictures showing the negative
litography stone and the resulting
positive print, with an old map of
Munich. This is the origin map, with
the north tower of the Frauenkirche in
the lower corner. All other maps of
this series are referenced to this
corner. The map also shows the
Hofgarten and the Englischer Garten.
Due to the nature of the printing
process, the negative shows everything
in reverse. Picture taken as part of
the Lange Nacht der Museen in
Munich See also Image:Litography print
of a Map of Munich.jpg and
Image:Litography stone of a Map of
Munich.jpg for the original images GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Litography_negative_stone_and_positiv
e_paper.jpg
[2] Description Lithograph,
'Portrait of Senefelder'. Lithograph
of Senefelder, from Specimens of
Polyautography. Source
http://www.nga.gov.au/FirstImpression
s/index.cfm [1] Date 1818 Author
Lorenz Quaglio. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Senefelder.jpg
[08/??/1799 CE]
Egypt.
[1799 CE]
1754-1826) shows that elements combine
in definite proportions.
Joseph Louis Proust
(PrUST) (CE 1754-1826) French chemist,
shows that elements combine in definite
proportions.
This will be known as the "law of
definite proportions" (or "Proust's
law").
[1] Joseph Proust French
chemist Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Date 2005-10-15 (original
upload date) Author Original
uploader was HappyApple at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
image) PD-AUTHOR; Released into the
public domain (by the author). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Proust_joseph.jpg
[2] Joseph-Louis Proust, medallion by
Pierre-Jean David H. Roger-Viollet To
cite this page: * MLA style:
''Proust, Joseph-Louis: portrait
coin.'' Online Photograph.
Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 13
Dec. 2007
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-30847/Joseph-Louis-Proust-medallion-by-
Pierre-Jean-David?articleTypeId=1
[03/20/1800 CE]
1745-1827) builds an electric battery.
This
battery provides a continuous source of
electrical current.
[1] Description Alessandro Giuseppe
Antonio Anastasio Volta Source
http://www.anthroposophie.net/bibliot
hek/nawi/physik/volta/bib_volta.htm Dat
e 2006-03-02 (original upload
date) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Alessandro_Volta.jpeg
[2] Scientist: Volta, Alessandro
(1745 - 1827) Discipline(s):
Physics Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 11.9 x 9.7 cm / Sheet: 18.2 x
12.3 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=V
[05/02/1800 CE]
separates water into hydrogen and
oxygen gas using electric current.
Nicholson
has reversed Cavendish's find that
hydrogen and oxygen gas can unite to
form water, by showing that water can
be separated into hydrogen and oxygen
gas.
Electrolysis is the reverse of Volta's
find which showed that a chemical
reaction can produce electricity, by
showing that electricity can cause a
chemical reaction.
Nicholson and Carlisle discover that
the amount of hydrogen and oxygen set
free by the current is proportional to
the amount of current used.
[1] William Nicholson, ca. 1812,
engraving by T. Blood after a portrait
painted by Samuel Drummond
(1765-1844) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/nicholson.html
[2] The example of Nicholson's
Hydrometer at the right is 25 cm
high, and is in the Greenslade
Collection. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://physics.kenyon.edu/EarlyA
pparatus/Fluids/Nicholsons_Hydrometer/Ni
cholsons_Hydrometer.html
[09/17/1800 CE]
1776-1810) collects hydrogen and oxygen
gas separately.
[1] Undatiertes Portrait von J. W.
Ritter PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www2.uni-jena.de/biologie
/ehh/forum/ausstellungen/Physik_als_Kuns
t/Physik_als_Kunst.htm
[2] Johann Wilhelm Ritter. Undated
woodcut, courtesy Deutsches Museum,
Munich. Reproduced in Ritter
1986. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/silpublica
tions/dibner-library-lectures/scientific
-discoveries/text-lecture.htm
[11/??/1800 CE]
1776-1810) discovers electroplating.
[1] Undatiertes Portrait von J. W.
Ritter PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www2.uni-jena.de/biologie
/ehh/forum/ausstellungen/Physik_als_Kuns
t/Physik_als_Kunst.htm
[2] Johann Wilhelm Ritter. Undated
woodcut, courtesy Deutsches Museum,
Munich. Reproduced in Ritter
1986. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/silpublica
tions/dibner-library-lectures/scientific
-discoveries/text-lecture.htm
[1800 CE]
recognizes that an invisible portion of
the spectrum of light beyond the color
red (later named infrared) heats up a
thermometer more than any other color.
Hersche
l tests portions of the sun's spectrum
by thermometer to find any difference
in heat the different colors deliver.
Herschel finds that the temperature
rise is highest in no color at all, but
in a place beyond the red end of the
spectrum. Hershel concludes that
sunlight contains invisible light
beyond the red. This is now called
infrared radiation.
[1] Wilhelm Herschel, German-British
astronomer. from fr. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Herschel01.jpg
[2] William Herschel AKA Frederick
William Herschel Born:
15-Nov-1738 Birthplace: Hannover,
Hanover, Germany Died:
25-Aug-1822 Location of death: Slough,
Buckinghamshire, England Cause of
death: unspecified Gender: Male Race
or Ethnicity: White Occupation:
Astronomer Nationality:
England Executive summary: Mapped
heavens, discovered
Uranus PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nndb.com/people/661/0
00096373/
[1800 CE]
invented.
[1800 CE]
communication (radio) invented but kept
secret. Radio transmitter and receiver
invented.
[11/12/1801 CE]
light.
Humans measure frequency and
wavelength (or photon interval) of
light, and use glass diffraction
gratings.
Theory of light interference.
Thomas Young (CE
1773-1829) determines the wavelength
(alternatively photon interval) of
different colors of light and uses a
glass diffraction grating.
Young understands that different colors
can be created by adding different
wavelengths of light.
Young puts forward the theory of light
wave interference (to explain lines of
diffraction). This theory states that
two (or more) light waves interfere
with each other, where light waves can
add together and subtract or cancel
each other out, similar to the way two
sound waves can add to or cancel each
other out to produce silence.
Young supports the theory of light as a
wave in an aether medium (aether being
like air for sound), which Grimaldi,
Huygens, Hooke, Malebranche, Euler and
others supported. Young refers to this
theory as the "undulatory" theory.
Young proposes that instead of the
retina containing an infinite number of
particles each capable of vibrating in
unison with every possible color, there
is only a need for one sensor for each
principle color red, yellow and blue.
[1] [t Table of light wavelengths and
frequencies calculated by Young from
Theory of Light and Colours
11/12/1801] The inch used in the table
is the French (Paris) inch of
27.07mm. PD/Corel
source: Young_Thomas_1802_on_the_theory_
of_light_and_colours.pdf
[2]
http://journals.royalsociety.org/content
/q3r7063hh2281211/?p=422e575bae414c9a974
a16d595c628d0Ï€=24 The Bakerian
Lecture: On the Theory of Light and
Colours Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 92 -
1802 Pages 12-48 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1802
.0004 Young_Thomas_1802_on_the_theory_o
f_light_and_colours.pdf [t Young
writes: ''Let the concentric lines in
Fig. 1 (Plate I.) represent the
contemporaneous situation of similar
parts of a number of successive
undulations diverging from the point A;
they will also represent the successive
situations of each individual
undulation: let the force of each
undulation be represented by the
breadth of the line, and let the cone
of light ABC be admitted through the
apeture BC; then the principal
undulations will proceed in a
recilinear direction towards GH, and
the faint radiations on each side will
diverge from B and C as centres,
without receiving any additional force
from any intermediate point D of the
undulation, on account of the
inequality of the lines DE and DF. But
if we allow some little lateral
divergence from the extremities of the
undulations, it must diminish their
force, without adding materially to
that of the dissipated light; and their
termination, instead of the right line
BG, will assume the form CH; since the
loss of force must be more considerable
near to C than at greater distances.
This line corresponds with the boundary
of the shadow in NEWTON's first
observation, Fig. 1; and it is much
more probable that such a dissipation
of light was the cause of the increase
of the shadow in that observation, than
that it was owing to the action of the
inflecting atmosphere, which must have
extended a thirtieth of an inch each
way in order to produce it; especially
when it is considered that the shadow
was not diminished by surrounding the
hair with a denser medium than air,
which must in all probability have
weakened and contracted its inflecting
atmosphere. In other circumstances, the
lateral divergence might appear to
increase, instead of diminishing, the
breadth of the
beam.''] PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/q3r7063hh2281211/?p=422e575bae4
14c9a974a16d595c628d0Ï€=24
[1801 CE]
(CE 1764-1849) identifies vanadium.
[1] Andrés Manuel del RÃo
(1764-1849), Spanish-Mexican geologist
and chemist. This image is a picture of
an oil painting dated from the XIX
century. The Painting is on public
display at the Palacio de MinerÃa in
Mexico City. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Del_Rio.jpg
[2] Vanadium is not found in the
native state, but is present in
minerals such as vanadinite,
Pb5(VO4)3Cl. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vanadinita_Mibladen%2C_Midelt_Marruec
os.png
[1801 CE]
identifies the new element Niobium.
[1] Image of chemist en:Charles
Hatchett PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Charles_Hatchett.jpg
[2] Ferrocolumbite Photo Copyright ©
Keith Compton - This image is
copyrighted. Unauthorized reproduction
prohibited. Locality: Giles
Columbite-Beryl Pegmatite (Giles
Prospect), Spargoville, Coolgardie
Shire, Western Australia,
Australia Single black terminated
Ferrocolumbite xl. 36mm x 25mm x
14mm Personal collection and
photo. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.mindat.org/min-1514.h
tml
[1801 CE]
1776-1810) identifies ultraviolet
light.
[1] Undatiertes Portrait von J. W.
Ritter PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www2.uni-jena.de/biologie
/ehh/forum/ausstellungen/Physik_als_Kuns
t/Physik_als_Kunst.htm
[2] Johann Wilhelm Ritter. Undated
woodcut, courtesy Deutsches Museum,
Munich. Reproduced in Ritter
1986. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/silpublica
tions/dibner-library-lectures/scientific
-discoveries/text-lecture.htm
[1801 CE]
transmitter invented but kept secret.
This device uses light particles to
transmit images to distant receivers.
At first this is a simple one sensor
light dark device. But soon, arrays of
sensors, with more and more sensors,
smaller and smaller in size are
developed - all secretly for a small
group of wealthy people of each nation.
[03/??/1802 CE]
(CE 1758-1840), finds the second known
minor planet (asteroid) Pallas.
[1] Heinrich Wilhelm Matthäus Olbers
(October 11, 1758 - March 2, 1840) was
a German astronomer, physician and
physicist. Source
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-ide
ntity/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Heinrich_Wilhelm_Olbers.jpg
[2] Olbers, detail from an
engraving Courtesy of the trustees of
the British Museum; photograph, J.R.
Freeman & Co. Ltd. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-30472/Olbers-detail-from-an-engraving?a
rticleTypeId=1
[08/03/1802 CE]
1761-1835) publishes a finding of an
electric effect deflecting a magnetic
needle.
[1] Description Portrait of Gian
Domenico Romagnosi, by painter: E.
Moscatelli (copy of Giuseppe Molteni's
painting); Museo del Risorgimento
(Milan). PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Romag
nosi.jpg
[2] Gian Domenico Romagnosi from Cantu
1861 PD/Corel
source: http://ppp.unipv.it/Collana/Page
s/Libri/Saggi/Nuova%20Voltiana3_PDF/cap4
/4.pdf * Romagnosi and Volta"s
pile: Early difficulties in the
interpretation of voltaic
electricity romagnosi_4.pdf
[1802 CE]
(CE 1766-1828) identifies spectral
lines.
William Hyde Wollaston (WOLuSTuN) (CE
1766-1828) identifies dark spectral
lines in the spectrum of light from the
Sun.
[1] William Wollaston Fiure 3 from
1802 Philosophical
Transactions PD/Corel
source: Wollaston_William_1802_PT.pdf
[2] Scientist: Wollaston, William
Hyde (1766 - 1878) Discipline(s):
Chemistry ; Physics ; Medicine Print
Artist: James Thomson, 1789-1850
Medium: Lithograph Original
Artist: J. Jackson Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11.5 x 8.7 cm /
Sheet: 24.5 x 16 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W
[1802 CE]
(CE 1767-1813) identifies tantalum.
[1] This image was copied from
en.wikipedia.org. The original
description was: Tantalum sample. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ta%2C73.jpg
[2] Anders Gustaf Ekeberg
(1767-1813) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://homepage.mac.com/dtrapp/E
lements/myth.html
[1802 CE]
1776-1810) invents the first dry
voltaic cell.
[1] Undatiertes Portrait von J. W.
Ritter PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www2.uni-jena.de/biologie
/ehh/forum/ausstellungen/Physik_als_Kuns
t/Physik_als_Kunst.htm
[2] Johann Wilhelm Ritter. Undated
woodcut, courtesy Deutsches Museum,
Munich. Reproduced in Ritter
1986. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/silpublica
tions/dibner-library-lectures/scientific
-discoveries/text-lecture.htm
[10/21/1803 CE]
chemically how all matter is made of
atoms.
John Dalton (CE 1766-1844) provides a
chemical basis for the theory that all
matter is made of atoms of different
size and mass.
Dalton makes the first table
of elements by atomic mass.
Dalton theorizes
that atoms of different elements vary
in size and mass.
Dalton creates the "Law of
Multiple Proportions" which states that
when two elements form more than one
compound, the masses of one element
that combine with a fixed mass of the
other are in a ratio of whole numbers.
Dalton's
paper contains the first table of
atomic weights.
[1] Engraving of a painting of John
Dalton Source Frontispiece of John
Dalton and the Rise of Modern Chemistry
by Henry Roscoe Date 1895 Author
Henry Roscoe (author), William Henry
Worthington (engraver), and Joseph
Allen (painter) [t right one finger =
?] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Dalton_John_desk.jpg
[2] John Dalton John Dalton,
1766-1844, English chemist and Fellow
of the Royal Society. [t this pose,
hand in coat=?, famous Napoleon
pose] PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.english.upenn.edu/Pro
jects/knarf/People/dalton.html
[1803 CE]
with Hisinger and independently by
Klaproth.
(presumably)
[1] # Title: Martin Heinrich
Klaproth # Author:Ambroise Tardieu
(engraving) after original portrait by
Eberhard-Siegfried Henne # Year:
unknown # Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
(reworked) Scientist: Klapproth,
Martin Heinrich (1743 -
1817) Discipline(s): Chemistry Print
Artist: Ambroise Tardieu, 1788-1841
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
Eberhard-Siegfried Henne, 1759-1828
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 7.5 x
10.3 cm / Sheet: 21.2 x 14.3 cm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Martin_Heinrich_Klaproth.jpg
[2] Scientist: Klapproth, Martin
Heinrich (1743 - 1817) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Artist:
Eberhard-Siegfried Henne, 1759-1828
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 10.7 x
9.2 cm / Sheet: 14.9 x 9.2 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=K
[01/01/1804 CE]
Hispaniola, declares its independence
from France after the first and only
successful slave rebellion. Haiti is
the second independent country in the
Americas, establishing a free republic.
[1] Unofficially leading the nation
politically during the revolution,
Toussaint L'Ouverture is considered the
father of Haiti. Toussaint Louverture.
From a group of engravings done in
post-Revolutionary France. (1802) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Toussaint_L%27Ouverture.jpg
[2] Jean Jacques Dessalines became
Haiti's first emperor in
1804. Jean-Jacques Dessalines (1760 -
1806). PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Dessalines.jpg
[1804 CE]
(CE 1766-1828) isolates pure platinum
metal.
[1] Scientist: Wollaston, William Hyde
(1766 - 1878) Discipline(s):
Chemistry ; Physics ; Medicine Print
Artist: James Thomson, 1789-1850
Medium: Lithograph Original
Artist: J. Jackson Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11.5 x 8.7 cm /
Sheet: 24.5 x 16 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W
[2] Scientist: Wollaston, William
Hyde (1766 - 1828) Discipline(s):
Chemistry ; Physics ;
Medicine Original Artist: J. Jackson
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 13.8 x
11 cm / Sheet: 27.4 x 18.3
cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W
[1804 CE]
(CE 1766-1828) isolates palladium.
[1] Scientist: Wollaston, William Hyde
(1766 - 1878) Discipline(s):
Chemistry ; Physics ; Medicine Print
Artist: James Thomson, 1789-1850
Medium: Lithograph Original
Artist: J. Jackson Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11.5 x 8.7 cm /
Sheet: 24.5 x 16 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W
[2] Scientist: Wollaston, William
Hyde (1766 - 1828) Discipline(s):
Chemistry ; Physics ;
Medicine Original Artist: J. Jackson
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 13.8 x
11 cm / Sheet: 27.4 x 18.3
cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W
[1805 CE]
(CE 1766-1828) isolates rhodium.
[1] Rhodium foil and wire. Image taken
by User:Dschwen on January 12th
2006. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Rhodium_foil_and_wire.jpg
[2] Scientist: Wollaston, William
Hyde (1766 - 1878) Discipline(s):
Chemistry ; Physics ; Medicine Print
Artist: James Thomson, 1789-1850
Medium: Lithograph Original
Artist: J. Jackson Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11.5 x 8.7 cm /
Sheet: 24.5 x 16 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W
[03/29/1807 CE]
(CE 1758-1840), finds the planetoid
(asteroid) Vesta.
[1] Vesta PD
source: http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/Sect19/
Sect19_2.html
[2] To prepare for the Dawn
spacecraft's visit to Vesta,
astronomers used Hubble's Wide Field
Planetary Camera 2 to snap new images
of the asteroid. The image was taken on
May 14 and 16, 2007. Using Hubble,
astronomers mapped Vesta's southern
hemisphere, a region dominated by a
giant impact crater formed by a
collision billions of years ago. The
crater is 285 miles (456 kilometers)
across, which is nearly equal to
Vesta's 330-mile (530-kilometer)
diameter. If Earth had a crater of
proportional size, it would fill the
Pacific Ocean basin. The impact broke
off chunks of rock, producing more than
50 smaller asteroids that astronomers
have nicknamed ''vestoids.'' The
collision also may have blasted through
Vesta's crust. Vesta is about the size
of Arizona. Source
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/ar
chive/releases/2007/27/image/a/,
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive
/releases/2007/27/image/c/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Vesta-HST-Color.jpg
[10/06/1807 CE]
identifies and isolates potassium.
[1] Image:Kmetal.jpg Size of this
preview: 800 × 600 pixels Full
resolution (4,000 × 3,000
pixels, file size: 4.83 MB, MIME type:
image/jpeg) [t Does metal oxide? Is
volatile in water?] CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Kmetal.jpg
[2] Flame test Kalium,
violett Source: German Wikipedia,
original upload 24. Jan 2005 by Herge
(selfmade) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Flammenf%C3%A4rbungK.png
[10/13/1807 CE]
identifies and isolates sodium.
[1] Sodium metal from the Dennis s.k
collection. CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Nametal.JPG.jpg
[2] The flame test for sodium displays
a brilliantly bright yellow emission
due to the so called ''sodium D-lines''
at 588.9950 and 589.5924
nanometers. 13. jun 2005 GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Flametest--Na.swn.jpg
[1807 CE]
1768-1830) explains "Fourier's theorem"
(or the "Fourier transform") that any
periodic oscillation can be reduced to
a sum of simple trigonometric
(sine,cosine, etc) wave motions.
[1]
http://br.geocities.com/saladefisica3/fo
tos/fourier.jpg PD/CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fourier2.jpg
[2] Scientist: Fourier, Jean Baptiste
Joseph (1768 - 1830) Discipline(s):
Mathematics ; Physics Print Artist:
Julien Leopold Boilly, 1796-1874
Medium: Lithograph Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 16.3 x 16.5 cm /
Sheet: 30.1 x 19.5 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=F
[06/21/1808 CE]
(GAlYUSoK) (CE 1778-1850) and Thénard
isolate boron.
[1] English: Boron sample. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:B%2C5.jpg
[2] Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gaylussac.jpg
[1808 CE]
16, 1770 - March 26, 1827) completes
his fifth symphony at age 38. This is
perhaps the most recognized and popular
musical work of human history.
[1] Ludwig van Beethoven Part of a
painting by W.J. Mähler, 1804 Archiv
für Kunst und Geschichte,
Berlin Source:
http://www.audio-muziek.nl/cd-recensies/
cd-aw/beethoven06.htm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Beethoven_3.jpg
[1808 CE]
identifies, isolates and names barium,
strontium, calcium and magnesium.
[1] This image was copied from
en.wikipedia.org. The original
description was: Barium sample.GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ba%2C56.jpg
[2] This image was copied from
en.wikipedia.org. The original
description was: Strontium
sample. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sr%2C38.jpg
[1809 CE]
simple forms of life were created from
heat, light and electricity acting on
inorganic materials and that more
complex organisms evolved from simple
organisms over a long time.
[1] La bildo estas kopiita de
wikipedia:fr. La originala priskribo
estas: Deuxième portrait de
Lamarck Sujet : Lamarck. Source :
Galerie des naturalistes de J.
Pizzetta, Ed. Hennuyer, 1893
(tomb� dans le domaine
public) GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean-baptiste_lamarck2.jpg
[2] An engraving of Jean-Baptiste
Lamarck at 35 years of age. Source
Alpheus Spring Packard's 1901
Lamarck, the Founder of Evolution: His
Life and Work with Translations of His
Writings on Organic Evolution, page
20. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lamarckat35.PNG
[1809 CE]
(GAlYUSoK) (CE 1778-1850) identifies
that gases combine in small whole
number ratios by volume.
Joseph Louis
Gay-Lussac (GAlYUSoK) (CE 1778-1850)
describes the "Law of combining
volumes", that gases combine in small
whole number ratios by volume as long
as temperature and pressure are
constant(Gay-Lussac stated that
temperature and pressure must be
constant?). For example, two parts of
hydrogen unite with one part nitrogen
to form ammonia.
[1] Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Gaylussac.jpg
[2] Scientist: Gay-Lussac, Joseph
Louis (1778 - 1850) Discipline(s):
Chemistry ; Physics Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 10 x 6.4 cm /
Sheet: 25 x 19.3 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=g
[1809 CE]
builds the first electric light and arc
lamp.
[1] Humphry Davy demonstrates his new
electric light for the members of the
Royal Institution of London. Power is
drawn from the banks of batteries in
the basement and rapidly used up by the
intense light. Electric light was then
only a scientific curiosity, practical
only when expense was no
object. Humphry Davy Demonstrating the
Arc Light, 1809 PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/%7Eek
atz/scientists/davy.htm
[2]
http://www.nndb.com/people/028/000083776
/humphry-davy-2-sized.jpg [left finger
1: ''left'' viewed as educated
intellectuals in 1800s England? just
coincidence?] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sir_Humphry_Davy2.jpg
[10/24/1810 CE]
sounds heard by a brain by measuring
electricity from human nerves.
Secret: Humans
hear the sounds heard by a brain by
examining low (heat) frequency light.
This
begins an amazing adventure of
interpretting light emitted from
brains, although terribly kept secret
from the public. Using this same
technique people will then hear the
sounds made by thought. Soon after this
they will see the images seen and
thought by brains. In addition, they
learn how to send sounds and images
back to the brain (neuron writing)
using x-particles (x-rays), sending
sounds to be heard in the mind, or as
if outside the body and sending images
to appear in the mind or in outside
space as if actually in front of them,
and (better estimate at accurate
chronology)
The exact date, time, location,
invention, and even inventor are not
clear because of the secrecy that still
surrounds this technology.
William Hyde Wollaston (WOLuSTuN) (CE
1766-1828) may be the first to see what
the eyes see in the infrared (heat)
frequencies of light which pass through
and are emited (sic) by the human
brain.
Many later scientists, such as Faraday
will use the word "tenable" and there
is a double meaning in that thought is
first seen in 1810 but also that
Wollaston, the possible first to see,
was the assistant of Smithson Tennant.
Possibly, people use electronic
oscillating circuits to detect heat.
In addition, initially, sounds heard by
the brain, may have been detected using
electromagnetic induction by using the
greater aurical nerve of the ear as the
primary wire of current, and using a
secondary inductor to record the
current produced by sound.
[1] 1807 engraving of camera lucida in
use Obtained from the university
website
http://www.usc.edu/schools/annenberg/asc
/projects/comm544/library/
images/448.jpg, image edited for size
and clarity. I emailed the contact at
that site and said >
http://www.usc.edu/schools/annenberg/asc
/projects/comm544/library/
images/448.jpg > is described as an
1807 picture of a camera lucida. Can
you confirm > that it isn't under
copyright? Is it OK with you if I use
it in a > Wikipedia (free Internet
encyclopedia) article on the camera
lucida? I got this
reply Daniel, This work is not
copyrighted, so far as I know--and
after 196 years, I'm quite certain any
original copyright would have long ago
expired, don't you think? Your own use
is entirely up to you--I wish you every
success. -- Jim Beniger PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W
[2] Optics of Wollaston camera
lucida From W. H. C. Bartlett,
Elements of Natural Philosophy, 1852,
A. S. Barnes and Company. Photocopy
kindly provided by Tom Greenslade,
Department of Physics, Kenyon College.
This image was scanned from the
photocopy and cleaned up by Daniel P.
B. Smith. This version is licensed by
Daniel P. B. Smith under the terms of
the Wikipedia Copyright. PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=W
[10/24/1810 CE]
sounds of thought by measuring
electricity directly from human nerves.
Secret:
Humans hear and record the sounds of
thought by measuring electricity from
human nerves. Soon, the sounds brains
hear and think will be recorded
remotely by electromagnetic induction
and amplification.
The exact date, time, location,
invention, and even inventor are not
clear because of the secrecy that still
surrounds this technology.
[1810 CE]
names "chlorine" and identifies
chlorine as an element. Davy shows that
hydrochloric acid contains no oxygen
proving Lavoisier incorrect that all
acids contain oxygen.
Davy shows that chlorine can also
support combustion as oxygen does.
(chronology)
Davy correctly suggests that the
content of hydrogen is characteristic
of acids. (verify)
[1]
http://www.nndb.com/people/028/000083776
/humphry-davy-2-sized.jpg [left finger
1: ''left'' viewed as educated
intellectuals in 1800s England? just
coincidence?] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sir_Humphry_Davy2.jpg
[2] Taken from The Life of Sir
Humphry Davy by John A. Paris, London:
Colburn and Bentley, 1831. Engraving
from about 1830, based on a portrait by
Sir Thomas Lawrence (1769 - 1830) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Humphry_Davy_Engraving_1830.jpg
[1811 CE]
are seen and recorded by measuring the
electricity the images produce in the
human nerves.
(add image)
Secret: Images that the brain
sees are seen and recorded by measuring
the electricity the images produce in
the human nerves.
Secret: Images that the
brain sees are seen and recorded using
the electricity they produce in the
human nerves. Possibly images of
thought are also seen at this time.
The exact date, time, location,
invention, and even inventor are not
clear because of the secrecy that still
surrounds this technology.
[1811 CE]
1776-1856) creates the concept of a
molecule and distinguishes between
atoms and molecules.
Avogadro claims that equal
volumes of all gases at the same
temperature and pressure contain the
same number of molecules. (Does
Avogadro explicitly state that pressure
must also be equal?)
Avogadro describes the correct
molecular formula for water, ammonia,
carbon monoxide and other compounds.
[1] [t [3 wiki] describes as
''Caricature of Amedeo Avogadro'', is
this not an accurate portrait? and no
photo by 1856?] Amedeo Avogadro -
chemist PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Amedeo_Avogadro.gif
[2] Amedeo Avogadro, lithograph,
1856. The Granger Collection, New York
PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15471/Amedeo-Avogadro-lithograph-1856?a
rticleTypeId=1
[1811 CE]
1777-1838), French chemist, identifies
and isolates iodine.
[1] Pure iodine crystals, heated
slightly, showing some solid iodine
escaping directly to the air as obvious
violet colored vapors. Because of this
''sublimation'' property, exposures
include dermal contact with solid
crystals and inhalation of vapors which
may not be quite as visible as this at
room temperature. Photographer, Charles
Salocks. PD
source: http://www.dtsc.ca.gov/SiteClean
up/ERP/Clan_Labs.cfm
[2] Bernard Courtois PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.iodinesource.com/Hist
oryOfIodine.asp
[1812 CE]
thinks of are seen and recorded by
measuring the electricity the
thought-images produce in the human
nerves.
(add image)
Secret: Images that the brain
thinks of are seen and recorded by
measuring the electricity the
thought-images produce in the human
nerves.
Secret: Images that the brain thinks
of are seen and recorded by measuring
the electricity the thought-images
produce in the human nerves.
The exact date, time, location,
invention, and even inventor are not
clear because of the secrecy that still
surrounds this technology.
[1812 CE]
remotely. (neuron writing)
(add image)
Secret: Nerve cell made to fire
remotely (without having to touch the
nerve directly). (neuron writing)
Perhaps initially a frog leg muscle is
made to contract using an x-ray
(x-particle) beam. Then a human finger
muscle is made to contract by using
remote particle beam. Then a sound is
made to be heard by a human by remote
particle beam. Probably around the same
time, light is caused to be seen by a
human by remotely using an x-ray or
some other particle beam.
In 1791 Luigi
Galvani had made a nerve cell fire
directly by touching the nerve. Being
able to remotely make a nerve cell fire
allows the very important muscle
contraction, and sending sounds and
images directly to brains from a remote
location without having to physically
touch the nerve possible.
Images that the brain thinks of are
seen and recorded by measuring the
electricity the thought-images produce
in the human nerves.
The exact date, time, location,
invention, and even inventor are not
clear because of the secrecy that still
surrounds this technology.
Very quickly after this the first
murder of a human by remote muscle
contraction using neuron writing as the
murder weapon occurs. Since this time,
the number of humans murdered by neuron
writing must be in the tens or hundreds
of thousands, and it would not surprise
me to find that over a million humans
have been murdered by neuron writing
since it's invention. One of the worst
aspects of the neuron writer as a
weapon is that it may murder leaving
little or no trace, for example in the
case of contracting and holding a heart
or lung muscle until a person is dead.
[1813 CE]
(CE 1779-1848), suggests elements be
represented with one or more letter.
[1]
http://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/i
mages/Berzelius3c.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius.jpg
[2] Scientist: Berzelius, Jons Jakob
(1779 - 1848) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: Charles W.
Sharpe, d. 1875(76) Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Johan
Olaf Sodermark, 1790-1848 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 26.8 x 18.2 cm /
Sheet: 31.6 x 23 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=B
[1814 CE]
1776-1856) describes the molecular
formulas for carbon dioxide, carbon
disulfide, sulfur dioxide, and hydrogen
sulfide.
[1] [t [3 wiki] describes as
''Caricature of Amedeo Avogadro'', is
this not an accurate portrait? and no
photo by 1856?] Amedeo Avogadro -
chemist PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Amedeo_Avogadro.gif
[2] Amedeo Avogadro, lithograph,
1856. The Granger Collection, New York
PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15471/Amedeo-Avogadro-lithograph-1856?a
rticleTypeId=1
[1814 CE]
substance emits specific frequencies of
light and invents a spectroscope.
Joseph von
Fraunhofer (FroUNHoFR or HOFR?) (CE
1787-1826) uses a telescope (in his
"theodolite" spectroscope) to map
nearly 600 spectral lines.
Fraunhofer measures the wavelength of
the spectral lines and understands that
the spectra of elements are constant no
matter what the source. (Fraunhofer
never appears to calculate any
wavelengths in this 1814 paper. Does he
later?) (equates position of spectral
line with specific wavelength of light
- how is wavelength measured? and how
is ratio of line position to wavelength
(interval) determined?)
Fraunhofer recognizes that the dark
lines in the light emitted by stars do
not match those dark lines in the light
from the Sun.
Fraunhofer examines (and maps?) the
spectra of light from the Sun, the star
Sirius, the planet Venus, candle-light
and electric light (from a glass fiber
between two electrodes). Fraunhofer
finds that the spectra of the light
from the planets is basically the same
as that from the Sun, but different
from the spectra of other stars.
(Is Fraunhofer the first to examine the
spectrum of other stars?)
(Show any images from Fraunhofer of the
spectra of other stars if any exist)
Germany
[1] Figures from Frauhofer's 1823
paper PD/Corel
source: Fraunhofer_1823.pdf
[2] Fraunhofer's Theodolite
spectroscope [t verify that this is
in Fraunhofer's 1814 paper]
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=mpwRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA13&dq=fraunhofer+1814
&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA14,M1
[10/??/1815 CE]
interpreted with a (longitudinal) wave
theory for light by Augustin Jean
Fresnel (FrAneL) (CE 1788-1827) is
published by the Academy of Sciences
and this is the first public
acknowledgment and support of Young's
reintroduction of a wave theory for
light in France.
[1] Scientist: Fresnel, Augustin Jean
(1788 - 1827) Discipline(s):
Physics Print Artist: Ambroise
Tardieu, 1788-1841 Medium: Engraving
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 10.9 x
7.9 cm / Sheet: 21.5 x 14.7
cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=f
[2] Fresnel Lens displayed in the
Mus�e national de la marine in
Paris, France CeCILL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:MuseeMarine-phareFresnel-p1000466.jpg
[1815 CE]
proposes that the atomic weights of
elements are multiples of the atomic
weight of hydrogen.
[1] William Prout
(1785-1850) PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.uam.es/departamentos/
ciencias/qorg/docencia_red/qo/l0/1830.ht
ml
[1816 CE]
Joseph Nicéphore
Niepce (nYePS) (CE 1765-1833) creates
the first photograph.
Joseph Nicéphore Niepce
(nYePS) (CE 1765-1833), French
inventor, creates the first photograph
on paper sensitized with silver
chloride which Niepce can only fix
partially with nitric acid.
[1] C. Laguiche. Joseph Nicéphore
Niépce. ca1795. Ink and
watercolor. 18.5 cm in
diameter. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/exhibi
tions/permanent/wfp/3.html
[2] English: By Nicéphore Niépce in
1826, entitled ''View from the Window
at Le Gras,'' captured on 20 × 25 cm
oil-treated bitumen. Due to the 8-hour
exposure, the buildings are illuminated
by the sun from both right and left.
This photo is generally considered the
first successful permanent
photograph. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:View_from_the_Window_at_Le_Gras%2C_Jo
seph_Nic%C3%A9phore_Ni%C3%A9pce.jpg
[1817 CE]
proposes that light waves are
transverse (oscillate at right angle to
direction of travel) waves through an
aether medium.
.jpg)
[1] Scientist: Young, Thomas (1773 -
1829) Discipline(s): Physics Print
Artist: G. Adcock, 19th C. Medium:
Engraving Original Artist: Thomas
Lawrence, 1769-1830 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11.1 x 8.7 cm /
Sheet: 19.6 x 12.5 cm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Thomas_Young_%28scientist%29.jpg
[2] Scientist: Young, Thomas (1773 -
1829) Discipline(s): Physics Print
Artist: Henry Adlard, 19th C.
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
Thomas Lawrence, 1769-1830 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 11.2 x 9 cm /
Sheet: 24.8 x 16.6 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=Y
[1817 CE]
Stromeyer) (sTrOmIR) (CE 1776-1835)
identifies cadmium.
[1] Cadmium metal PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:CadmiumMetalUSGOV.jpg
[2] Friedrich Stromeyer PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Friedrich_Strohmeyer.jpg
[1817 CE]
(CE 1779-1848), identifies selenium.
This leads to the electric camera.
[1] Selenium sample. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Se%2C34.jpg
[2] black, grey and red Selene Source
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:S
elen_1.jpg Date 03/2006 Author
http://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?t
itle=Benutzer:Tomihahndorf&action=edit
PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Selen_1.jpg
[1817 CE]
light.
[1] Scientist: Gmelin, Leopold (1788 -
1853) Discipline(s): Chemistry Print
Artist: George Cook, 1793-1849
Medium: Engraving Original Artist:
J. Woelfyle Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 15.2 x 12 cm / Sheet: 26.9 x
18.4 cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=G
[1819 CE]
(CE 1788-1827) and François Arago
(oroGO) (CE 1786-1853) discover that
two beams of light, polarized in
perpendicular directions, do not
interfere with each other (using
double-refracting crystal and a metal
cylinder to produce interference
bands). In other words Arago and
Fresnel find no interference bands
typical of unpolarized or one-plane
polarized light. (I have doubts about
this, and a video should be made
showing this experiment. For example,
the bands which I interpret as being
from reflection would be there,
theoretically no matter how the beams
are polarized. Although I can see that
a polarized surface might not reflect
light polarized to a different plane,
absorbing that light instead since
matter would not be aligned to reflect
such beams.)
[1] Scientist: Fresnel, Augustin Jean
(1788 - 1827) Discipline(s):
Physics Print Artist: Ambroise
Tardieu, 1788-1841 Medium: Engraving
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 10.9 x
7.9 cm / Sheet: 21.5 x 14.7
cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=f
[2] Fresnel Lens displayed in the
Musée national de la marine in Paris,
France CeCILL
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Musee
Marine-phareFresnel-p1000466.jpg
[04/21/1820 CE]
magnetism.
Hans Christian Ørsted (RSTeD) (CE
1777-1851) finds that electricity moves
a magnetic compass needle.
Hans Christian
Ørsted (RSTeD) (CE 1777-1851), Danish
physicist, finds that electric current
running through a wire causes a
magnetic compass needle to move. This
establishes a connection between
electricity and magnetism.
This is the first electromagnet, a
magnet created by electric current,
although William Sturgeon will produce
far stronger electromagnets by shaping
wire in a helix around a soft iron
cylinder.
[1] A younger Hans Christian Ørsted,
painted in the 19th century. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:%C3%98rsted.jpg
[2] Picture number :317 CD number
:9 Picture size :757x859[pixels],
66x75[mm] Date taken :0000-00-00
Date added
:2000-04-13 Fotographer/Owner :Engrave
d Location
:Denmark Description H.C. Oersted
(1777-1851). Danish physicist. Here as
a youngster. The picture was donated to
the Danish Polytech Institute,
Copenhagen, by his daughter Miss
Mathilde Oersted, April 19,
1905. PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.polytechphotos.dk/ind
ex.php?CHGLAN=2&CatID=286
[09/18/1820 CE]
1775-1836) relates direction of current
in a wire to magnetic force.
[1] André-Marie Ampère
(1775-1836) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ampere1.jpg
[2] Scientist: Ampère, André-Marie
(1775 - 1836) Discipline(s):
Mathematics ; Chemistry ;
Physics Print Artist: L. Deymarie
Medium: Engraving Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 42.5 x 31.5 cm
/ PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific%2Didentity/CF/di
splay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=A
[09/25/1820 CE]
1775-1836) understands that magnetism
is caused by an electric current, that
magnetism is actually electricity.
André Marie
Ampère (oMPAR) (CE 1775-1836) observes
that two parallel wires attract each
other when carrying current in the same
direction and repel each other when
carrying current in opposite
directions.
Ampère shows that a wire free to
rotate will rotate 180 degrees and stop
so that current is aligned between
itself and a stationary wire.
(chronology)
(Are these wires part of
the same circuit or different circuits?
Same of different battery?)
Ampère and Arago understand the
principle behind the inductor. Ampère
and Arago both recognize that in
theory, wire in a spiral (helix, or
spring) shape will behave like a bar
magnet. (make more exact chronology)
André Marie Ampère (oMPAR) (CE
1775-1836) understands that a magnetic
field is actually an electric field
caused by a current within the metal of
the magnet, in other words that all
magnetism can be attributed to electric
currents.
Ampere is the first to differentiate
between the rate of the movement of
current from the driving force that
moves the current (voltage).
(ex: what is the current in an
electromagnet that equals the
theoretical current in a permanent
magnet of the same size?)
[1] [t Figure 1 and 2 from 10/02/1820
paper] PD/Corel
source: http://www.ampere.cnrs.fr/i-corp
uspic/tab/Oeuvres/annales_chimie_15/077.
jpg
[2] André-Marie Ampère
(1775-1836) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ampere1.jpg
[10/30/1820 CE]
1774-1862), and the physicist Félix
Savart find that the intensity of the
magnetic field created by a current
flowing through a wire is inversely
proportional to the distance from the
wire. This relationship is now known as
the Biot-Savart law.
[1] [t Figure from Biot book] PD/Corel
source: Tricker, R. A. R., "Early
Electrodynamics - The First Law of
Circulation", (Pergamon, NY), 1965,
p120.
[2] [t Table from Biot book] PD/Corel
source: Tricker, R. A. R., "Early
Electrodynamics - The First Law of
Circulation", (Pergamon, NY), 1965,
p130.
[1820 CE]
Schweigger (sViGGR) (CE 1779-1857),
German physicist invents the first
galvonometer, finding that a deflecting
needle can be used to measure a current
and that wrapping a wire several turns
around a compass needly increases the
effect.
[1] Diagram of Schweigger's
multiplier. From Journal für Chemie
und Physik 31 (Neue Reihe, Bd.
I, 1821), Plate I (after p. 114), Fig.
10. Smithsonian neg. no. 46,825. PD
source: http://siarchives.si.edu/history
/jhp/joseph21.htm
[2] Multiplier (Multiplicator) In
1820, Schweigger built a rectangular
wooden frame on which he wound an
insulated wire. This was called the
Schweigger multiplier. A magnetic
needle was suspended from a thin thread
inside the coil. In the absence of
electrical current the needle is
oriented according to the magnetic
meridian. When an electrical current is
passed through the coil on the frame,
the needle changes direction; the
stronger the current, the more marked
the deflection. PD?/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/schweigger.html
[1820 CE]
Hydrogen gas
combustion vacuum engine.
England
[1] W. Cecil's hydrogen combustion
vacuum engine PD/Corel
source: http://www.eng.cam.ac.uk/DesignO
ffice/projects/cecil/images/isometricalv
iew.jpg
[2] Cecil's figures PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=hgYFAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:0iE3HbhCd9wmSagF2t&as_brr=1#PPA230
,M1
[06/??/1821 CE]
Jean Fresnel (FrAneL) (CE 1788-1827)
describes light as a transverse wave
vibration of an aether medium. Although
this theory will be proven incorrect by
Michelson and Morley in the early
1900s, this belief of light as a
transverse wave is still popular today,
and therefore stands, like deities,
creationism, the big bang, and
time-dilation, as being an inaccurate
theory that holds popular belief for
many years.
[1] Scientist: Fresnel, Augustin Jean
(1788 - 1827) Discipline(s):
Physics Print Artist: Ambroise
Tardieu, 1788-1841 Medium: Engraving
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 10.9 x
7.9 cm / Sheet: 21.5 x 14.7
cm PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=f
[2] Fresnel Lens displayed in the
Musée national de la marine in Paris,
France CeCILL
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:MuseeMarine-phareFresnel-p1000466.jpg
[07/05/1821 CE]
gassless space is moved by a magnet.
Humphry
Davy (CE 1778-1829), finds that
electrical current in air and in
gassless space (a vacuum) is moved by a
magnet.
[1] A. The tube, of the usual
diameter. B. The wire for
communicating electricity. E. A small
cylinder of metallic foil, to place as
a cap on tubes not having the wire B,
to make a coated surface. C. The
surface of the quicksilver, or fused
tin. D. The part of the tube to be
exhausted by the stop-cock F, after
being filled by means of the same
stop-cock, when necessary, with
hydrogene. G. The moveable[err] tube
connected with the air-pump. It is
evident, that by introducing more
mercury, the leg D may be filled with
mercury, and the stop-cock closed upon
it, so as to leave only a torricellian
vacuum in the tube, in which the
mercury may be boiled. I have found
that the experiment tried in this way,
offers no difference of result. PD
source: http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/cu3223052t214156/?p=a822388f3bd
34c1f976f9a6152c9ebcbπ=55 Farther
Researches on the Magnetic Phaenomena
Produced by Electricity; With Some New
Experiments on the Properties of
Electrified Bodies in Their Relations
to Conducting Powers and
Temperature Davy_magnetic_full.pdf p74
[2]
http://www.nndb.com/people/028/000083776
/humphry-davy-2-sized.jpg [left finger
1: ''left'' viewed as educated
intellectuals in 1800s England? just
coincidence?] PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Sir_H
umphry_Davy2.jpg
[09/07/1821 CE]
established, with Simón BolÃvar as
the founding President.
[1] Simón BolÃvar. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar.jpg
[09/11/1821 CE]
Michael Faraday (CE
1791-1867) invents the first electric
motor.
Michael Faraday (CE 1791-1867) invents
the first electric motor, which creates
sustained mechanical motion from
electricity.
England
[1] The first electric motors - Michael
Faraday, 1821 From the Quarterly
Journal of Science, Vol XII, 1821 PD
source: http://www.sparkmuseum.com/MOTOR
S.HTM
[2] Description Michael Faraday,
oil, by Thomas Phillips Source
Thomas Phillips,1842 Date
1842 Author Thomas Phillips[3
wiki] The portrait shown here was
painted by Thomas Phillips (1770-1845),
oil on canvas, The National Portrait
Gallery, London.[7] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:M_Faraday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg
[1821 CE]
1776-1856) describes the molecular
formulas for alcohol (C2H6O) and for
ether (C4H10O).
[1] [t [3 wiki] describes as
''Caricature of Amedeo Avogadro'', is
this not an accurate portrait? and no
photo by 1856?] Amedeo Avogadro -
chemist PD
source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wik
i/Image:Amedeo_Avogadro.gif
[2] Amedeo Avogadro, lithograph,
1856. The Granger Collection, New York
PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.britannica.com/eb/art
-15471/Amedeo-Avogadro-lithograph-1856?a
rticleTypeId=1
[06/14/1823 CE]
calculate wavelength (or
particle-interval) of light using a
diffraction grating using the equation
nλ=Dsinθ which equates wave-length of
spectral line to spacing between
grating grooves and the angle between
spectral line and grating.
(presumably)
[1] T is the angle made with the plane
of the grating by a colored beam after
diffraction. E is grating spacing, v
is order of spectrum, w is
wavelength Adapter equation 5
from: Kurzer Bericht von den
Resultaten neurer Versuche über die
Gesetze des Lichtes, und die Theorie
derselben, ''Annalen der Physik'',
LXXIV, 1823, pp. 337-378. Excerpts
in English translation ''SHORT ACCOUNT
OF THE RESULTS OF NEW EXPERIMENTS ON
THE LAWS OF LIGHT AND THEIR THEORY'' :
J. S. Ames (ed.), Prismatic and
Diffraction Spectra: Memoirs by
Joseph von Fraunhofer, New York 1898,
pp.
39-61. http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Dif
fraction+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von
+Fraunhofer&printsec=frontcover&source=w
eb&ots=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErI
WZX5pLtn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&c
t=result#PPP11,M1 {Fraunhofer_Joseph_vo
n_Prismatic_and_diffraction_spectra_1823
0714.pdf} others: Gilbert's Annalen
der Physlk, Band 74, p. 337-378.
Edinburgh Journal of Science, VII,
VIII, 1827, 1828. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?hl
=en&id=5GE3AAAAMAAJ&dq=Prismatic+and+Dif
fraction+Spectra:++Memoirs+by+Joseph+von
+Fraunhofer&printsec=frontcover&source=w
eb&ots=K2VGb4IsNb&sig=HcoZYrNDKoTfjsUErI
WZX5pLtn0&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&c
t=result#PPP11,M1
[2] English: Joseph von Fraunhofer was
a German physicist. Quelle: Engraving
in the Small Portraits collection,
History of Science Collections,
University of Oklahoma
Libraries. http://hsci.cas.ou.edu/exhib
its/exhibit.php?exbid=34&exbpg=1 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Fraunhofer_2.jpg
[1823 CE]
earliest) gas combustion vacuum engine
(known to be put to work around a
city).
The earliest known gas engine to be
designed was by John Barber in 1791.
In 1820 Farish and Cecil are claimed to
have built the earliest known working
gas engine.
Brown's engines are the first to
actually work in London and the
neighbourhood.
In 1823 Samuel Brown invents an
important gas engine. It is an
atmospheric engine, with water-jacket
to cool the cylinder. A gas jet is kept
constantly burning outside the
cylinder, and ignites a mixture of
inflammable gas and air below the
piston. Part of the expanded gases is
allowed to escape through valves in the
piston; then by cooling with water, a
vacuum is effected, and the atmospheric
pressure outside drives down the
piston. In his patent, No 4874 of 1823,
he describes three applications of this
principle to different kinds of
machinery first to turn a water wheel;
second, to raise water; and the third,
to drive pistons.
This engine is double
acting, a piston being attached to each
end of the crossbeam or level by a rod
and chain. The arrangement somewhat
resembles Newcomen's atmospheric
engine.
20 engines are patented between 1826
and 1860 when Lenoir's engine is
patented.
[1] [t Samuel Brown's engine used to
raise water] PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=8e9MAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22r
obert+street%22+patent+engine&source=web
&ots=zXhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ
0kuNyVI&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum
=1&ct=result#PPA105,M1
[1824 CE]
(CE 1779-1848) isolates silicon. (how?)
[1] Close up photo of a piece purified
silicon. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:SiliconCroda.jpg
[2] Date: 02.04.1998 Title:
SILICON WAFER WITH MIRROR FINISH
Description: SILICON WAFER WITH MIRROR
FINISH ID: C-1998-00319
Credit: NASA Glenn Research Center
(NASA-GRC) PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:1998_00319L.jpg
[1825 CE]
builds the first practical
electromagnet (also known as an
inductor).
Soft iron is iron that when exposed to
a magnetic field become a magnet but
loses this magnetism when the magnetic
field is removed. Hard iron is iron
that when exposed to a magnetic field
becomes a magnet, but remains a magnet
when the magnetic field is removed
(State chemical and/or molecular
difference between soft and hard iron).
Only certain metals can be magnets and
are called "ferromagnetic". Besides
iron are nickel, cobalt, and alnico, an
aluminum-nickel-cobalt alloy (list all
others, so iron is not the only element
that can produce and retain a magnetic
field. Presumably any metal and
electrical conductor that can carry
current can produce an electric (and
magnetic) field.). At first a piece of
lodestone was used as a compass needle,
then hard iron was used.(state when and
add record)
[1] Sturgeon's electro- magnet of
1824 PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/sturgeon.html
[2] [t presumably the 1825
electromagnet] PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: same
[03/??/1826 CE]
spectrum of a flame can be used to
detect the presence of chemical
compounds.
William Henry Fox Talbot (CE
1800-1877), English inventor,
understands that the spectrum of a
flame can be used to detect the
presence of chemical compounds.
[1] The AMICO Library™ from RLG -
William Henry Fox Talbot. Leaves of
Orchidea (negative). 1839. J. Paul
Getty Museum. [JPGM86.XM.621] PD/Corel
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:William_Fox_Talbot.jpg
[2] William Henry Fox
Talbot Photogenic drawing. C.
1835 PD/Corel
source: http://www.edinphoto.org.uk/pp_n
/pp_szabo.htm
[07/05/1826 CE]
of alternating current and photon or
wireless communication).
(presumably)
[1826 CE]
1765-1833) creates the first permanent
photo.
[1] English: By Nicéphore Niépce in
1826, entitled ''View from the Window
at Le Gras,'' captured on 20 × 25 cm
oil-treated bitumen. Due to the 8-hour
exposure, the buildings are illuminated
by the sun from both right and left.
This photo is generally considered the
first successful permanent
photograph. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:View_from_the_Window_at_Le_Gras%2C_Jo
seph_Nic%C3%A9phore_Ni%C3%A9pce.jpg
[2] Joseph-Nicéphore Niépce. ©
Bettmann/Corbis PD/COPYRIGHTED
source: http://concise.britannica.com/eb
c/art-59378/Joseph-Nicephore-Niepce
[1826 CE]
discovered.
Montpellier, France
[1] This image was copied from
en.wikipedia.org. The original
description was: Bromine sample
(liquid). Photo by RTC. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Br%2C35.jpg
[2] Description Foto des Chemikers
de:Antoine-Jérôme Balard
(1802-1876) Source
http://www.nndb.com/people/586/000114
244/balard-1.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Antoine-Jerome_Balard.jpg
[1826 CE]
Samuel
Brown builds (the earliest) gas
combustion vacuum engine powered car
and boat.
[1] [t Samuel Brown's engine used to
raise water] PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=8e9MAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA103&lpg=PA103&dq=%22r
obert+street%22+patent+engine&source=web
&ots=zXhunpMWQn&sig=OK3zL_tlF9en_5S83tLJ
0kuNyVI&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum
=1&ct=result#PPA105,M1
[05/01/1827 CE]
1789-1854) defines the concept of
electrical resistance and describes
"Ohm's law", I=V/R (or V=IR), where
current (I, in Amps) equals voltage
(electric potential, or electromotive
force) divided by resistance (R in
Ohms).
Cologne?)
[1] [t Figures from 1827 work of
Ohm] PD
source: Ohm_Georg_1827.pdf
[2] Georg Simon Ohm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ohm3.gif
[1827 CE]
identifies the motion of fine powder in
water. This is now called "Brownian
motion", and is evidence of atoms.
[1] Robert Brown, a Scotish
botanist. Source: Robert Brown
(15:41, 5 August 2005 . . Neon (Talk
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Brown.robert.jpg
[2] contribs) . . 300x357 (15,406
bytes) (Robert Brown's Picture, who
invented brownian motion ) PD/GNU
source: http://www.abdn.ac.uk/mediarelea
ses/release.php?id=341
[1827 CE]
[02/??/1828 CE]
produced from inorganic sources.
Friedrich
Wöhler (VOElR) (CE 1800-1882), German
chemist, is the first to produce an
"organic" (or biotic) compound
{molecule} from an "inorganic" (or
abiotic) compound, the compound "urea",
which forms crystals when ammonium
cyanate is heated.
Wöhler finds that urea has the same
composition as ammonium cyanate, and
Berzelius will call these "isomers".
(Isomers must be molecules made of the
same ratio of atoms but in different
structure. What explains isomerism?)
Berlin, Germany
[1] * Title: Friedrich Wöhler *
Year: unknown * Source:
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollections
/hst/scientific-identity/explore.htm
* Licence: Public Domain PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Friedrich_W%C3%B6hler_Stich.jpg
[2] Friedrich Wöhler, German
chemist Source:
http://wwwihm.nlm.nih.gov/ PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Friedrich_woehler.jpg
[03/27/1829 CE]
magnet.
A human produces electric current with
a permanent magnet.
Phenomenon of Dynamic
electrical induction observed.
Francesco Zantedeschi (CE 1797-1873)
produces electric current with a
permanent magnet.
Zantedeschi explicitly makes the
analogy between a North magnetic Pole
and the zinc pole of a voltaic battery.
[1] Francesco Zantedeschi PD/Corel
source: http://www.liceofoscarini.it/sto
ria/bio/zantedeschi.html
[2] Image of Francesco Zantedeschi
1797 to 1873 to illustrate that
article. Uploaded from
http://www.jergym.hiedu.cz/~canovm/objev
ite/objev4/zan.htm and
http://www.jergym.hiedu.cz/~canovm/objev
ite/objev4/zan2.htm (English
translation) This portrait of
Francesco Zantedeschi was published by
Stefano de Stefani, president of the
Academy of Agriculture, Arts and
Commerce of Verona, on March 21, 1875
to accompany his eulogy to Zantedeschi
on the occasion of the transport of his
ashes to the cemetery at Verona. Black
and white version PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Franc
esco_Zantedeschi_bw.jpg
[1829 CE]
(CE 1779-1848) identifies thorium.
(how?)
[1] Thorium metal foil (approximately
0.5 mm thick) sealed in a glass ampoule
under an argon atmosphere to prevent
oxidation. Sample is from the personal
collection of Justin Urgitis. CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Thorium.jpg
[2]
http://www.chemistry.msu.edu/Portraits/i
mages/Berzelius3c.jpg PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius.jpg
[1830 CE]
in size. First hovering and flying
electric motor device.
[02/17/1831 CE]
Michael Faraday (CE
1791-1867) produces electrical current
from an electromagnet, inventing the
first transformer.
After Oersted's 1820
demonstration of producing magnetic
force from an electric current, many
people try to reverse the phenomenon by
producing an electric current from a
magnetic force.
In 1829 Francesco Zantedeschi (CE
1797-1873) publishes the first account
of a permanent magnet producing a
current.
Michael Faraday (CE 1791-1867) also
produces a current from the movement of
a permanent magnet, in addition to
producing an electric current from the
magnetic field of an electromagnet.
Faraday also is the first to publish
the use of a secondary coil in which to
induce a current.
Faraday winds a thick iron ring on one
side with insulated wire that is
connected to a battery. This circuit
can be opened or closed by a key (which
is a switch). (This is (presumably) a
short circuit, with only the resistance
from the wire slowing the current.)
If Faraday closes the circuit a
magnetic field is created in the coil
as Amp�re had shown. Sturgeon (had
theorized) that this magnetic field
will be focused (or centered?) in the
iron ring. If a second coil is then
wrapped around the opposite side of the
iron ring and connected to a
galvanometer (which measures current),
the magnetic field created in the iron
ring by the first coil might create (by
reverse action) a current in the second
coil, and the galvanometer would
indicate that current.
({see image} So the circular bar of
iron has a separate insulated wire
wrapped on each side, with one coiled
wire attached to a battery and switch
while the other coiled wire is attached
to a galvanometer.)
Faraday closes the primary circuit and,
to his delight see the galvanometer
needle (briefly move). A current was
induced in the secondary coiled wire by
a current in the primary coil.
The experiment works and this is the
first transformer, but it doesn't work
in the way that Faraday expects it to.
There is no steady flow of electricity
in the second coil to match the steady
magnetic force created in the iron ring
(or the steady current in the first
coil). Instead there is a momentary
flash of current in the galvanometer
when Faraday closes the circuit and
another when Faraday opens (or breaks)
the circuit.
When Faraday opens the circuit, he is
surprised to see the galvanometer
(needle again move briefly but this
time) in the opposite direction.
Ten years before
Amp�re observed the same fact but
it didn't fit with his theories and he
dismissed it.
Somehow, turning off the current also
created an induced current in the
secondary circuit, equal and opposite
to the original (pulse of) current.
(Perhaps a very fast pulsed current is
one way of getting a relatively
constant current.)(yes, I think this
creates an alternating current in the
secondary coil and is the basis of
modern AC generators if I am not
mistaken.)
(EX: Does fast switching on and off of
current cause a constant current? Is
there some switching speed for which
there is a maximum current (for example
1 THz, or 1GHz etc)?)
This phenomenon (of a flash of current
in the second coiled wire in opposite
directions when an electric current in
the first wire is turned on and off)
leads Faraday to propose what he called
the "electrotonic" state of particles
in the wire, which he considered a
state of tension. According to Faraday,
a current appears to be the creation of
such a state of tension or the collapse
of such a state. Although he could not
find experimental evidence for the
electrotonic state, Faraday never
entirely abandoned the concept, and it
shapes most of Faraday's later work.
Faraday draws "lines of force" from
observing the regular patterns metal
fillings form on paper above various
magnets when the paper is tapped (as
Peter Peregrinus has 600 years before).
With these lines it is possible to
visualize the magnet field around a bar
magnet, horseshoe magnet, or even a
sphere like the earth. This is the
beginning of the view of the universe
as consisting of fields of various
types, as opposed to the purely
mechanical picture of Galileo and
Newton. (Basically gravity and
electricity, but somehow people expand
this into a more complex picture, and
the fields are mechanical too. One big
mystery is what particles if any are in
an electric field? Are these photons,
electrons or are there no particles at
all but just some effect?) Maxwell and
Einstein will make use of the "field
universe". When a circuit is closed
magnetic lines of force spring outward
into space, and when the circuit is
broken they collapse inward again. (EX:
Do they in fact collapse inward?
Perhaps that can be measured, it must
happen quickly, and then EX: How
quickly can a magnetic field be created
and destroyed?) Faraday decides that an
electric current is induced in a wire
only when lines of force cut across it.
In his transformer when the current
starts in the first coil of wire, the
expanding lines of force cut across the
wire of the second coil and account for
the short burst of current. Once the
original current is established, the
lines of force no longer move and there
is no current in the second coil. When
the circuit is broken the collapsing
lines of force cut across the second
coil in the opposite direction and a
burst of current results again but in
the opposite direction of the first.
(so actually the current in coil2 of a
high frequency current in coil1 would
go back and forth at the same frequency
while the current in coil1 only goes in
one direction.)
Faraday demonstrates his theory of
lines of force creating current by
inserting a (bar) magnet into a coil of
wire attached to a galvanometer. While
the magnet is being inserted or
removed, current flows through the
wire. If the magnet is held stationary
and the coil moved over it one way or
the other there is a current in the
wire. (I want to repeat this simple
experiment myself. And here the
magnetic lines of force are moving up
and down, not out and in, and so this
is different from the idea of the
electromagnet where presumably the
lines of force are moving in to out,
perhaps in all 3 dimensions this effect
happens.) In either case the magnetic
lines of force of the magnet are cut by
the wire. There is no current if the
magnet and coil are not moving.
Therefore Faraday recognizes the
principle of electrical induction, a
principle Joseph Henry, a physicist in
the USA recognizes around the same
time. (this is how a magnetic field can
make a current in a coil, does it work
only if the magnet is in the center of
the coil or can the magnet be next to
the coil?)
(Perhaps a very fast pulsed current is
one way of getting a relatively
constant current. Although do the
currents neutralize each other because
they must travel back and forth?
Perhaps by switching fast enough one
direction would prevail? Clearly this
is the principle of alternating
current, and that can move in one
direction.)
(EX: Can a wire induce a current in a
second wire that is parallel and very
close to but not touching the first
wire? Theoretically when the two wires
touch the current is shared and divided
equally between them.)
England
[1] Description Michael Faraday,
oil, by Thomas Phillips Source
Thomas Phillips,1842 Date
1842 Author Thomas Phillips[3
wiki] The portrait shown here was
painted by Thomas Phillips (1770-1845),
oil on canvas, The National Portrait
Gallery, London.[7] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:M_Faraday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg
[2] Michael Faraday - Project
Gutenberg eText 13103 From The Project
Gutenberg eBook, Great Britain and Her
Queen, by Anne E.
Keeling http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/
13103 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Michael_Faraday_-_Project_Gutenberg_e
Text_13103.jpg
[09/??/1831 CE]
Michael Faraday (CE
1791-1867) invents the electric
generator by using mechanical movement
to produce a constant electric current.
In
September of 1831 Faraday invents the
first electrical generator. Faraday
wants to generate continuous
electricity and not just in short
spurts and he accomplishes this by
adapting the reverse of an experiment
first described by Arago. Arago had
shown that a rotating copper wheel can
deflect a magnet suspended over it.
Faraday understands that the wheel is
cutting through the magnetic lines of
force so that electric currents are
being created in it, these in turn
create a magnetic field that deflects
the magnet. Where Arago had used an
electric current to create a magnetic
field, Faraday uses a magnetic field to
create an electric current, by turning
a copper wheel so that its edge passes
between the poles of a permanent
magnet. An electric current is created
in the copper disc and it continues to
flow as long as the wheel continues to
turn. That current can be led off and
put to work, and Faraday had therefore
has invented the first electrical
generator. (Interesting how by cutting
the magnetic lines, Faraday creates a
constant current, how does voltage
relate? Where is the voltage being
created? Interesting that the metal
needs to move in between the two poles
of a magnet, why not simply next to a
magnet? That probably works too,
anywhere in the magnetic field.) Asimov
argues that Faraday's invention of the
first electrical generator is probably
the greatest single electrical
discovery in history. (This invention
enables coal to be transformed into
electricity, large electrical
generators that burn coal will allow
many people to have electricity in
their houses, and electricity will
eventually cover and light the planet
Earth.) A steam engine or water power
can be used to turn the copper disc and
the heat of burning fuel or force of
falling water can be converted into
electricity. Until Faraday the only
source of electricity was the chemical
battery, which is expensive and small
scale. Now there is for the first time
the possibility of a large and cheap
supply of electric current.
This is the first dynamo and is also
the direct ancestor of electric motors,
because reversing the flow of
electricity, to feed an electric
current to the disk, causes the disk to
rotate.
England
[1] Description Michael Faraday,
oil, by Thomas Phillips Source
Thomas Phillips,1842 Date
1842 Author Thomas Phillips[3
wiki] The portrait shown here was
painted by Thomas Phillips (1770-1845),
oil on canvas, The National Portrait
Gallery, London.[7] PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:M_Far
aday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg
[2] Michael Faraday - Project
Gutenberg eText 13103 From The Project
Gutenberg eBook, Great Britain and Her
Queen, by Anne E.
Keeling http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/
13103 PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Micha
el_Faraday_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_131
03.jpg
[1831 CE]
the cell "nucleus".
[1] Robert Brown, a Scotish
botanist. Source: Robert Brown
(15:41, 5 August 2005 . . Neon (Talk
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Brown.robert.jpg
[2] contribs) . . 300x357 (15,406
bytes) (Robert Brown's Picture, who
invented brownian motion ) PD/GNU
source: http://www.abdn.ac.uk/mediarelea
ses/release.php?id=341
[01/03/1832 CE]
physicist, identifies self induction,
and that a changing magnetic field also
causes induced current to flow.
[1] In 1846, the Smithsonian Board of
Regents chose Joseph Henry as the
Institution's first
secretary. PD/Corel
source: http://www.150.si.edu/chap2/2man
.htm
.jpg)
[2] Description Portrait of Joseph
Henry Source
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/bigs/per
s0124.jpg Date 1879 Author
Henry Ulke
(1821-1910) Permission (Reusing this
image) Public domain. PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Jospe
h_Henry_%281879%29.jpg
[1832 CE]
Henri Braconnot (BroKunO) (CE
1781-1855), prepares "xyloidine" (what
Schonbein will name cellulose nitrate
also know as nitrocellulose) the first
polymer or plastic.
[1] Henri Braconnot French chemist and
pharmacist This image is from
http://www.cyberlipid.org/chevreul/braco
nnot.htm (copyright free). Permission
to copy content here was kindly granted
by the author, Claude Leray. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Henri_Braconnot.jpg
[1832 CE]
electrolysis.
England
[1] Description Michael Faraday,
oil, by Thomas Phillips Source
Thomas Phillips,1842 Date
1842 Author Thomas Phillips[3
wiki] The portrait shown here was
painted by Thomas Phillips (1770-1845),
oil on canvas, The National Portrait
Gallery, London.[7] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:M_Faraday_Th_Phillips_oil_1842.jpg
[2] Michael Faraday - Project
Gutenberg eText 13103 From The Project
Gutenberg eBook, Great Britain and Her
Queen, by Anne E.
Keeling http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/
13103 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Michael_Faraday_-_Project_Gutenberg_e
Text_13103.jpg
[01/01/1834 CE]
by Robert Hall McCormick (1780-1846).
The reaper is a horse drawn device to
cut small grain crops, replacing the
manual cutting of the crop with scythes
and sickles.
[1] New Reaper, Getreidemäher New
Reaper, Stein der Weisen 1889 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Agriculture_2.jpg
[2] Robert Hall McCormick. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Robertmccormick.gif
[1834 CE]
(DYUmo) (CE 1800-1884), French chemist
introduces the substitution theory (or
"Law of Substitution") which states
that hydrogen atoms (electropositive)
can be substituted by chlorine or
oxygen atoms (electronegative) in
certain organic reactions without any
drastic alteration in the structure.
(Is this theory still supported? It
seems unusual that a negatively charged
atom would replace a positively charged
atom.)
(presumably)
[1] French chemist Jean Baptiste André
Dumas (1800-1884) from English
wikipedia original text: - Magnus
Manske (164993 bytes) from
http://web4.si.edu/sil/scientific-identi
ty/display_results.cfm?alpha_sort=d PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Jean_Baptiste_Andr%C3%A9_Dumas.jpg
[2] Scientist: Dumas, Jean-Baptiste
(1800 - 1884) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Print Artist: Samuel
Freeman, 1773-1857 Medium: Engraving
Original Artist: Emililen
Desmaisons, 1812-1880 Original
Dimensions: Graphic: 14.7 x 12.3 cm /
Sheet: 27.8 x 19.2 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-D5-08a.jpg
[1834 CE]
electricity in wire.
Measurement of velocity
of electricity in wire using a rotating
mirror.
[1] Figure from [7 591] PD
source: An Account of Some Experiments
to Measure the Velocity of Electricity
and the Duration of Electric
Light Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 124 -
1834 Author Charles
Wheatstone DOI 10.1098/rstl.1834.0031
Wheatstone_velocity.pdf 591
[2] Figure from [7 592] PD
source: An Account of Some Experiments
to Measure the Velocity of Electricity
and the Duration of Electric
Light Journal Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of
London (1776-1886) Issue Volume 124 -
1834 Author Charles
Wheatstone DOI 10.1098/rstl.1834.0031
Wheatstone_velocity.pdf 592
[02/06/1835 CE]
physicist, invents the electrical relay
which allows a telegraph current to be
carried over long distances.
[1] In 1846, the Smithsonian Board of
Regents chose Joseph Henry as the
Institution's first
secretary. PD/Corel
source: http://www.150.si.edu/chap2/2man
.htm
[2] Description Portrait of Joseph
Henry Source
http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/bigs/per
s0124.jpg Date 1879 Author
Henry Ulke
(1821-1910) Permission (Reusing this
image) Public domain. PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Jospe
h_Henry_%281879%29.jpg
[1836 CE]
1799-1864) builds an induction coil.
[1] Nicholas Joseph Callan, Professor
of Natural Philosophy PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/callan.html
[2] The ''Great Coil'' of Nicholas
Callan, 1837 COPYRIGHTED
source: same
[1836 CE]
1810-1882), German physiologist,
isolates and names pepsin, a substance
responsible for digestion in the
stomach. This is the first enzyme
prepared from animal tissue.
Germany
[1] Theodor Schwann Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HStheodo.jpg
[2] Autore: Pasquale Baroni Fonte:
foto Gonella Copyright © Museo di
Anatomia Umana ''Luigi Rolando'',
Torino olio su tela PD? COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.torinoscienza.it/img/
orig/it/s00/00/0011/000011a0.jpg
[1836 CE]
1810-1882), German physiologist,
observes the formation of yeast spores
and recognizes that fermentation of
sugar and starch is the result of a
living organism.
Belgium (verify)
[1] Theodor Schwann Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HStheodo.jpg
[2] Autore: Pasquale Baroni Fonte:
foto Gonella Copyright © Museo di
Anatomia Umana ''Luigi Rolando'',
Torino olio su tela PD? COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.torinoscienza.it/img/
orig/it/s00/00/0011/000011a0.jpg
[1838 CE]
1784-1846), measures the parallax of a
different star.
Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel (CE
1784-1846), is the first to measure the
parallax of a different star (and
therefore the distance to a star).
Bessel measures the parallax of the
star 61 Cygni, a star barely visible to
the naked eye and known to have a very
large proper motion and therefore
presumed to be very close compared to
other stars. Parallax is the apparent
difference in location of an object as
seen from two different points
(compared to a more distant object).
Bessel measures a tiny parallax by
comparing the position of 61 Cygni, to
two other more distant stars (state
star names). Bessel shows that, after
correcting for the proper motion, the
star appears to move in an ellipse
every year. This back and forth motion,
is caused by the motion of the Earth
around the Sun. Using this parallax,
Bessel estimates that 61 Cygni is 35e12
miles away (km) (actual units
measured?). The velocity of light is
186,282 miles/second , so this star is
around 6 light years away. The size of
the universe is therefore enlarged in
the minds of people. Kepler had thought
the entire sphere of stars to be .1
light year away, Newton had increased
this to 2 light-years. This is the
final confirmation of the moving earth
first postulated by Aristarchos, and
shows that the earth does move relative
to the other stars, although they are
so far away that their apparent change
in position is very small.
Germany
[1] Example of lunar parallax:
Occultation of Pleiades by the
Moon Example of lunar parallax from 4
points on earth This is a simulated
image, combining of 4 views of the sky
and the moon's location relative to the
background stars at a single point in
time. The bright stars visible are the
star cluster Pleiades. The date March
22, 1988 was chosen because the moon
occulted stars within the pleides as
visible from North America. NOTE: This
diagram is geometrically accurate,
although not physically possible to see
since the moon was not actually above
the horizon in half the views.
Specifically you can never see the
Pleiades from the south pole! They were
just picked as extreme views from the
earth, the limit of what might be seen
from a set of four locations in a
square on a great circle and a moon
just above the horizon in all four
locations. Credit: Tom Ruen, Full Sky
Observatory * This image was
generated by my own solar system
viewing software. * Source bitmap
for projection from Nasa's Clementine
Spacecraft: o USGS: Global
simple cylindrical projection at 10
km/pixel.
(http://astrogeology.usgs.gov/Projects/C
lementine/images/albedo.simp750.jpeg) P
D
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lunarparallax_22_3_1988.png
[2] Stellar parallax motion PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Stellarparallax2.svg
[1838 CE]
Matthias Jakob Schleiden
(slIDeN) (CE 1804-1881) creates cell
theory.
Germany
[1] Matthias Jakob Schleiden Library
of Congress PD
source: http://www.answers.com/Matthias+
Jakob+Schleiden+?cat=technology
[2] 01 Jan 1870 Matthias
Schleiden (Photo by Kean
Collection/Getty Images ) [t again
large side burns looks to be mid to
late 1800s] PD
source: http://www.viewimages.com/Search
.aspx?mid=50898741&epmid=1&partner=Googl
e
[01/09/1839 CE]
(DoGAR) (CE 1789-1851), reduces the
time to make a photograph from 8 hours
to 30 minutes.
Louis Jacques Mandé Daguerre
(DoGAR) (CE 1789-1851), French artist
and inventor, makes public his
daguerreotype process, a process that
reduces the time to make a photograph
from 8 hours to 30 minutes.
[1] Description English:
Daguerreotype of Louis Daguerre in 1844
by Jean-Baptiste Sabatier-Blot (died
1881) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Date 2007-01-23 (first
version); 2007-01-23 (last
version) Author Jean-Baptiste
Sabatier-Blot Original uploader was
Aepryus at
en.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
image) This image is in the public
domain due to its age. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Louis_Daguerre_2.jpg
[2] Louis-Jacques-Mandé Daguerre (18
November 1787 - 10 July 1851) Source
from English Wiki Date November
1787 July 1851 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Louis_Daguerre.jpg
[07/29/1839 CE]
France
[1] Scientist: Becquerel, Alexandre
Edmond (1820 - 1891) Discipline(s):
Physics Print Artist: Charles
Jeremie Fuhr, b.1832 Medium:
Lithograph Original Artist: Pierre
Petit, 1832-1885 Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 25.5 x 19 cm / Sheet: 30.6 x
20.1 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-B2-07a.jpg
[2] Diagram of apparatus described by
Becquerel (1839) COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.udel.edu/igert/pvcdro
m/MANUFACT/Images/BECQ.GIF
[1839 CE]
(CE 1797-1858), Swedish chemist,
discovers the element Lanthanum.
Sweden
[1] The Lanthanum metal GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Lanthanum.jpg
[2] Carl Gustav Mosander
(1797-1858), PD/Corel
source: http://www.vanderkrogt.net/eleme
nts/elem/la.html
[1839 CE]
animals and plants.
Theodor Schwann (sVoN) (CE
1810-1882) extends the cells theory to
all animals and plants.
Schwann
describes embryonic development as a
succession of cell divisions.
Schwann understands
cellular differentiation (the series of
events involved in the development of a
specialized cell having specific
structural, functional, and biochemical
properties).
Belgium
[1] Theodor Schwann Library of
Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HStheodo.jpg
[2] Autore: Pasquale Baroni Fonte:
foto Gonella Copyright © Museo di
Anatomia Umana ''Luigi Rolando'',
Torino olio su tela PD? COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.torinoscienza.it/img/
orig/it/s00/00/0011/000011a0.jpg
[1843 CE]
(CE 1797-1858), Swedish chemist,
identifies the elements erbium, and
terbium.
Sweden
[1] Carl Gustav Mosander
(1797-1858), PD/Corel
source: http://www.vanderkrogt.net/eleme
nts/elem/la.html
[2] Element: Yttrium Atomic Weight of
Yttrium: 88.9059 Electron
Configuration of Yttrium:
[Kr]5s14d1 Atomic Radius of Yttrium:
181 pm Melting Point of Yttrium: 1522
ºC Boiling Point of Yttrium: 3345
ºC Oxidation States of Yttrium: 3 A.
L. Allred Electronegativity of Yttrium:
1.22 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.chemicalforums.com/in
dex.php?page=periodictable#Y
[1844 CE]
Karl Karlovich Klaus) (CE 1796-1864)
isolates and names "ruthenium".
[1] English: Ruthenium sample. This
image was copied from en.wikipedia.org.
The original description
was: Ruthenium sample. Photo by
RTC. GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ru%2C44.jpg
[2] Name, Symbol, Number Ruthenium,
Ru, 44 Chemical series transition
metals GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Ru-TableImage.png
[04/??/1845 CE]
A human
sees the spiral shape of spiral
galaxies.
William Parsons, (Third Earl of Rosse)
(CE 1800-1867), Irish astronomer
recognizes the spiral shape of spiral
galaxies (thought at the time to be
nebulae).
Parsons completes a 72 inch reflector
telescope.
Ireland
[1] Abb. 2 - Lord Rosse's drwaing of M
51 showing its spiral structure. [t
Notice that Parsons numbers stars which
appear to be part of the
galaxy] PD/Corel
source: http://www.klima-luft.de/steinic
ke/Artikel/birr/birr_e.htm
[2] en: This is the sketch made by
Lord Rosse of the Whirlpool Galaxy in
1845. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:M51Sketch.jpg
[1845 CE]
Switzerland
[1] 19th century photograph. public
domain. PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Sch%C3%B6nbein.jpg
[2] Scientist: Schönbein, Christian
(1799 - 1868) Discipline(s):
Chemistry Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 8.3 x 7 cm PD
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/CF/disp
lay_results.cfm?alpha_sort=s
[1845 CE]
acid (an organic molecule) from
inorganic molecules.
Germany
[1] Description Adolph Wilhelm
Hermann Kolbe (1818-1884) Source
unknown Date 19th century PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b1/Adolph_Kolbe.jpg
[2] Hermann Kolbe. Historia-Photo
PD/Corel
source: http://cache.eb.com/eb/image?id=
10412&rendTypeId=4
[09/23/1846 CE]
Planet Neptune
is observed.
German astronomer Johann Gottfried
Galle (GoLu) (CE 1812-1910) finds the
planet Neptune after only only an hour
of searching, using the predicted
location given to Galle by Le Verrier.
Galle finds Neptune within 1 degree of
the position calculated by Le Verrier.
France)
[1] Scientist: Le Verrier, Urbain Jean
Joseph (1811 - 1877) Discipline(s):
Astronomy Print Artist: Auguste Bry,
19th C. Medium: Lithograph
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 12.5 x
10 cm / Sheet: 26.1 x 17 cm PD/Corel
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/89/Urbain_Le_Verrier.jpg
[2] Scientist: Le Verrier, Urbain
Jean Joseph (1811 -
1877) Discipline(s): Astronomy Print
Artist: E. Buechner Medium:
Engraving Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 14.5 x 13 cm / Sheet: 19.5 x
14.2 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-L003-01a.jpg
[10/10/1846 CE]
English astronomer, is the first to see
Triton, the largest satellite of
Neptune.
England
.jpg)
[1] Picture of Triton made by Voyager 2
in 1989. [t Find original drawing from
Lassell] PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Triton_%28moon%29.jpg
[2] William Lassell PD/Corel
source: http://www.klima-luft.de/steinic
ke/ngcic/persons/lassell.htm
[12/12/1846 CE]
patents a facsimile machine (fax),
which can transmit images drawn in
perforated paper (Morse code and
letters) and a perforated paper
automatic message feed system in which
holes in a paper strip complete a
circuit switching electrical current on
and off.
The annexed diagram represents a piece
of the punched paper with the symbols
of the word ''Bain''. [t from
1853] PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=h4oDAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA9&source=gbs_toc_r&ca
d=0_0#PPA169,M1
[1] Brain's 1843 telegraph [t from
patent? - here is shows clearly that
the message is moved vertically while
the pendulum swings
horizontally.] PD/Corel
source: http://www.hffax.de/assets/image
s/a_Bain.gif
[1847 CE]
of handwritten messages.
[1] [t Bakewell's Copying telegraph -
sending aluminum foil and receiving
paper. The strip ''C'' is used to
syncronize the receiver to the
sender.] PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=h4oDAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA9&source=gbs_toc_r&ca
d=0_0#PPA171,M1
[2] Bakewell 's system involved
writing or drawing on a piece of metal
foil with a special insulating ink. The
foil was then wrapped around a cylinder
(C). This cylinder formed a part of a
machine, which rotated it slowly on its
axis, as in a lathe. The cylinder
rotated at a uniform rate by means of a
clock mechanism (M). A metal stylus
driven by a screw thread (T) traveled
along the surface of the cylinder as it
turned, tracing out a path over the
complete piece of foil. Each time the
stylus crossed a line of the insulating
ink, the electrical current running
through the foil to the stylus was
interrupted. At the receiver, a similar
pendulum-driven stylus marked
chemically treated paper with an
electric current as the receiving
cylinder rotated. PD/Corel
source: http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/histor
y/bakewell_fax3.jpg
[1848 CE]
creates the absolute temperature scale,
determining -273°C to be absolute 0,
where all molecules stop moving.
Scotland
[1] Baron Kelvin, William
Thomson Library of Congress PD
source: http://content.answers.com/main/
content/img/scitech/HSbaronk.jpg
[2] Baron Kelvin, William
Thomson Graphic: 23.9 x 19.1 cm /
Sheet: 27.8 x 20.2 cm PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a0/Lord_Kelvin_photograp
h.jpg
[01/20/1849 CE]
(FUKo) (CE 1819-1868), finds 1) that an
electric arc emits the same two
spectral (D) lines that are missing in
sunlight, and 2) that an electric arc
between two charcoal electrodes absorbs
the light with the frequency of the two
D lines which darken the lines from a
light source.
[1] Reproduction of the first
daguerrotype of the Sun. The original
image was a little over 12 centimeters
in diameter. Reproduced from G. De
Vaucouleurs, Astronomical Photography,
MacMillan, 1961 (plate 1). PD/Corel
source: http://ams.astro.univie.ac.at/~n
endwich/Science/SoFi/firstsunphoto.jpg
[2] Daguerreotype of the Sun PD/Corel
source: http://ams.astro.univie.ac.at/~n
endwich/Science/SoFi/portrait.gif
[05/27/1849 CE]
change in the speed of light due to the
movement of Earth through an aether.
[1] scheme of Fizo experiment GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/55/Fizo_experiment_schem
e_ru.PNG
[2] [t Rareand early photo of portrait
not looking at camera. To me it may
possibly be a clue that hidden cameras
were in use, but also may reflect a
view that the camera is unimportant,
that cameras are everywhere, and it is
better to go on with life...not to
smile for the camera, but to go about
your life and let the many cameras
document everything...its like ...the
thrill is over for the novelty of
photography. It's perhaps a person for
the transition to the more practical
daily business of the cameras, in
particular when robots walk and
document everything. ] Hippolyte
Fizeau PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5d/Hippolyte_Fizeau.jpg
[07/23/1849 CE]
light to be 315,300 kilometers per
second, using a non-astronomical
method.
[1] Fizeau's apparatus from Arago's
''Astronomie Populaire'' PD/Corel
source: William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003
[2] Eyepiece views for Fizeau's 1849
speed of light experiment COPYRIGHTED?
source: William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003
[05/06/1850 CE]
slower in water than in air.
Jean Bernard
Léon Foucault (FUKo) (CE 1819-1868),
measures that the light moves more
slowly in water than in air, and that
the speed of light is inversely
proportional to the index of refraction
of the medium.
[1] Plan view of the optical layout of
Foucault's 1850 rotating mirror
experiment. COPYRIGHTED
source: William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003
[2] Eyepiece view of air and water
Foucault 1850 experiment PD/Corel
source: William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003, p126.
[1850 CE]
electricity in nerves as 27 m/s (90
ft/s).
Königsberg, Germany
[1] Figure from 1850 paper PD/Corel
source: Helmholtz_Hermann_1850_lit1862_L
o.pdf
[2] Young Helmholtz German
physiologist and physicist Hermann
Ludwig Ferdinand Von Helmholtz (1821 -
1894). Original Publication: People
Disc - HE0174 Original Artwork: From a
daguerreotype . (Photo by Hulton
Archive/Getty Images) * by Hulton
Archive * * reference:
2641935 PD/Corel
source: http://www.jamd.com/search?asset
type=g&assetid=2641935&text=Helmholtz
[1850 CE]
electromagnetic motors but kept secret.
[1850 CE]
in size.
[02/03/1851 CE]
that the Earth rotates on its axis.
Jean
Bernard Léon Foucault (FUKo) (CE
1819-1868), proves the Earth rotates on
its axis by showing that a pendulum
keeps the same motion while the Earth
turns around its axis, making the
pendulum appear to change direction,
where actually the pendulum frame is
rotating relative to the motion of
pendulum which remains in the same
original direction.
[1] Faucault's pendulum demonstration
re-visited in 1902 PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=UbMRmyxCZmYC&pg=PA55&lpg=PA55&dq=foucau
lt+sun+daguerreotype+features&source=web
&ots=sqQtMMzhko&sig=L_EL2qJEgsbAuU5PsDuO
Dxa-NPA&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum
=2&ct=result#PPP1,M1
[2] [t rotateable table-top pendulum
illustrates principle of
inertia] PD/Corel
source: William Tobin, "The life and
science of Léon Foucault: the man who
proved the earth rotates", Cambridge
University Press, 2003
[1851 CE]
English astronomer, identifies two
satellites of Uranus (increasing the
number of moons of Uranus known at the
time to 4). Lassell names these Ariel
and Umbriel.
[1] Uranus' Moon Ariel: Valley
World Photo Credit: NASA, Voyager 2,
Copyright Calvin J.
Hamilton Explanation: What formed
Ariel's valleys? This question
presented itself when Voyager 2 passed
this satellite of Uranus in January
1986. Speculation includes that heating
caused by the ancient tides of Uranus
caused moonquakes and massive shifting
of the moon's surface. In any event, a
huge network of sunken valleys was
found to cover this frozen moon, and
some unknown material now coats the
bottoms of many of these channels.
Ariel is the second closest to Uranus
outside of Miranda, and is composed of
roughly half water ice and half rock.
Ariel was discovered by William Lassell
in 1851. PD
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap9603
03.html
[2] Umbriel, a moon of Uranus. Photo
by Voyager PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Umbriel_moon_1.gif
[1851 CE]
1805-1872), German botanist states that
new cells arise from cell division.
Germany
[1] Hugo von Mohl, 1805-1872, aus: Hans
Stubbe:Kurze Geschichte der Genetik bis
zur Wiederentdeckung Gregor Mendels
Jena, 2. Auflage 1965. Quellenangabe
dort: aus Geschichte der Mikroskopie,
Bd. 1, Biologie. Herausgeber H. Freund
und A. Berg, Umschau- Verlag
Frankfurt/Main 1963 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Hugo_von_mohl.jpg
[2] Hugo von Mohl � Peter v.
Sengbusch - Impressum Das Werk
Botanik online - Die Internetlehre -
THE INTERNET HYPERTEXTBOOK
einschlie�lich aller seiner Teile
ist urheberrechtlich gesch�tzt.
Jede Verwertung au�erhalb der
engen Grenzen des Urheberrechtsgesetzes
ohne Zustimmung des Rechteinhabers ist
unzul�ssig. Das gilt insbesondere
f�r Vervielf�ltigungen,
�bersetzungen und die
Einspeicherung und Verarbeitung in
Datenverarbeitungssystemen zwecks
kommerzieller Nutzung. Bei Kopien
f�r nichtkommerzielle Zwecke ist
diese Copyright-Notiz der Kopie
anzuf�gen. PD/Corel
source: http://www.biologie.uni-hamburg.
de/b-online/d01/mohl.htm
[01/07/1852 CE]
empty and gas-filled evacuated tubes.
William
Robert Grove (CE 1811-1896), British
physicist, applies an induction coil
high voltage through an empty evacuated
tube, and an evacuated tube with
various gases, and performs
electrolysis on gases.
[1] Figures 1 to 10 show the spots and
rings in the order referred to: it
should be observed that printed figures
give but a very imperfect notion of the
actual effects. Fig 11 is the coil
apparatus, the contact breaker being in
front. Fig. 12. The air-pump, of a
construction which I proposed many
years ago, and have found most useful
for electrical or chemical experiments
on gases. P. An imperforate piston,
with a conical end, which, when pressed
down, fits accurately the end of the
tube, the apex touching the valve V,
which opens outwards. A. Aperture for
the air to rush from the receiver when
the piston has been drawn beyond
it. B. Bladder containing the gas to
be experimented on. The piston-rod
works air-tight in a collar of
leathers, and the operation of the pump
will be easily understood without
further description. If it be
required to examine the gas after
experiment, a bladder, or tube leading
to a pneumatic trough, can be attached
at the extrmeity over the valve V. [5
p101] PD
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/grove.htm Issue Volume
139 -
1849 Pages 49-59 DOI 10.1098/rstl.1849
.0005 Grove_W_R_1849.pdf p101
[2] Sir William Robert Grove
(1811-1896), British scientist. PD
source: http://en.pedia.org//Image:Willi
am_Robert_Grove.jpg
[05/10/1852 CE]
1825-1899), English chemist, creates
the "theory of valence", the theory
that each type of atom has a fixed
capacity for combining with other
atoms.
England
[1] [t table from Frankland 1852
paper] PD/Corel
source: Frankland_Edward_1852.pdf
[2] [t table from Frankland 1852
paper] PD/Corel
source: Frankland_Edward_1852.pdf
[1855 CE]
creates parkesine plastic and sells
plastic objects.
plant) Pembrey, South Wales,
England
[1] A showcase of colourful plastics
was displayed at the 1862 London
International Exhibition. Although
Vulcanite had been shown by both
Hancock and Goodyear at the 1851 Great
Exhibition, this was the first time
that a colourful material that did not
rely on a surface finish or dye had
been put on public display.
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.plastiquarian.com/par
kesine.htm
[2] The following pictures show
perhaps some of those original exhibits
and justify Parkes' optimism and the
award of a prize medal ''for excellence
of product''. 1862 London
exhibit COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.plastiquarian.com/par
kesine.htm
[03/24/1857 CE]
a cylinder.
Sound recorded mechanically by
drawing onto paper on cylinder.
[1] Figure from Leon Scott's 03/24/1857
patent of the phonautograph CC
source: http://www.firstsounds.org/publi
c/First-Sounds-Working-Paper-02.pdf
[2] Description Edouard-Léon Scott
de Martinville.jpg Portrait of
French typographer Édouard-Léon Scott
de Martinville (1817-1879), inventor of
the phonautograph. Date 19th
century Source
http://www.evolutionofsound.org/con
tent/biog/leonscott.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/33/Edouard-L%C3%A9on_Sco
tt_de_Martinville.jpg
[12/27/1857 CE]
1801-1868), German mathematician and
physicist uses a magnet to move an
electric arc in a evacuated tube.
Germany
[1] rom here Source
http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcollecti
ons/hst/scientific-identity/CF/display_r
esults.cfm?alpha_sort=p Scientist:
Plucker, Julius (1801 -
1868) Discipline(s): Mathematics ;
Physics Print Artist: Rudolf
Hoffmann, fl. ca. 1840 Medium:
Lithograph Original Artist:
Schafgans Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 19 x 15 cm / Sheet: 33.1 x 23
cm PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:Julius_Pl%C3%BCcker.jpg
[2] The Cathode Ray Deflecting tube
demonstrates the influence of a
magnetic field to the electron beam.
The visible beam appears on the
aluminum sheet covered with
phosphor, will bent away from the
center when a magnet is held near
the tube. This phenomena was
discovered by Julius Plücker and
Johann Wilhelm Hittorf. Plücker
published it in the Poggendorffs
annalen der Physik und Chemie
1858. and Crookes Cathode Ray
Deflecting tube. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://members.chello.nl/~h.dijk
stra19/page7.html
[07/01/1858 CE]
from a single ancestor and the process
of natural selection.
Humans understand their
descent from a single ancestor and the
process of natural selection.
Charles Robert
Darwin (CE 1809-1882) and Alfred Russel
Wallace (CE 1823-1913) first publicly
describe the theory of evolution by
natural selection (in the "Journal of
the Linnaean Society").
England
[1] ''Charles Darwin, aged 51.''
Scanned from Karl Pearson, The Life,
Letters, and Labours of Francis Galton.
Photo originally from the 1859 or
1860. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Charles_Darwin_aged_5
1.jpg
[2] Charles Darwin as a 7-year old boy
in 1816 The seven-year-old Charles
Darwin in 1816, one year before his
mother's death. [t A rare smile, there
are not many photos of Darwin
smiling.] PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/6/6c/Charles_Darwin_1816.jpg
[09/23/1859 CE]
1811-1877) finds that the perihelion
(the point of the orbit nearest the
Sun) of Mercury advances 38 seconds of
arc per century.
[1] Scientist: Le Verrier, Urbain Jean
Joseph (1811 - 1877) Discipline(s):
Astronomy Print Artist: Auguste Bry,
19th C. Medium: Lithograph
Original Dimensions: Graphic: 12.5 x
10 cm / Sheet: 26.1 x 17 cm PD/Corel
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/89/Urbain_Le_Verrier.jpg
[2] Scientist: Le Verrier, Urbain
Jean Joseph (1811 -
1877) Discipline(s): Astronomy Print
Artist: E. Buechner Medium:
Engraving Original Dimensions:
Graphic: 14.5 x 13 cm / Sheet: 19.5 x
14.2 cm PD/Corel
source: http://www.sil.si.edu/digitalcol
lections/hst/scientific-identity/fullsiz
e/SIL14-L003-01a.jpg
[10/20/1859 CE]
spectra can be used to determine atomic
composition.
Kirchhoff understands that the spectra
of light can be used to determine the
atomic composition of a substance.
Robert Bunsen
(CE 1811-1899), and Gustav Kirchhoff
(KRKHuF) (CE 1824-1887) understand that
the spectra of light relates to and can
be used to determine the atomic
(chemical) composition of a substance
and develop the technique of
spectroscopy.
Bunsen (CE 1811-1899), and Kirchhoff
(KRKHuF) (CE 1824-1887) build a
spectroscope and develop the technique
of spectroscopy.
Bunsen and Kirchhoff (confirm clearly
Fraunhofer's view that) each pure
substance has its own characteristic
spectrum.
Kirchhoff supports the theory that each
element emits and absorbs frequencies
of light at the same specific
frequencies.
Kirchhoff recognizes that sodium and
potassium exist in the sun's
atmosphere, while lithium does not or
does in undetectably small quantity.
Kirchhoff recognizes that temperature
of source and absorbing material makes
a difference in absorption of spectral
lines.
Germany
[1] Bunsen-Kirchhoff spectroscope with
the Bunsen burner (labeled D), from
Annalen der Physik (1860). Chemical
Heritage Foundation
Collections. PD/Corel
source: http://www.chemheritage.org/clas
sroom/chemach/images/lgfotos/04periodic/
bunsen-kirchhoff2.jpg
[2] [t Clearly and early spectroscope,
is this from Bunsen?] PD/Corel
source: http://people.clarkson.edu/~ekat
z/scientists/bunsen_spectrometer.jpg
[11/22/1859 CE]
1809-1882), English naturalist,
publishes "On the Origin of Species by
Means of Natural Selection, or the
Preservation of Favoured Races in the
Struggle for Life".
There are two major parts to the theory
of evolution by natural selection. The
first is natural selection, in which
those bodies that survive are more well
adapted to their environment, and the
second is the descent from a common
ancestor. This theory of descent from a
common ancestor, Darwin calls
"descent", will only be called
"evolution" by Darwin in the last 1872
edition of the "Origin of Species".
[1] Origin of Species title
page PD/Corel
source: 1859. On the origin of species
by means of natural selection, or the
preservation of favoured races in the
struggle for life. 1st ed. p.
http://darwin-online.org.uk/contents.htm
l#books {Darwin_1859_Origin_F373.pdf}
[2] ''Charles Darwin, aged 51.''
Scanned from Karl Pearson, The Life,
Letters, and Labours of Francis Galton.
Photo originally from the 1859 or
1860. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/42/Charles_Darwin_aged_5
1.jpg
[1859 CE]
invents the first successful
(direct-acting) gas combustion engine.
[1] Lenoir motor in the Musée des Arts
et Métiers, Paris PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7d/Lenoir_Motor_2.jpg
[2] Jean Joseph Etienne
Lenoir PD/Corel
source: http://www.tschoepe.de/auktion47
/bilder/frankreich/Moteurs_Lenoir_Photo.
jpg
[04/16/1860 CE]
identifies cesium, the first element to
be discovered spectroscopically.
Germany
[1] 1860 Bunsen Kirchhoff
figures ''Chemische Analyse durch
Spectralbeobachtungen'', Annalen der
Physik, Volume 189, Issue 7, (1861),
pp337-381. PD/Corel
source: Bunsen_Kirchhoff_Cesium_Rubidium
USGOV.jpg)
[2] Pollucite (Caesium
mineral) Source:
http://resourcescommittee.house.gov/subc
ommittees/emr/usgsweb/photogallery/
; PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f8/Pollucite%28CesiumMin
eral%29USGOV.jpg
[1860 CE]
molecule mimics muscles in contracting
under electric potential.
[1860 CE]
micrometer in size. This microphone
transmitter uses light particles to
transmit sounds to distant receivers.
[02/25/1861 CE]
identifies rubidium from its spectrum.
Germany
[1] 1860 Bunsen Kirchhoff
figures PD/Corel
source: Bunsen_Kirchhoff_Cesium_Rubidium
[2] Pollucite (Caesium
mineral) Source:
http://resourcescommittee.house.gov/subc
ommittees/emr/usgsweb/photogallery/
; PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f8/Pollucite%28CesiumMin
eral%29USGOV.jpg
[10/26/1861 CE]
speaker.
Microphone, telephone and speaker.
and cabinet in Garnier's Institute,
Friedrichsdorf, demonstrated before
Physical Society) Frankfort,
Germany
[1] Drawing of Philip Reiss telephone
used for 10/26/1861 demonstration
before Physical Society in Frankfort,
Germany. PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Fdpuup7RSrUC&pg=PA110&lpg=PA110&dq=%22g
alvanic+music%22&source=bl&ots=XSKEE-YQX
1&sig=LnqVekN9DrlsZbrt8uQvjga8znk&hl=en&
ei=ze-eSqviJYOgswPdgpSCDg&sa=X&oi=book_r
esult&ct=result&resnum=5#v=onepage&q=%22
galvanic%20music%22&f=false
[2] portrait of Philip Reiss From
Silvanus Thompson: ''Reis is here
represented as holding in his hand the
telephone with which he had a few days
preceding (May 11, 1862) achieved such
success at his lecture before the
Freies Deutsches Hochstift (Free German
Institute) in Frankfort. '' PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=YkHu_MiyFSkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=phi
lip+reis+inventor+of+the+telephone#v=one
page&q=&f=false
[1861 CE]
(CE 1821-1895) understands and draws
double and triple chemical bonds.
Germany
[1] presumably from Chemische Studien
I PD/Corel
source: http://www.kfki.hu/chemonet/hun/
olvaso/histchem/mol/keplet.gif
[2] [t compared to modern
form] Molecular structural formulae, a
few of the many appearing for the first
time in Loschmidt's 1861 booklet,1
Chemische Studien I. Among its
innovations are the depictions of
double and triple carbon bonds for
ethylene and acetylene; the structure
of acetic acid; a correct prediction
for cyclopropane 21 years before it was
made; and the structures of benzoic
acid and aniline, two aromatic
molecules with benzene-like rings.
Loschmidt's role in the later discovery
that benzene itself is a monocyclic
six-carbon structure is still being
debated by historians. COPYRIGHTED
source: http://scitation.aip.org/journal
s/doc/PHTOAD-ft/vol_54/iss_3/images/45_1
fig4.jpg
[1861 CE]
estimates the size of a molecule to be
1 nm.
Germany
[1] Loschmidt, Johann Joseph (1821 -
1895). PD/Corel
source: http://www.fisicanet.com.ar/biog
rafias/cientificos/l/img/loschmidt.jpg
[2] # Johann Josef Loschmidt
(1821–1895) # aus:
http://www.loschmidt.cz/loadframe.html?p
hotos.html, PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c6/429px-Johann_Josef_Lo
schmidt.jpeg
[1861 CE]
Institution) London, England
[1] [t Note: This cannot be a
photograph from 1861 - Maxwell
apparently never created a color
photograph in the sense of a single
plate or paper with a multi-color
image, but made 3 glass plates. So this
is a digitized color photo of the
projection of those three plates. The
first color [photograph being created,
at least publicly by: introduced in
1907 by A. Lumiere (eb1911
photography)] wikipedia: English:
Tartan Ribbon, photograph taken by
James Clerk Maxwell in 1861. Considered
the first colour photograph. Maxwell
had the photographer Thomas Sutton
photograph a tartan ribbon three times,
each time with a different colour
filter over the lens. The three images
were developed and then projected onto
a screen with three different
projectors, each equipped with the same
colour filter used to take its image.
When brought into focus, the three
images formed a full colour image. The
three photographic plates now reside in
a small museum at 14 India Street,
Edinburgh, the house where Maxwell was
born. Source Scanned from The
Illustrated History of Colour
Photography, Jack H. Coote, 1993. ISBN
0-86343-380-4. Date 1861 Author
James Clerk Maxwell (original
picture) ; scan by User:Janke. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7f/Tartan_Ribbon.jpg
[2] James Clerk Maxwell. The Library
of Congress. PD/GOV
source: "Henri Victor Regnault",
Concise Dictionary of Scientific
Biography, edition 2, Charles
Scribner's Sons, (2000), p586.
[1861 CE]
lines.
(presumably)
[1] Thallium Source
http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Thalli
um_1.jpg Date March 2006 Author
Tomihahndorf PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/36/Thallium.jpg
[2] Image by Daniel Mayer or
GreatPatton and released under terms of
the GNU FDL GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1a/Tl-TableImage.png
[1861 CE]
artificial muscles.
[11/04/1862 CE]
(presumably)
[1] Patent for first Gatlin
gun PD/Corel
source: http://patimg1.uspto.gov/.piw?Do
cid=00036836&homeurl=http%3A%2F%2Fpatft.
uspto.gov%2Fnetacgi%2Fnph-Parser%3FSect1
%3DPTO1%2526Sect2%3DHITOFF%2526d%3DPALL%
2526p%3D1%2526u%3D%25252Fnetahtml%25252F
PTO%25252Fsrchnum.htm%2526r%3D1%2526f%3D
G%2526l%3D50%2526s1%3D0036,836.PN.%2526O
S%3DPN%2F0036,836%2526RS%3DPN%2F0036,836
&PageNum=&Rtype=&SectionNum=&idkey=NONE&
Input=View+first+page
[2] photograph of Richard Jordan
Gatling PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a8/Richard_Jordan_Gatlin
g.jpg
[1862 CE]
builds the first gas (direct-acting)
combustion powered carriage (car).
[1] Voiture de JEAN JOSEPH ETIENNE
LENOIR - 1860: PD/Corel
source: http://www.forum-auto.com/upload
s/200510/gv_creations_1129490448_voiture
_jean_joseph_etienne_lenoir___1860.jpg
[2] Lenoir motor in the Musée des
Arts et Métiers, Paris PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/7d/Lenoir_Motor_2.jpg
[02/18/1863 CE]
elements to those from stars (other
than the Sun).
[1] ''The position in the stellar
spectra corresponding to that of
Fraunhofer's line D, from which the
others are measured, has been obtained
by coincidence with a sodium line, the
position of which in the apparatus was
compared directly with the line D in
the solar spectrum. The lines in the
drawings against which a mark is placed
have been measured.'' PD/Corel
source: http://journals.royalsociety.org
/content/025553r323116j26/fulltext.pdf
[2] William Huggins PD/Corel
source: https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbe
cker/ExploringtheCosmos/hugginsport.jpg
[1863 CE]
spectroscopic analysis.
Germany
[1] Ferdinand Reich
(1799-1882) PD/Corel
source: http://www.jergym.hiedu.cz/~cano
vm/objevite/objev/rei.htm
[2] Hieronymus Theodor Richter
(1824-1898) PD/Corel
source: same
[09/08/1864 CE]
(exo-nebulae) examined, and shown to be
composed of gas from spectral analysis.
[1] The Cat's Eye Nebula from
Hubble Credit: NASA, ESA, HEIC, and
The Hubble Heritage Team (STScI/AURA)
PD/Corel
source: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/image/
0705/catseye2_hst.jpg
[2] Draco's spectrum ...The riddle of
the nebulae was solved. The answer,
which had come to us in the light
itself, read: Not an aggregation of
stars, but a luminous gas.
--Huggins (1897) PD/Corel
source: https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbe
cker/ExploringtheCosmos/neblinesdraco.jp
g
[01/11/1865 CE]
(endo-nebulae) examined and shown to be
composed of gas from spectral analysis.
[1] Hubble Captures the Orion
Nebula PD
source: http://www.nasa.gov/images/conte
nt/149188main_orion_nebula.jpeg
[2] Orion spectrum PD/Corel
source: William Huggins, "The Science
Papers of William Huggins".
[1865 CE]
ratio of inheritance of a trait).
Austria (now: Brno, the Czech
Republic)
[1] Gregor Mendel Source
http://www.malaspina.com/jpg/mendel.j
pg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/87/Gregor_Mendel_portrai
t.jpg
[2] [t Gregor Mendel] PD/Corel
source: http://joefelso.files.wordpress.
com/2007/04/mendel2.jpg
[1865 CE]
this is a CO2 laser. These devices are
instantly recognized as dangerous and
useful weapons, being much faster than
a metal projectile gun, and can be
developed to be much smaller than a
projectile gun. In addition, the
location of the weapon is difficult to
determine. The laser probably quickly
is strong enough to cut through flesh,
and as is public now, can cut through
even metal. Like microphones, cameras,
neuron readers and writers, these laser
devices will be reduced to micrometer
size, and then nanometer size, and
secretly distributed by the millions
throughout the planet earth.
[04/23/1868 CE]
1824-1910) calculates the (radial)
velocity of a nebula and the star
Sirius relative to the Earth using the
Doppler shift of spectral lines.
Huggins measures that Sirius is moving
away from the Sun with a velocity of
29.4 miles per second.
[1] William Huggins PD/Corel
source: https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbe
cker/ExploringtheCosmos/hugginsport.jpg
[2] William Huggins' star-spectroscope
PD/Corel
source: https://eee.uci.edu/clients/bjbe
cker/ExploringtheCosmos/hugginsspectrosc
opeb.jpg
[11/23/1868 CE]
[1] English: Early color photo of Agen,
France, by Louis Ducos du Hauron, 1877.
The cathedral in the scene is the
Cathédrale Saint-Caprais d'Agen.
[1] Source ? Date 1877 Author
Louis Ducos du Hauron (1837 –
1920) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/08/Duhauron1877.jpg
[2] Louis Ducos du Hauron paved way
for modern three-color photography.
''Cinémathèque Française'' PD/Corel
source: http://www.marillier.nom.fr/coll
odions/PGH/pics/photowasborn06.jpg
[03/06/1869 CE]
Petersburg, Russia
[1] Table from abstract of 1869
paper: Zeitschrift für Chemie 12,
405-406 (1869); PD/Corel
source: http://www.rsc.org/education/tea
chers/learnnet/periodictable/pre16/devel
op/mendel4.jpg
[2] Draft for first version of
Mendeleev's periodic table (17 February
1869). Courtesy Oesper Collection,
University of Cincinnati. PD/Corel
source: http://www.chemheritage.org/clas
sroom/chemach/images/lgfotos/04periodic/
meyer-mendeleev1.jpg
[1870 CE]
in size.
[09/08/1871 CE]
[1] Dr. Richard Leach MADDOX
(1816-1902) PD/Corel
source: http://webh01.ua.ac.be/elmc/webs
ite_FL/im_gesch/maddox.gif
[2] Richard Leach Maddox, 1816 -
1902 PD/Corel
source: http://www.cotianet.com.br/photo
/hist/Images/maddox.jpg
[01/01/1872 CE]
invented by Charles Withington. The
binder is a farm implement that
improves upon the reaper. In addition
to cutting the small-grain crop, the
binder also ties the stems into small
bundles, or sheaves. These sheaves are
then 'shocked' into conical stooks,
resembling small tipis, to allow the
grain to dry for several days before
being threshed.
[1] McCormick Harvester and Binder of
1876 at work in the field -the first
practical self-binder ever
built Source McCormick Reaper
Centennial Source Material
(International Harvester Company:
Chicago) 1931 PD
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ima
ge:McCormick_Harvester_and_Binder.gif
[02/12/1873 CE]
[1] Willoughby Smith was an electrical
engineer working for telegraph
companies, but his the most important
contribution to science was discovery
of photo-conductivity of selenium in
1873. PD/Corel
source: http://www.geocities.com/neveyaa
kov/electro_science/smith1.jpg
[2] Closed lid - high
resistance, open lid - low
resistance PD/Corel
source: http://www.geocities.com/neveyaa
kov/electro_science/smith_experiment.jpg
[1874 CE]
spectroscopy.
(presumably)
[1] English: Crystals of 99.999%
gallium. SlovenÅ¡Äina: Kristaliziran
galij. Crystals of 99.999% gallium,
grown and photographed by myself in
February 2003. These particular
crystals took about 45 minutes to grow,
sitting in a plastic dish near a cool
window. The lumpiness on the surface
of these crystals is caused mainly by
me shifting the dish around to monitor
the progression of the crystal growth.
Crystals (of any material) need to be
totally undisturbed in order to grow
perfect, large, smooth facets. Each
time I moved the liquid around, it
interrupted the crystal growth. The
''lumps'' are actually tiny crystals
that started growing on the larger
facets, but got smoothed over due to
the liquid motion. If I had placed
this in a vibration-damped sandbox
(similar to a holography table) and not
disturbed it, the crystals would have
been even larger, more coherent, and
more stunning ;) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0c/Gallium1_640x480.jpg
[2] Description François Lecoq de
Boisbaudran, discoverer of gallium,
samarium, and dysprosium (died 28 May
1912) Source
http://pagesperso-orange.fr/paysdaigre/
hpa/textes/biographies/images/lecocq.jpg
Date Before 28 May 1912 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/69/Lecoq_de_Boisbaudran.
jpg
[1876 CE]
Germany
[1] The first Linde refrigeration
machine ever sold, an improvement on
the original model from 1871 started up
in 1877 at the Creher Brewery in
Trieste (now Italy) PD/Corel
(presumably)
source: http://www.linde.com/internation
al/web/linde/like35lindecom.nsf/reposito
rybyalias/pdf_ch_chronicle/$file/chronic
le_e%5B1%5D.pdf
[2] * by Frederick Muller *
Reference: 3278404 circa 1890:
German scientist Karl Paul Gottfried
Linde. (Photo by Frederick
Muller/Hulton Archive/Getty
Images) PD/Corel
source: http://www.jamd.com/image/g/3278
404
[12/24/1877 CE]
Sound
recording played back out loud (made
audible).
USA
[1] Original Edison Tin Foil
Phonograph. Photo courtesy of U.S.
Department of the Interior, National
Park Service, Edison National Historic
Site. source:
http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edhtml/edcyl
dr.html PD
source: http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/edht
ml/tinfoil.jpg
[2] Edison's 12/24/1877 patent for
improvements to the phonograph. PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=SWg_AAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4#v
=onepage&q=&f=false
[1878 CE]
Marignac (morEnYoK) (CE 1817-1894),
Swiss chemist, identifies the rare
earth element yterrbium.
Switzerland
[1] Description Jean Charles
Galissard de Marignac (1817–1894)
Swiss chemist who discoverered
ytterbium in 1878 and codiscovered
gadolinium in 1880. Source Ecole
Nationale Supérieure des Mines de
Paris Date ~ 1850 Author
unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c4/Galissard_de_Marignac
.jpg
[2] Ytterbium sample. Photo by
RTC. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/97/Yb%2C70.jpg
[1878 CE]
Marignac (morEnYoK) (CE 1817-1894),
Swiss chemist, and P.-É. Lecoq de
Boisbaudran identify the element
gadolinium.
Switzerland
[1] Description Jean Charles
Galissard de Marignac (1817–1894)
Swiss chemist who discoverered
ytterbium in 1878 and codiscovered
gadolinium in 1880. Source Ecole
Nationale Supérieure des Mines de
Paris Date ~ 1850 Author
unknown PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c4/Galissard_de_Marignac
.jpg
[2] SlovenÅ¡Äina: Gadolinij v
epruveti. This image was copied from
en.wikipedia.org. The original
description was: Gadolinium
sample. Photo by RTC. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/fe/Gd%2C64.jpg
[1878 CE]
[1] Joseph Wilson Swan 1828 -
1914 PD/Corel
source: http://www.hevac-heritage.org/ha
ll_of_fame/lighting_&_electrical/joseph_
wilson_swan_s1.jpg
[2] Joseph Swan 19th century (or
early 20th century) photograph. public
domain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/1c/Jswan.jpg
[03/24/1879 CE]
spectroscopically.
Sweden.
[1] Scandium sample. Photo by
RTC. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/cc/Sc%2C21.jpg
[2] English: Picture of Lars Fredrik
Nilson, the Swedish chemist who
discovered scandium Source Nilson
Memorial Lecture in the Journal of the
Chemical Society, volume 77, between
pages 1276 and 1277 Date
1900 Author Otto
Petterson Permission (Reusing this
image) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9f/Nilson_Lars_Fredrik.j
pg
[1879 CE]
spectroscopy.
(presumably)
[1] Summary: Samarium in a test tube
under Argon gas Source: German
wikipedia
(http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild:Samar
ium_1.jpg); This imageis already under
Free license. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/2/21/427px-Samarium_1.jpg
[2] Description François Lecoq de
Boisbaudran, discoverer of gallium,
samarium, and dysprosium (died 28 May
1912) Source
http://pagesperso-orange.fr/paysdaigre/
hpa/textes/biographies/images/lecocq.jpg
Date Before 28 May 1912 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/69/Lecoq_de_Boisbaudran.
jpg
[1879 CE]
identified using spectroscopy.
Sweden.
[1] Holmium sample. Photo by
RTC. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6c/Ho%2C67.jpg
[2] Thulium sample. Photo by
RTC. GNU English: Picture of Per
Theodor Cleve, the Swedish chemist and
geologist Source Page 39 of
Svenskt
porträttgalleri http://books.google.co
m/books?id=XL0DAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA39&dq=Per+T
eodor+Cleve&lr=&as_brr=1#PPA39,M1 Date
1903 Author Albin
Hildebrand PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/a7/Tm%2C69.jpg
[06/03/1880 CE]
photons.
C., USA
[1] Alexander Bell's Photophone Patent
of 08/28/1880 figures 1 and 2 PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=VpdyAAAAEBAJ&printsec=drawing&zoom=4#v=
onepage&q=&f=false
[2] (presumably Alexander Graham Bell
with his ''Photophone'') PD
source: http://www.utdallas.edu/~rms0230
00/photophone.jpg
[1880 CE]
[1] Beschreibung Jacques Curie
(1856-1941, links) mit seinem Bruder
Pierre Curie (1859-1906) und seinen
Eltern Eugène Curie (1827-1910) und
Sophie-Claire Depouilly
(1832-1897) Quelle Françoise
Giroud: Marie Curie. A Life. Holmes &
Meier, New York London 1986, ISBN
0-8419-0977-6, nach Seite 138 Urheber
bzw. Nutzungsrechtinhaber
unbekannt Datum
1878 Genehmigung
Bild-PD-alt-100 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/de/3/3a/Curie%2C_Jacques_und_Pierr
e_mit_Eltern.jpg
[2] Pierre Curie UNKNOWN
source: http://www.espci.fr/esp/MUSE/ima
ge002.gif
[1880 CE]
micrometer in size. "Microcamera"
transmitter developed but kept secret.
This device uses light particles to
transmit images to distant receivers.
[1880 CE]
transmitter is less than 1 micrometer
in size. "Micro-neuronreader" or
perhaps "micro-thought-camera"
transmitter developed but kept secret.
This device uses light particles to
transmit thought-images and
thought-sounds to distant receivers.
[1880 CE]
in size. "Micro-neuron-writer" or
perhaps "Micro-thought-writer" devices
developed but kept secret. This device
uses x particles (xray) to remotely
write to neurons (make neurons fire)
using very precise directional
movement.
[1880 CE]
size.
[01/05/1881 CE]
electronically and printed.
[1] Image of gas flame focused on
transmitter figure 3 PD/Corel
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v23/n589/pdf/023344a0.pdf
[2] Image as reproduced by receiver
figure 4 PD/Corel
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v23/n589/pdf/023344a0.pdf
[1881 CE]
(mIKuLSuN) or (mIKLSuN) (CE 1852-1931),
German-US physicist designs an
interferometer ("interferential
refractometer") and uses it to find
that a beam of light, split into 2
directions in a 90 degree angle, and
reflected back onto each other do not
interfere with each other as would be
expected if light is a wave in an ether
medium, therefore casting doubt on the
theory of an aether and the wave-theory
of light and opening the way for a
re-examination of the light as a
particle theory.
Germany
[1] Figure from Michelson's 1881
paper PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=S_kQAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:0ocaawEfuqDVXP3-kAaE4N&lr=#v=onepa
ge&q=michelson&f=false
[2] Description Albert Abraham
Michelson2.jpg Photograph of Nobel
Laureate Albert Abraham
Michelson. Date 2006-09-27
(original upload date) Source
Photograph is a higher quality
version of the public domain image
available from
AstroLab http://astro-canada.ca/_en/pho
to690.php?a4313_michelson1 PD
source: Michelson_Albert_Abraham_Michels
on2.jpg
[1883 CE]
[1] Joseph Wilson Swan 1828 -
1914 PD/Corel
source: http://www.hevac-heritage.org/ha
ll_of_fame/lighting_&_electrical/joseph_
wilson_swan_s1.jpg
[2] Joseph Swan 19th century (or
early 20th century) photograph. public
domain. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/1/1c/Jswan.jpg
[1883 CE]
(Induction motor) and generator
(dynamo).
[1] Image from Tesla patent 391,968
submitted: 10/12/1887 ELECTRO-MAGNETIC
MOTOR http://www.google.com/patents?id=
z5FhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&f
=false PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=z5FhAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q=&
f=false
[2] Description Tesla
young.jpg English: The image of
en:Nikola Tesla (1856-1943) at age
23. Date image dated: circa
1878 original upload date:
2005-12-02 transfer date: 17:03, 29
July 2008 (UTC) Source Original
downloaded from
http://www.tesla-symp06.org/nikola_tesla
.htm Author Original uploader was
Antidote at en.wikipedia Transferred
from en.wikipedia by
User:emerson7. Permission (Reusing
this file) This image is in the public
domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/60/Tesla_young.jpg
[1885 CE]
(PrAZEODiMEuM) and Neodymium
(nEODiMEuM) identified.
[1]
http://images-of-elements.com/praseodymi
um.php and position on periodic
table CC
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pra
seodymium
[2] Karl Auer von Welsbach
(1858-1929) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f7/Auer_von_Welsbach.jpg
[06/26/1886 CE]
Paris, France
[1] Henri Moissan (1852-1907) PD
source: http://www.shp-asso.org/albums/p
ortrait01/Moissan.jpg
[2] Fluorine sample (gas, doesn't look
like much). GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f8/F%2C9.jpg
[1886 CE]
spectroscopy.
(presumably)
[1] This image was copied from
en.wikipedia.org. The original
description was: English: Dysprosium
sample. SlovenÅ¡Äina: Disprozij v
epruveti. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/17/Dy%2C66.jpg
[2] Description François Lecoq de
Boisbaudran, discoverer of gallium,
samarium, and dysprosium (died 28 May
1912) Source
http://pagesperso-orange.fr/paysdaigre/
hpa/textes/biographies/images/lecocq.jpg
Date Before 28 May 1912 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/69/Lecoq_de_Boisbaudran.
jpg
[1886 CE]
isolated.
Germany
[1] elementares Germanium Source:
German Wikipedia, original upload 3.
Sep 2004 by Gibe (selfmade) GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/5e/Germanium.jpg
[2] Description Picture of German
chemist Clemens Winkler (who died in
1904) Source Edgar Fahs Smith
Collection Date Before
1904 Author PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/9d/Winkler_Clemens.jpg
[03/??/1887 CE]
specific ranges of frequencies of light
particle beams to be filtered).
Germany
[1] Figure 6 from Hertz's March 1893
paper ''On Very Rapid
Oscillations'' PD
source: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "Electric Waves", 1893, 1962.
[2] Figure 7 from Hertz's March 1893
paper ''On Very Rapid
Oscillations'' PD
source: Heinrich Hertz, tr: D. E.
Jones, "Electric Waves", 1893, 1962.
[01/31/1895 CE]
Element
Argon and the series of inert gases is
identified.
[1] Figure 1 from Rayleigh 1893 PD
source: self-made Author: Atanamir PD
[2] William Ramsay (CE 1852-1916) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0b/Ar-TableImage.svg
[03/26/1895 CE]
England
[1] Figure 1 from Rayleigh 1893 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/William_Ramsay_workin
g.jpg
[2] William Ramsay PD
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1904/ramsay.jpg
[11/05/1895 CE]
Effects of high frequency (xray)
photon beams observed.
Germany
[1] English: Photo of Wilhelm Conrad
Röntgen. Cleaned up version of
http://images.google.com/hosted/life/l?i
mgurl=6b3da250c6b5560f Source
unknown source Date 1900 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/71/Roentgen2.jpg
[2] Anna Berthe Roentgen.gif Print of
Wilhelm Röntgen's (1845-1923) first
x-ray, the hand of his wife Anna taken
on 1895-12-22, presented to Professor
Ludwig Zehnder of the Physik Institut,
University of Freiburg, on 1 January
1896. Source
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:An
na_Berthe_Roentgen.gif Date 22
December 1895 (1895-12-22) Author
Wilhelm Röntgen PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6e/Anna_Berthe_Roentgen.
gif
[03/02/1896 CE]
detected from a uranium salt.
France
[1] Photographic plate made by Henri
Becquerel showing effects of exposure
to radioactivity. Image of
Becquerel's photographic plate which
has been fogged by exposure to
radiation from a uranium salt. The
shadow of a metal Maltese Cross placed
between the plate and the uranium salt
is clearly visible. Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Becqu
erel_plate.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/1e/Becquerel_plate.jpg
[2] Antoine-Henri Becquerel
(1852-1908) PD
source: http://nautilus.fis.uc.pt/wwwqui
/figuras/quimicos/img/becquerel.jpg
[05/06/1896 CE]
achieves sustained flight.
[1] English: Category:Samuel Pierpont
Langley's steam engine powered aircraft
''Aërodrome No. 5'' in flight on 1896
May 6.[1] An instantaneous photograph
by Alexander Graham Bell.[1] (3 March
1847 – 2 August 1922). Source
Page 4 from Aërial Locomotion:
With a Few Notes Date printed
1907 Author Alexander Graham
Bell PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/19/Samuel_Pierpont_Langl
ey%27s_steam_A%C3%ABrodrome_No._5_in_fli
ght.png
[2] Samuel Pierpont Langley, pioneer
aviator and 3rd Secretary of the
Smithsonian Institute. This picture is
undated but from the Smithsonian, so it
was probably taken during his tenure
there (1887-1906). It is in the public
domain as produced by the United States
Government, and also because published
before 1923. From
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Samue
l_Pierpont_Langley.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/97/Samuel_Pierpont_Langl
ey.jpg
[04/30/1897 CE]
is made of particles (the electron).
This is the first particle known to be
smaller than an atom.
England
[1] Figure 1 From Thomson, J.J.,
''Cathode-rays.'', Phil. Mag. 44,
08/07/1897,
269. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
l0wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editi
ons:UCALB3728216&lr=#v=onepage&q=thomson
&f=false PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Zl0wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:UCALB3728216&lr=#v=onepage&q=thoms
on&f=false
[2] Figure 2 From Thomson, J.J.,
''Cathode-rays.'', Phil. Mag. 44,
08/07/1897,
269. http://books.google.com/books?id=Z
l0wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=editi
ons:UCALB3728216&lr=#v=onepage&q=thomson
&f=false PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=Zl0wAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:UCALB3728216&lr=#v=onepage&q=thoms
on&f=false
[1897 CE]
France
[1] Figure 1 from Braun's 1897
paper. PD
source: Ferdinand Braun, "Ueber ein
Verfahren zur Demonstration und zum
Studium des zeitlichen Verlaufes
variabler Ströme", Annalen der Physik
und Chemie, vol. lx., 1897, p.
552-559. http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/121
48/bpt6k15301j.image.f558.langFR {Braun
_Ferdinand_oscilloscope_1897.pdf} Engli
sh translation: Ferdinand Braun, "A
Method of Demonstrating and Studying
the Time-relations of Variable
Currents.", Minutes of proceedings of
the Institution of Civil Engineers,
Volume 129, 1897,
p464. http://books.google.com/books?id=
rXgMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA464&lpg=PA464&dq=A+Met
hod+of+Demonstrating+and+Studying+the+Ti
me-relations+of+Variable+Currents.+Ferdi
nand+Braun.&source=bl&ots=CY1GqwE3Ku&sig
=7-zDHHHs-PeoCHn_veDdZXebryM&hl=en&ei=O0
bOSoKvC5L0sgPulqm2Dg&sa=X&oi=book_result
&ct=result&resnum=1#v=onepage&q=A%20Meth
od%20of%20Demonstrating%20and%20Studying
%20the%20Time-relations%20of%20Variable%
20Currents.%20Ferdinand%20Braun.&f=false
PD
[2] Ferdinand Braun (1850-1918), Nobel
laureate 1909. (in
Physics) http://www.cathodique.net/FB
raun.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/55/Ferdinand_Braun.jpg
[1897 CE]
exhibit the phenomena of interference,
reflection, refraction and double
refraction, diffraction, polarization
and absorption. However, in my view all
these phenomena can all be reduced to
reflection and absorption. In my view,
these experiments using 26mm interval
light particles refracted to the focus
of a lens are strong evidence that
light beams have no amplitude but move
in a straight line.
Bologna) Bologna, Italy
[1] Figure from German translation of
Righi's 1897 work PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=H5cIAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Aug
usto+Righi&as_brr=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
[2] [t what is the black rectangle for
or covering?] Italiano: Fotografia di
Augusto Righi scattata oltre 70 anni
fa, quindi di pubblico dominio. (Fonte:
Sito del Museo di Fisica di
Bologna) Date 2007-11-30
(original upload date) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/ef/Augusto_Righi.jpg
[05/10/1898 CE]
(presumably)
[1] Picture taken from page 230 of T.
O’Connor Sloane's Liquid Air and the
Liquefaction of Gases, second edition,
published by Norman W. Henley and Co.,
New York, 1900. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/89/Dewar_James.jpg
[2] English: Picture of Sir James
Dewar, the scientist Source Page 98
of History of Chemistry (book) Date
1910 Author Thomas Thorpe PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/2c/Dewar_James_flask.jpg
[06/03/1898 CE]
and isolated.
England
[1] Krypton element 36 from Periodic
Table GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kry
pton
[2] Figure 1 from Rayleigh 1893 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/William_Ramsay_workin
g.jpg
[06/13/1898 CE]
isolated.
England
[1] Neon, element 10 on the Periodic
Table GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo
n
[2] Figure 1 from Rayleigh 1893 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/William_Ramsay_workin
g.jpg
[07/18/1898 CE]
Paris, France
[1] Polonium foil [t verify] UNKNOWN
source: http://periodictable.com/Samples
/084.8/s12s.JPG
[2] Description
Mariecurie.jpg Portrait of Marie
Skłodowska-Curie (November 7, 1867 –
July 4, 1934), sometime prior to 1907.
Curie and her husband Pierre shared a
Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903. Working
together, she and her husband isolated
Polonium. Pierre died in 1907, but
Marie continued her work, namely with
Radium, and received a Nobel Prize in
Chemistry in 1911. Her death is mainly
attributed to excess exposure to
radiation. Date ca. 1898 Source
http://www.mlahanas.de/Physics/Bios
/MarieCurie.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d9/Mariecurie.jpg
[07/18/1898 CE]
Paris, France
[1] Pierre and Marie Curie discovered
radioactivity in the elements polonium
and radium. Working in a stable, Marie
purified 0.1 gram of radium from
several tons of ore. Image: National
Library of Medicine PD
source: http://whyfiles.org/020radiation
/images/curies_experiment.jpg
[2] Description
Mariecurie.jpg Portrait of Marie
Skłodowska-Curie (November 7, 1867 –
July 4, 1934), sometime prior to 1907.
Curie and her husband Pierre shared a
Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903. Working
together, she and her husband isolated
Polonium. Pierre died in 1907, but
Marie continued her work, namely with
Radium, and received a Nobel Prize in
Chemistry in 1911. Her death is mainly
attributed to excess exposure to
radiation. Date ca. 1898 Source
http://www.mlahanas.de/Physics/Bios
/MarieCurie.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d9/Mariecurie.jpg
[09/08/1898 CE]
and isolated.
England
[1] Xenon on the Periodic table GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xen
on
[2] Figure 1 from Rayleigh 1893 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/William_Ramsay_workin
g.jpg
[1898 CE]
magnetically.
Copenhagen, Denmark
[1] Description Telegrafon
8154.jpg Magyar: Valdemar Poulsen
mágneses hangrögzÃtÅ‘ készüléke
1898-ból. A Brede Værk ipari
múzeumban látható a dániai
Lingbyben. Saját felvétel. Dansk:
Valdemar Poulsen opfandt i i 1898 af en
magnetisk optageenhed der kaldes en
Telegrafon English: Magnetic wire
recorder, invented by Valdemar Poulsen,
1898. It is exhibited at Brede works
Industrial Museum, Lingby,
Danmark. Date 25 October
2009(2009-10-25) (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
hu.wikipedia; transferred to Commons by
User:Nico-dk using
CommonsHelper. Author Original
uploader was Bitman at
hu.wikipedia Permission (Reusing this
file) CC-BY-SA-2.5; Released under
the GNU Free Documentation
License. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/f/f9/Telegrafon_8154.jpg
[2] 1 Valdemar Poulsen (1869-1942),
der Erfinder der magnetischen
Schallaufzeichnung UNKNOWN
source: http://www.theimann.com/Analog/H
istory/100_Jahre/Bild1.jpg
[1899 CE]
(presumably)
[1] Figures from Chemical News article
by James Dewar ''Solid Hydrogen'' PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=958EAAAAYAAJ&pg=RA1-PT49&dq=chemical+ne
ws+dewar+solidification+date:1899-1899&e
i=ZcdnSaXOJYrUkwSazf0m#PRA1-PT129,M1
[2] Picture taken from page 230 of T.
O’Connor Sloane's Liquid Air and the
Liquefaction of Gases, second edition,
published by Norman W. Henley and Co.,
New York, 1900. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/89/Dewar_James.jpg
[1899 CE]
[1] Presumably actinium, a soft,
silvery-white metal which glows in the
dark. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.rsc.org/chemsoc/visua
lelements/pages/data/graphic/ac_data.jpg
[2] Actinium on periodic table GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Act
inium
[1901 CE]
[1] europium CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/a/ab/EU5P17G-crop.jpg
[2] Eugène Anatole DEMARCAY (1852 -
1904) PD
source: http://histoirechimie.free.fr/Li
en/Demarcay.jpg
[1902 CE]
(copying) of a photograph to another
photograph.
[1] Essai d'une transmission de
téléphotographie (1904) PD/Corel [t
Korn's photocopying telegraph
transmitter and receiver] PD/Corel
source: http://histv.free.fr/images/korn
8.jpg
[2] Dr. Arthur Korn 1870 -
1945 PD/Corel
source: http://www.hffax.de/assets/image
s/a_Korn.gif
[03/23/1903 CE]
controlled airplane flight.
US inventors and
brothers, Wilbur Wright (CE 1867-1912)
and Orville Wright (CE 1871-1948) build
and fly the first successful powered,
sustained, and controlled airplane.
USA
[1] Description First
flight2.jpg English: First successful
flight of the Wright Flyer, by the
Wright brothers. The machine traveled
120 ft (36.6 m) in 12 seconds at 10:35
a.m. at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina.
Orville Wright was at the controls of
the machine, lying prone on the lower
wing with his hips in the cradle which
operated the wing-warping mechanism.
Wilbur Wright ran alongside to balance
the machine, and just released his hold
on the forward upright of the right
wing in the photo. The starting rail,
the wing-rest, a coil box, and other
items needed for flight preparation are
visible behind the machine. This was
considered ''the first sustained and
controlled heavier-than-air, powered
flight'' by the Fédération
Aéronautique
Internationale. Français : L’un des
premier vols habités de l’histoire
dans un aéronef plus lourd que l’air
(36.6 mètres en 12 secondes), par les
frères Wright le 17 décembre 1903 Ã
10h35 sur la plage de Kitty Hawk en
Caroline du Nord. Orville est aux
commandes, allongé sur le ventre sur
l’aile basse et les hanches dans la
nacelle qui servait à contrôler le
mouvement des ailes ; Wilbur court le
long de l’appareil et vient de lacher
l’aile droite. Le rail de lancement,
des étais et d’autres équipements
nécessaires pour la préparation du
vol sont visibles. 日本語:
1903å¹´12月17æ—¥ã€ãƒ©ã‚¤ãƒˆå…„弟ãŒäº
ºé¡žåˆã®å‹•åŠ›é£›è¡Œæ©Ÿã§ã®æœ‰äººé£›
è¡Œã«æˆåŠŸã—ãŸæ™‚ã®å†™çœŸã€‚ Date
17 December 1903 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/86/First_flight2.jpg
[2] * Description: Wilbur
Wright Background notes: Wright
brothers English: Early Wright
brother’s airplanes explored basic
principles of flight. The Wright
brothers are widely credited with
engineering the first aircraft capable
of sustained powered
flight. Commons-emblem-notice.svg
Wright brothers Wikipedia:
Asturianu Bosanski CatalÃ
Čeština Dansk Deutsch English
Esperanto Español Euskara Suomi
Français עברית Magyar Bahasa
Indonesia Italiano 日本語
í•œêµì–´ Latina Lietuvių
Nederlands Norsk (Bokmål) Polski
Português РуÑÑкий SlovenÄina
SlovenÅ¡Äina СрпÑки / Srpski
Svenska ไทย Türkçe Tiếng
Việt ä¸æ–‡ Other links: US
inventors *** Smithsonian Stories of
the Wright flights *** National Park
Service, Wright Brothers' Memorial ***
PBS Nova: The Wright Brothers' Flying
Machines * Source:
http://lcweb2.loc.gov/pp/wrihtml/wribac.
html * Photographer: unknwon PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/77/Wilbur_Wright.jpg
[1904 CE]
determine location of distant objects.
[1] Figure 1: Hülsmeyer’s German
165,546 (1904) telemobileoscope PD
source: http://www.q-track.com/Files/fil
es/Schantz-RF%20since%20WWII.pdf
[2] Christian Huelsmeyer UNKNOWN
source: http://www.radarworld.org/images
/scans/Hulsmeyer.jpg
[12/21/1906 CE]
amplifier.
York City, New York, USA
[1] From De Forest 1907 Patent: Lee De
Forest, ''Space Telegraphy'', Patent
number: 879532, Filing date: Jan 29,
1907, Issue date: Feb 18,
1908 http://www.google.com/patents?id=6
i1vAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=6i1vAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false
[2] Description Lee De
Forest.jpg en:Lee De Forest,
published in the February 1904 issue of
The Electrical Age. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/Lee_De_Forest.jpg
[1907 CE]
[1] Lutetium Metal COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.americanelements.com/
ingot.jpg
[2] Georges Urbain UNKNOWN
source: http://er.uqam.ca/nobel/c3410/im
age041.png
[06/06/1908 CE]
(photographic) image transmitted and
received using photons (wireless
radio).
[1] From top to bottom, left to
right Top: Plan View of Receiver
Showing Negative Received. Middle:
Plan View of Transmitter Showing
Traveling Carriage Carrying
Picture. Bottom Left: The Transmitting
Apparatus Bottom Middle: Photograph of
Edward VII. Transmitted by Wireless
Telegraphy. Bottom Right: The Receiver
Showing Relay to Which Recording Needle
is Connected. PD/Corel
source: KNUDSEN'S PROCESS OF
TRANSMITTING PICTURES BY WIRELESS
TELEGRAPHY. BY THE ENGLISH
CORREESPONDENT OF THE SCIENTIFIC
AMERICAN.. Scientific American
(1845-1908). New York: Jun 6, 1908.
Vol. Vol. XCVIII., Iss. No. 23.; p. 412
(1 page)
[06/27/1908 CE]
Netherlands
[1] Plate 2 from Kamerlingh Onnes 1908
paper PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=bYfNAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=edi
tions:0TAagV5ZkvksJU62wD#v=onepage&q=hel
ium&f=false
[2] * Author: anonymous or
pseudonymous, per EU Copyright
Directive (1993), Article 1, §§1-4
* This image was published not later
than 1913 in conjunction with the Nobel
Prize in Physics. * Sources:
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1913/onnes-bio.html PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/9/94/Kamerlingh_portret.jp
g
[1909 CE]
clearly this invention must date back
to the 1800s and perhaps even the
1700s, but like neuron reading and
writing was kept from the public for a
shockingly long time.)
(verify)
[1] St. John's Newfoundland kite which
received the famous signal 1901 PD
source: B. L. Jacot de Boinod and D. M.
B. Collier, "Marconi: Master of Space"
(1935)
[2] Marconi Station at Poldhu,
Cornwall, from which first
transatlantic signals were transmitted.
Contrasted with top picture, the
Bridgewater Beam transmitting
station. PD
source: B. L. Jacot de Boinod and D. M.
B. Collier, "Marconi: Master of Space"
(1935)
[06/??/1911 CE]
description of a machine that records
the sounds of thought from a brain, and
of a machine that writes sounds back to
the brain which are heard in thought.
[1] image of ''Menograph'' tape of
thought audio from Hugo Gernsback June
1911 story ''Ralph 124c 41 +''. PD
source: Hugo Gernsback, "Ralph 124C 41
+", "Modern Electrics", Modern
Electrics Publication, New York, Vol.
4, No. 3, June 1911. Taken from "Modern
Electrics", Volume 3-4, Jan-Dec 1911,
p164-165.
[2] image of Hugo Gernsback June 1911
story ''Ralph 124c 41 +''. PD
source: Hugo Gernsback, "Ralph 124C 41
+", "Modern Electrics", Modern
Electrics Publication, New York, Vol.
4, No. 3, June 1911. Taken from "Modern
Electrics", Volume 3-4, Jan-Dec 1911,
p167.
[1911 CE]
Scotland
[1] Figure from: Frederick Soddy,
''The chemistry of mesothorium'', J.
Chem. Soc., Trans., 1911, 99,
72-83. http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/A
rticleLanding/1911/CT/ct9119900072
and http://pubs.rsc.org/en/Content/Arti
clePDF/1911/CT/CT9119900072?page=Search
{Soddy_Frederick_mesothorium_1911.pdf}
PD
source: Soddy_Frederick_mesothorium_1911
[2] Frederick Soddy UNKNOWN
source: http://images.nobelprize.org/nob
el_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1921/soddy
_postcard.jpg
[05/04/1912 CE]
reveals crystal atomic structure.
Germany
[1] From W. Friedrich, P. Knipping,
M. Laue, ''Interferenzerscheinungen bei
Röntgenstrahlen'', Annalen der Physik,
Volume 346, Issue 10, pages 971–988,
1913. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/do
i/10.1002/andp.19133461004/abstract {La
ue_Max_19130315.pdf} PD
source: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/d
oi/10.1002/andp.19133461004/pdf
[2] X-ray photograph of Zinc
blende PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/0e/Max_von_Laue.jpg
[11/11/1912 CE]
reflection.
University) Cambridge, England
[1] Figure 2 from: Bragg, W.L. The
Diffraction of Short Electromagnetic
Waves by a Crystal. Proceedings of the
Cambridge Philosophical Society, 1913:
17, pp.
43-57. {Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111
.pdf} PD
source: Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111.
[2] Figures 3 and 4 from: Bragg, W.L.
The Diffraction of Short
Electromagnetic Waves by a Crystal.
Proceedings of the Cambridge
Philosophical Society, 1913: 17, pp.
43-57. {Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111
.pdf} PD
source: Bragg_William_Lawrence_19121111.
[12/20/1912 CE]
to have very high velocity relative to
us.
Flagstaff, Arizona, USA
[1] Vesto Melvin Slipher (11/11/1875 -
08/11/1969) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.phys-astro.sonoma.edu
/BruceMedalists/Slipher/slipher.jpg
[07/28/1914 CE]
with images on plastic film.
[1] Eric Tigerstedts ljudfilmspatent
nummer 309.536 från 28/7 1914 PD
source: http://www.filmsoundsweden.se/vo
xbilder/filmhist/tigerstedt.jpg
[2] Sound in Movies (Eric
Tigerstedt) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/fi/thumb/f/f3/Eric_Tigerstedt_1915
.jpg/250px-Eric_Tigerstedt_1915.jpg
[1917 CE]
piezoelectricity and used to determine
location of objects (sonar).
(presumably)
[1] Description Paul
Langevin.jpg Paul Langevin Date
2007-02-13 (original upload
date) Unknown - before 1946 (original
picture) Source Originally from
en.wikipedia; description page is/was
here. Original source:
http://www.nndb.com/people/085/000099785
/paul-langevin-1-sized.jpg PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/65/Paul_Langevin.jpg
[04/??/1918 CE]
part of galaxy.
Wilson, California, USA
[1] Figure 1 from: Shapley, ''Remarks
on the Arrangement of the Sidereal
Universe'', Astrophysical Journal, 49
(1919), 311–336.
http://books.google.com/books?id=wX4OA
AAAIAAJ&pg=PA311&lpg=PA311&dq=Remarks+on
+the+Arrangement+of+the+Sidereal+Univers
e&source=bl&ots=Akurl3Ntg9&sig=CIY6NgmTy
xBZqKK3RXWo3MWIr2U&hl=en&ei=hmMcTaKJK5So
sAPG2ZDSAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result
&resnum=2&ved=0CBoQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Re
marks%20on%20the%20Arrangement%20of%20th
e%20Sidereal%20Universe&f=false PD
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=wX4OAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA311&lpg=PA311&dq=Rema
rks+on+the+Arrangement+of+the+Sidereal+U
niverse&source=bl&ots=Akurl3Ntg9&sig=CIY
6NgmTyxBZqKK3RXWo3MWIr2U&hl=en&ei=hmMcTa
KJK5SosAPG2ZDSAg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=
result&resnum=2&ved=0CBoQ6AEwAQ#v=onepag
e&q=Remarks%20on%20the%20Arrangement%20o
f%20the%20Sidereal%20Universe&f=false
[2] * Harlow Shapley's observations
placed the Sun about 25,000 light years
from the center of our home Galaxy.
* Photo credit: National
Academies UNKNOWN
source: http://www.cosmotography.com/ima
ges/dark_matter_gallery/HarlowShapley.jp
g
[04/??/1919 CE]
into atoms of oxygen.
Humans change atoms of
nitrogen into atoms of oxygen
(transmutation) by colliding
accelerated alpha particles with
nitrogen gas.
England
[1] Figure 1 from Ernest Rutherford,
''Collision of α Particles with Light
Atoms'', Phil. Mag. June 1919, s6, 37,
pp581-87. PD
source: http://web.lemoyne.edu/~giunta/r
uth.gif
[2] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g
[1920 CE]
nanometer in size. "Nanophone"
transmitter developed but kept secret.
This device uses light particles to
transmit sounds to distant receivers.
[1920 CE]
nanometer in size. "Nanocamera"
developed but kept secret. This device
uses light particle to transmit images
to distant receivers.
[1920 CE]
nanometer in size. "Nano-thought-cam"
("nano-thought-reader",
"Nano-neuron-reader") transmitter
developed but kept secret. This device
uses light particles to transmit
thought-images and thought-sounds to
distant receivers. It may be that
sound, image and neuron reading and
writing may all be consolodated into a
single device. These device may have
tiny light particle powered engines,
and so may float around into a room,
and be precisely positioned using tiny
nanometer size engines.
[1920 CE]
writing devices developed but kept
secret. This device uses x particles
(xray) to remotely write to neurons
(make neurons fire) using very precise
directional movement.
[1920 CE]
size.
[01/02/1923 CE]
Denmark
[1] Properties and image of
Hafnium GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haf
nium
[2] This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Description George de
Hevesy.jpg English: Source:
http://www.oeaw.ac.at/smi/bilder/photo/H
evesy.JPG Public domain: photographer
died >70yrs ago. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b4/George_de_Hevesy.jpg
[06/14/1923 CE]
(silhouette) images transmitted and
received using photons (wireless
radio).
[1] Motion Pictures by Ether Waves -
August 1925 ''Popular Radio''
Article (Courtesy John
Hauser) PD/Corel
source: http://www.tvhistory.tv/1925-Aug
-Popular-Radio-P107a.JPG
[2] From ''Animated Pictures'' By
Charles Francis Jenkins Charles
Francis Jenkins PD/Corel
source: http://books.google.com/books?id
=uJYFAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA138&dq=C+Francis+Jenk
ins&as_brr=1&ei=tjLdSLjvOJfStQPK2rGRCg#P
PP6,M1
[12/29/1923 CE]
(and radio frequency light particle
(wireless) sending and receiving of
images (television)?)
Pittsberg, PA, USA) Haddenfield, New
Jersey, USA
[1] Drawing from Zworykin's 1923 patent
application Television
System. Vladimir K. Zworykin's patent
1923 Source
http://www.google.com/patents/about
?id=bdYBAAAAEBAJ Date
1923 Author Vladimir K.
Zworykin Permission (Reusing this
file) See below. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/8/84/Zworykin_patent_%281923%29
.jpg
[2] Screenshot of Vladimir K. Zworykin
from the documentary film the Story of
Television Date 1956 and
later Source Screenshot from the
Story of Television from the Prelinger
Archives in the Internet
Archive Author Produced by Ganz
(William J.) Co. and Radio Corporation
of America (RCA) Film is in the Public
Domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/30/Zworykin_docgrab.jpg
[01/01/1925 CE]
recognized to contain stars and be very
far away (930,000 light-years).
California, USA
[1] Edwin Hubble (with pipe) Photograph
of famous deceased scientist Edwin
Hubble for use in the appropriate
encyclopedia article. Original
Source: Edwin Hubble Biography at
Western Washington University
Planetarium:
http://www.wwu.edu/depts/skywise/hubble.
html UNKNOWN
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/6/64/Hubble.jpg
[2] Edwin Hubble UNKNOWN
source: http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac
.uk/BigPictures/Hubble.jpeg
[07/13/1925 CE]
camera.
[1] Figure from Zworykin 1925
patent PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=mZ9KAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false
[2] Screenshot of Vladimir K. Zworykin
from the documentary film the Story of
Television Date 1956 and
later Source Screenshot from the
Story of Television from the Prelinger
Archives in the Internet
Archive Author Produced by Ganz
(William J.) Co. and Radio Corporation
of America (RCA) Film is in the Public
Domain PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/3/30/Zworykin_docgrab.jpg
[10/22/1925 CE]
and amplifier (transistor). First
public millimeter size electric switch.
USA
[1] Figure 1 from: Julius Lilienfeld,
Patent number: 1745175, ''METHOD AND
APPARATUS FOR CONTROLLING ELECTRIC
CURRENTS'', US Filing date: Oct 8,
1926, Canada filing date: October 22,
1925, Issue date: Jan 28,
1930. http://www.google.com/patents?id=
uBFMAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&so
urce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=
false PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=uBFMAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false
[2] Source: scanned passport
photo Rationale: Photographer died
>70yrs ago. GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/5/59/Julius_Edgar_Lilienfeld_%2
81881-1963%29.jpg
[06/26/1926 CE]
Germany
[1] Description Rhenium single crystal
bar and 1cm3 cube.jpg Deutsch: Ein
hochreiner (99,999 % = 5N)
Rhenium-Einkristall, hergestellt nach
dem Zonenschmelzverfahren, ein
elektronenstrahlgeschmolzener (99,995 %
= 4N5) Rheniumbarren, sowie für den
Größenvergleich ein reiner (99,99 % =
4N) 1 cm3 Rhenium-Würfel. English: A
high purity (99.999 %) rhenium single
crystal made by the floating zone
process, an ebeam remelted (99.995 %)
rhenium bar and as well as a high
purity (99.99 % = 4N) 1 cm3 rhenium
cube for comparison. Date 25
September 2010(2010-09-25) Source
Own work Author Alchemist-hp
(talk)
(www.pse-mendelejew.de) Permission CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/71/Rhenium_single_crysta
l_bar_and_1cm3_cube.jpg
[2] Walter Noddack 1893 -
1960 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.ptb.de/cms/uploads/RT
EmagicC_82fb10ee7d.png.png
[02/??/1930 CE]
one of many galaxies.
Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
[1] * Harlow Shapley's observations
placed the Sun about 25,000 light years
from the center of our home Galaxy.
* Photo credit: National
Academies UNKNOWN
source: http://www.cosmotography.com/ima
ges/dark_matter_gallery/HarlowShapley.jp
g
[09/10/1931 CE]
University) Berlin, Germany
[1] Figure 2 from: M. Knoll und E.
Ruska, ''Beitrag zur geometrischen
Elektronenoptik.'', Ann. Physik 12
(1932) 607-661, eingegangen am
10.9.1931. http://ernstruska.digilibrar
y.de/bibliographie/q004/q004.html {Rusk
a_Ernst_q004_19310910.pdf} UNKNOWN
source: http://ernstruska.digilibrary.de
/bibliographie/q004/q004.html
[2] Ernst Ruska, 1939 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.siemens.com/history/p
ool/perseunlichkeiten/wissenschaftler/ru
ska_1939.jpg
[02/17/1932 CE]
Cambridge, England
[1] Figure 1 from: J. Chadwick, ''The
Existence of a Neutron'', Proceedings
of the Royal Society of London. Series
A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical
and Physical Character, Vol. 136, No.
830 (Jun. 1, 1932), pp.
692-708. http://www.jstor.org/stable/95
816 {Chadwick_James_19320510.pdf}
{full report: 05/10/1932} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfp
lus/95816.pdf?acceptTC=true
[2] Description
Chadwick.jpg en:James
Chadwick Date ~1935 (original
photograph), 2007-08-11 (original
upload date) Source Transfered
from en.wikipedia. Original source:
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physi
cs/laureates/1935/chadwick-bio.html COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/c/c2/Chadwick.jpg
[03/17/1934 CE]
Helium atom made from two
hydrogen atoms.
England
[1] Figures 4, 5 and 6 from Oliphant,
Harteck, Rutherford, ''Transmutation
Effects observed with Heavy Hydrogen'',
Proceedings of the Royal Society, A,
144, 1934, pp692-703. COPYRIGHTED
source: Oliphant, Harteck, Rutherford,
"Transmutation Effects observed with
Heavy Hydrogen", Proceedings of the
Royal Society, A, 144, 1934, pp692-703.
[2] Description Ernest
Rutherford2.jpg English: Cropped
Image:Ernest_Rutherford.jpg Date
2007-01-26 (original upload
date) Source Transferred from
en.wikipedia Author Original
uploader was Sadi Carnot at
en.wikipedia GNU
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/57/Ernest_Rutherford2.jp
g
[06/28/1934 CE]
chain reaction understood.
England
[1] Figure 2 from: L. Szilárd,
''Improvements in or relating to the
transmutation of chemical elements,''
British patent number: GB630726 (filed:
28 June 1934; published: 30 March
1936).http://v3.espacenet.com/publicatio
nDetails/originalDocument;jsessionid=8B2
86F84EEDA7D654C9A04127F25CBA9.espacenet_
levelx_prod_5?CC=GB&NR=630726A&KC=A&FT=D
&date=19360330&DB=&locale= {Szilard_Leo
_19340628.pdf} PD
source: http://v3.espacenet.com/publicat
ionDetails/originalDocument;jsessionid=8
B286F84EEDA7D654C9A04127F25CBA9.espacene
t_levelx_prod_5?CC=GB&NR=630726A&KC=A&FT
=D&date=19360330&DB=&locale=
[2] Leo Szilard (1898 - 1964)
UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B56.jpg
[05/14/1937 CE]
identified from neutron uranium
collision.
Berlin-Dahlem) Berlin, Germany
[1] Lise Meitner UNKNOWN
source: http://www3.findagrave.com/photo
s/2007/278/15166236_119171400954.jpg
[2] Otto Hahn UNKNOWN
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1944/hahn.jpg
[05/22/1937 CE]
captured.
Germany
[1] Figures 2-4 from: ''Fig 2.
Tungsten cathode (filament) [011] -
Direction in the middle. Fig 3.
Tungsten cathode [211] - Direction,
almost in the middle. Fig 4. Sphere
model with the lattice directions of a
cube-based emission tungsten cathode,
field of view as Fig 3.'' [2] Erwin W.
Müller, ''Elektronenmikroskopische
Beobachtungen von Feldkathoden'',
Zeitschrift für Physik A Hadrons and
Nuclei, Volume 106, Numbers 9-10,
541-550, DOI:
10.1007/BF01339895 http://www.springerl
ink.com/content/h425u71vqh66w886/ {Mull
er_Erwin_W_19370522.pdf}
English: ''Electron microscopic
observations of field cathode''
source: http://www.springerlink.com/cont
ent/h425u71vqh66w886/
[2] COPYRIGHTED
source: http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/opti
cs/timeline/people/antiqueimages/mueller
.jpg
[06/30/1937 CE]
[1] Description
Tc,43.jpg Technetium Date
Uploaded 2005-06-01 on af: Source
Lapp, Ralph E. and the Editors of
Life (1965). Matter: Life Science
Library. New York: TIME
Incorporated. Author Attributed
as a U.S. government image in scanning
source PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/40/Tc%2C43.jpg
[2] This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Los Alamos wartime badge
photo: Emilio Segrè Source: Los
Alamos National Laboratory,
http://www.lanl.gov/history/wartime/staf
f.shtml PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/71/Emilio_Segre_ID_badge
.png
[06/22/1938 CE]
Gesellschaft/Berlin Medical Society)
Berlin, Germany
[1] (ubermikroskop) Ultramicroscope
image of the virus of ectromelia in the
point mouse. Infectious material from
the lymph of an infected paw. magnified
20,000x. Figure 1 from: B. v.
Borries, E. Ruska und H. Ruska,
''Bakterien und Virus in
übermikroskopischer
Aufnahme.'', Klin. Wochenschrift 17
(1938)
921-925. http://ernstruska.digilibrary.
de/bibliographie/q021/q021.html {Ruska_
Ernst_19380622.pdf} UNKNOWN
source: http://ernstruska.digilibrary.de
/bibliographie/q021/q021.html
[2] Ernst Ruska, 1939 UNKNOWN
source: http://www.siemens.com/history/p
ool/perseunlichkeiten/wissenschaftler/ru
ska_1939.jpg
[01/16/1939 CE]
(Meitner), (University of Copenhagen),
Copenhagen, Denmark (Frisch)
[1] Otto Frisch Los Alamos wartime
badge photo: Otto R. Frisch Source:
Los Alamos National Laboratory,
http://www.lanl.gov/history/wartime/staf
f.shtml PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/2/20/Otto_Frisch_ID_badge.
png
[2] Lise Meitner UNKNOWN
source: http://www3.findagrave.com/photo
s/2007/278/15166236_119171400954.jpg
[07/16/1940 CE]
California, USA
[1] Figure 1 from: Corson, D. R.;
MacKenzie, K. R.; Segrè, E.
''Artificially Radioactive Element
85''. Phys. Rev. 1940, 58: 672–678.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRev.58
.672 {Segre_Emilio_19400716.pdf} COPYR
IGHTED
source: http://dx.doi.org/10.1103%2FPhys
Rev.58.672
[2] This is a file from the Wikimedia
Commons Los Alamos wartime badge
photo: Emilio Segrè Source: Los
Alamos National Laboratory,
http://www.lanl.gov/history/wartime/staf
f.shtml PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/71/Emilio_Segre_ID_badge
.png
[11/04/1942 CE]
detected.
University), Swarthmore, Pennsylvania,
USA
[1] Figure 1 from: Strand, K. A., ''61
Cygni as a Triple System'',
Publications of the Astronomical
Society of the Pacific, Vol. 55, No.
322,
p.29-32. http://articles.adsabs.harvard
.edu/full/seri/PASP./0055//0000030.000.h
tml {Strand_K_A_19421104.pdf}
UNKNOWN
source: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.e
du/full/seri/PASP./0055//0000030.000.htm
l
[2] Description
KajStrand.jpg English: Kaj Aage
Gunnar Strand (27 February 1907 - 31
October 2000) was director of the U.S.
Naval Observatory from 1963 to 1977. He
specialized in astrometry, especially
work on double stars and stellar
distances. Date
2000(2000) Source
http://ad.usno.navy.mil/wds/history
/strand.html Author
U.S.Navy Permission (Reusing
this file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/5/59/KajStrand.jpg
[12/02/1942 CE]
reaction.
Illinois, USA
[1] Figure 5 from: ''Experimental
production of a Divergent Chain
Reaction'', American Journal of
Physics, 20, 1952,
536-558. http://ajp.aapt.org/resource/1
/ajpias/v20/i9/p536_s1 {Fermi_Enrico_19
520627.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://ajp.aapt.org/resource/1/a
jpias/v20/i9/p536_s1
[2] Enrico Fermi from Argonne
National Laboratory PD
source: http://www.osti.gov/accomplishme
nts/images/08.gif
[11/01/1943 CE]
molecule responsible for physical
structural changes and the inheritance
of those structural changes for some
bacteria.
Rockefeller University) New York City,
New York, USA
[1] EXPLANATION OF PLATE The
photograph was made by Mr. Joseph B.
Haulenbeek. FIG. 1. Colonies of the R
variant (R36A) derived from
Pneumococcus Type n. Plated on blood
agar from a culture grown in serum
broth in the absence of
the transforming substance. X
3.5. FIO. 2. Colonies on blood agar of
the same cells after induction of
transformation during growth in the
same medium with the addition of active
transforming principle isolated from
Type nI pneumococci. The smooth,
glistening, mucoid colonies shown are
characteristic of Pneumococcus Type In
and readily distinguishable from the
small, rough colonies of the parent R
strain illustrated in Fig. 1.
X3.5. Downloaded from jem.rupress.org
on December 24, 2010 Published
February 1, 1944 COPYRIGHTED
source: http://jem.rupress.org/content/7
9/2/137.full.pdf
[2] Description Oswald T. Avery
portrait 1937.jpg Portrait of Oswald
T. Avery, cropped from a Rockefeller
Institute for Medical Research staff
photograph. Date
1937(1937) Source
http://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/CC/A/A/
L/P/_/ccaalp_.jpg Author
Unknown Permission (Reusing this
file) Reproduced with permission
of the Rockefeller Archive Center. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/e/eb/Oswald_T._Avery_portr
ait_1937.jpg
[09/17/1946 CE]
found in a bacteria (E. Coli).
Connecticut, USA
[1] Joshua Lederberg UNKNOWN
source: http://t3.gstatic.com/images?q=t
bn:ANd9GcTip9U51ETe5PA23tMz7X9VOE3pFURQn
PV-AHXSb4--tMcozbbL&t=1
[2] Edward Lawrie Tatum Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1958/tatum.jpg
[06/26/1947 CE]
(bismuth) fissioned with deuterons,
helium ions or neutrons.
California, USA
[01/23/1950 CE]
identified.
California, USA
[1] Description Berkeley 60-inch
cyclotron.gif English: Photograph
shows the 60-inch cyclotron at the
University of California Lawrence
Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, in
August, 1939. The machine was the most
powerful atom-smasher in the world at
the time. It had started operating
early in the year. During the period of
the photograph Dr. Edwin M. McMillan
was doing the work which led to the
discovery of neptunium (element 93) a
year later. The instrument was used
later by Dr. Glenn T. Seaborg and his
colleagues for the discovery of element
94 (plutonium) early in 1941.
Subsequently, other transuranium
elements were discovered with the
machine, as well as many radioisotopes,
including carbon-14. For their work,
Drs. Seaborg and McMillan shared the
Nobel Prize in 1951. The machine was
used for the ''long bombardments''
which produced the first weighable and
visible quantities of plutonium, which
was used at Chicago by Seaborg and his
colleagues to work out the method for
separating plutonium on an industrial
scale at the Hanford, Washington,
plutonium pro... РуÑÑкий:
ФотографиÑ
показывает
60-дюймовый циклотрон
в универÑитете
Лаборатории California
Lawrence Radiation, Беркли, в
авгуÑте 1939. Машина
была Ñамым Ñильным
уÑкорителем чаÑтиц в
мире в то времÑ. Date
1939(1939) Source National
Archives logo.svg This image is
available from the Archival Research
Catalog of the National Archives and
Records Administration under the ARC
Identifier 558594. This tag does not
indicate the copyright status of the
attached work. A normal copyright tag
is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more information.
US-NARA-ARC-Logo.svg Author
Department of Energy. Office of
Public Affairs PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/72/Berkeley_60-inch_cycl
otron.gif
[2] Glenn Seaborg (1912 -
1999) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B51.jpg
[03/15/1950 CE]
identified.
California, USA
[1] Description Berkeley 60-inch
cyclotron.gif English: Photograph
shows the 60-inch cyclotron at the
University of California Lawrence
Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, in
August, 1939. The machine was the most
powerful atom-smasher in the world at
the time. It had started operating
early in the year. During the period of
the photograph Dr. Edwin M. McMillan
was doing the work which led to the
discovery of neptunium (element 93) a
year later. The instrument was used
later by Dr. Glenn T. Seaborg and his
colleagues for the discovery of element
94 (plutonium) early in 1941.
Subsequently, other transuranium
elements were discovered with the
machine, as well as many radioisotopes,
including carbon-14. For their work,
Drs. Seaborg and McMillan shared the
Nobel Prize in 1951. The machine was
used for the ''long bombardments''
which produced the first weighable and
visible quantities of plutonium, which
was used at Chicago by Seaborg and his
colleagues to work out the method for
separating plutonium on an industrial
scale at the Hanford, Washington,
plutonium pro... РуÑÑкий:
ФотографиÑ
показывает
60-дюймовый циклотрон
в универÑитете
Лаборатории California
Lawrence Radiation, Беркли, в
авгуÑте 1939. Машина
была Ñамым Ñильным
уÑкорителем чаÑтиц в
мире в то времÑ. Date
1939(1939) Source National
Archives logo.svg This image is
available from the Archival Research
Catalog of the National Archives and
Records Administration under the ARC
Identifier 558594. This tag does not
indicate the copyright status of the
attached work. A normal copyright tag
is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more information.
US-NARA-ARC-Logo.svg Author
Department of Energy. Office of
Public Affairs PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/72/Berkeley_60-inch_cycl
otron.gif
[2] Glenn Seaborg (1912 -
1999) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B51.jpg
[03/15/1950 CE]
(copper, bromine, silver, and tin).
California, USA
[1] Description Berkeley 60-inch
cyclotron.gif English: Photograph
shows the 60-inch cyclotron at the
University of California Lawrence
Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, in
August, 1939. The machine was the most
powerful atom-smasher in the world at
the time. It had started operating
early in the year. During the period of
the photograph Dr. Edwin M. McMillan
was doing the work which led to the
discovery of neptunium (element 93) a
year later. The instrument was used
later by Dr. Glenn T. Seaborg and his
colleagues for the discovery of element
94 (plutonium) early in 1941.
Subsequently, other transuranium
elements were discovered with the
machine, as well as many radioisotopes,
including carbon-14. For their work,
Drs. Seaborg and McMillan shared the
Nobel Prize in 1951. The machine was
used for the ''long bombardments''
which produced the first weighable and
visible quantities of plutonium, which
was used at Chicago by Seaborg and his
colleagues to work out the method for
separating plutonium on an industrial
scale at the Hanford, Washington,
plutonium pro... РуÑÑкий:
ФотографиÑ
показывает
60-дюймовый циклотрон
в универÑитете
Лаборатории California
Lawrence Radiation, Беркли, в
авгуÑте 1939. Машина
была Ñамым Ñильным
уÑкорителем чаÑтиц в
мире в то времÑ. Date
1939(1939) Source National
Archives logo.svg This image is
available from the Archival Research
Catalog of the National Archives and
Records Administration under the ARC
Identifier 558594. This tag does not
indicate the copyright status of the
attached work. A normal copyright tag
is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more information.
US-NARA-ARC-Logo.svg Author
Department of Energy. Office of
Public Affairs PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/72/Berkeley_60-inch_cycl
otron.gif
[2] Glenn Seaborg (1912 -
1999) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B51.jpg
[09/11/1950 CE]
California, USA
[1] Description LWA Picture
Final.jpg English: Head Photo of Luis
W Alvarez Date 1968(1968) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1968/alvarez.html Aut
hor Nobel Foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/6e/LWA_Picture_Final.jpg
[04/02/1952 CE]
Coli).
Wisconsin, USA and (Istituto
Sicroterapico Milanese) Milan,
Italy
[1] Joshua Lederberg UNKNOWN
source: http://t3.gstatic.com/images?q=t
bn:ANd9GcTip9U51ETe5PA23tMz7X9VOE3pFURQn
PV-AHXSb4--tMcozbbL&t=1
[2] Two bacterial cells caught in the
act of plasmid-mediated conjugation.
Many plasmids are able to transfer
horizontally from an infected donor
(top) to an uninfected recipient
(bottom) via conjugation. Conjugation
is initiated by contact between donor
and recipient cells via a
plasmid-encoded protein appendage
called a sex pilus. Conjugation results
in the one-way transfer of a copy of
the plasmid genome from donor to
recipient. UNKNOWN
source: http://www.yale.edu/turner/graph
ics/Fig4.jpg
[04/02/1953 CE]
understood.
Cambridge) Cambridge, England
[1] Figure 1 from: J. D. WATSON & F.
H. C. CRICK, ''Molecular structure of
nucleic acids; a structure for
deoxyribose nucleic acid'', Nature,
(1953) volume: 171 issue: 4356 page:
737. http://www.nature.com/nature/journ
al/v171/n4356/abs/171737a0.html {Crick_
Francis_Harry_Compton_19530402.pdf} COP
YRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v171/n4356/abs/171737a0.html
[2] Francis Harry Compton Crick
UNKNOWN
source: http://scientistshowtell.wikispa
ces.com/file/view/FrancisHarryComptonCri
ck2.jpg/39149552/FrancisHarryComptonCric
k2.jpg
[04/28/1954 CE]
New York City, New York, USA
[1] Chemical structure diagram
from: Vincent du Vigneaud, Charlotte
Ressler, John M. Swan, Carleton W.
Roberts, Panayotis G. Katsoyannis,
''The Synthesis of Oxytocin'', J. Am.
Chem. Soc., 1954, 76 (12), pp
3115–3121 http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs
/10.1021/ja01641a004 {Du_Vigneaud_Vince
nt_19540428.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1
021/ja01641a004
[2] Vincent du Vigneaud COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1955/vigneaud.jpg
[05/05/1954 CE]
New York, USA
[1] Figures 1 and 2 from: J. P.
Gordon, H. J. Zeiger, and C. H. Townes,
''Molecular Microwave Oscillator and
New Hyperfine Structure in the
Microwave Spectrum of NH3'', Phys. Rev.
95, 282–284
(1954). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v95/i1/p282_1 {Townes_Charles_Hard_19
540505.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v95/i1/p282_1
[2] Charles Hard Townes Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1964/townes.jpg
[04/18/1955 CE]
identified.
California, USA
[1] Description Berkeley 60-inch
cyclotron.gif English: Photograph
shows the 60-inch cyclotron at the
University of California Lawrence
Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, in
August, 1939. The machine was the most
powerful atom-smasher in the world at
the time. It had started operating
early in the year. During the period of
the photograph Dr. Edwin M. McMillan
was doing the work which led to the
discovery of neptunium (element 93) a
year later. The instrument was used
later by Dr. Glenn T. Seaborg and his
colleagues for the discovery of element
94 (plutonium) early in 1941.
Subsequently, other transuranium
elements were discovered with the
machine, as well as many radioisotopes,
including carbon-14. For their work,
Drs. Seaborg and McMillan shared the
Nobel Prize in 1951. The machine was
used for the ''long bombardments''
which produced the first weighable and
visible quantities of plutonium, which
was used at Chicago by Seaborg and his
colleagues to work out the method for
separating plutonium on an industrial
scale at the Hanford, Washington,
plutonium pro... РуÑÑкий:
ФотографиÑ
показывает
60-дюймовый циклотрон
в универÑитете
Лаборатории California
Lawrence Radiation, Беркли, в
авгуÑте 1939. Машина
была Ñамым Ñильным
уÑкорителем чаÑтиц в
мире в то времÑ. Date
1939(1939) Source National
Archives logo.svg This image is
available from the Archival Research
Catalog of the National Archives and
Records Administration under the ARC
Identifier 558594. This tag does not
indicate the copyright status of the
attached work. A normal copyright tag
is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more information.
US-NARA-ARC-Logo.svg Author
Department of Energy. Office of
Public Affairs PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/72/Berkeley_60-inch_cycl
otron.gif
[2] Glenn Seaborg (1912 -
1999) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B51.jpg
[06/20/1955 CE]
"fermium" identified.
California, USA
[1] Description Berkeley 60-inch
cyclotron.gif English: Photograph
shows the 60-inch cyclotron at the
University of California Lawrence
Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, in
August, 1939. The machine was the most
powerful atom-smasher in the world at
the time. It had started operating
early in the year. During the period of
the photograph Dr. Edwin M. McMillan
was doing the work which led to the
discovery of neptunium (element 93) a
year later. The instrument was used
later by Dr. Glenn T. Seaborg and his
colleagues for the discovery of element
94 (plutonium) early in 1941.
Subsequently, other transuranium
elements were discovered with the
machine, as well as many radioisotopes,
including carbon-14. For their work,
Drs. Seaborg and McMillan shared the
Nobel Prize in 1951. The machine was
used for the ''long bombardments''
which produced the first weighable and
visible quantities of plutonium, which
was used at Chicago by Seaborg and his
colleagues to work out the method for
separating plutonium on an industrial
scale at the Hanford, Washington,
plutonium pro... РуÑÑкий:
ФотографиÑ
показывает
60-дюймовый циклотрон
в универÑитете
Лаборатории California
Lawrence Radiation, Беркли, в
авгуÑте 1939. Машина
была Ñамым Ñильным
уÑкорителем чаÑтиц в
мире в то времÑ. Date
1939(1939) Source National
Archives logo.svg This image is
available from the Archival Research
Catalog of the National Archives and
Records Administration under the ARC
Identifier 558594. This tag does not
indicate the copyright status of the
attached work. A normal copyright tag
is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more information.
US-NARA-ARC-Logo.svg Author
Department of Energy. Office of
Public Affairs PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/72/Berkeley_60-inch_cycl
otron.gif
[2] Glenn Seaborg (1912 -
1999) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B51.jpg
[10/24/1955 CE]
California, USA
[1] Figure 1 from: Owen Chamberlain,
Emilio Segrè, Clyde Wiegand, and
Thomas Ypsilantis, ''Observation of
Antiprotons'', Phys. Rev. 100,
947–950
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v100/i3/p947_1 {Segre_Emilio_19551024
.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v100/i3/p947_1
[2] Description Segre.jpg English:
Emilio Segrè Date
1959(1959) Source
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/
physics/laureates/1959/segre-bio.html A
uthor Nobel foundation PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/4/41/Segre.jpg
[10/04/1957 CE]
km southwest of the small town of
Baikonur) Kazakhstan (, Soviet
Union)
[1] Description Sputnik
asm.jpg English: A replica of Sputnik
1, the first artificial satellite in
the world to be put into outer space:
the replica is stored in the National
Air and Space Museum. Ùارسی:
مدل ماهواره
اسپوتنیک-۱، نخستین
ماهواره Ùضایی
جهان Suomi: Sputnik 1:n, maailman
ensimmäinen ihmisen laukaiseman Maata
kiertävän keinotekoisen satelliittin,
jäljennös. Date
2004(2004) Source
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/database
/MasterCatalog?sc=1957-001B Author
NSSDC, NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/be/Sputnik_asm.jpg
[06/06/1958 CE]
identified.
California, USA
[1] Figure 1 from: A. Ghiorso, B. G.
Harvey, G. R. Choppin, S. G. Thompson,
and G. T. Seaborg, ''New Element
Mendelevium, Atomic Number 101'', Phys.
Rev. 98, 1518–1519
(1955). http://prola.aps.org/abstract/P
R/v98/i5/p1518_1 {Seaborg_Glenn_T_19550
418.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PR
/v98/i5/p1518_1
[2] Glenn Seaborg (1912 -
1999) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B51.jpg
[06/06/1958 CE]
identified.
California, USA
[1] Description Berkeley 60-inch
cyclotron.gif English: Photograph
shows the 60-inch cyclotron at the
University of California Lawrence
Radiation Laboratory, Berkeley, in
August, 1939. The machine was the most
powerful atom-smasher in the world at
the time. It had started operating
early in the year. During the period of
the photograph Dr. Edwin M. McMillan
was doing the work which led to the
discovery of neptunium (element 93) a
year later. The instrument was used
later by Dr. Glenn T. Seaborg and his
colleagues for the discovery of element
94 (plutonium) early in 1941.
Subsequently, other transuranium
elements were discovered with the
machine, as well as many radioisotopes,
including carbon-14. For their work,
Drs. Seaborg and McMillan shared the
Nobel Prize in 1951. The machine was
used for the ''long bombardments''
which produced the first weighable and
visible quantities of plutonium, which
was used at Chicago by Seaborg and his
colleagues to work out the method for
separating plutonium on an industrial
scale at the Hanford, Washington,
plutonium pro... РуÑÑкий:
ФотографиÑ
показывает
60-дюймовый циклотрон
в универÑитете
Лаборатории California
Lawrence Radiation, Беркли, в
авгуÑте 1939. Машина
была Ñамым Ñильным
уÑкорителем чаÑтиц в
мире в то времÑ. Date
1939(1939) Source National
Archives logo.svg This image is
available from the Archival Research
Catalog of the National Archives and
Records Administration under the ARC
Identifier 558594. This tag does not
indicate the copyright status of the
attached work. A normal copyright tag
is still required. See
Commons:Licensing for more information.
US-NARA-ARC-Logo.svg Author
Department of Energy. Office of
Public Affairs PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/7/72/Berkeley_60-inch_cycl
otron.gif
[2] Glenn Seaborg (1912 -
1999) UNKNOWN
source: http://www.atomicarchive.com/Ima
ges/bio/B51.jpg
[09/14/1959 CE]
The
Soviet Ship Luna 2 lands on the moon of
earth. The moon is shown to have no
significant magnetic field or radiation
belts.
Kazakhstan (was Soviet Union)
[1] Luna 2 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane
tary/image/luna_2.jpg
[2] Luna 1 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/luna1_vsm.jpg
[04/22/1960 CE]
California
[1] Figure 1 from: Theodore H.
Mainman, ''Ruby Laser Systems'', Patent
number: 3353115, Filing date: Apr 13,
1961, Issue date: Nov 14,
1967 http://www.google.com/patents?id=b
-lUAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&sou
rce=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=f
alse
{Maimon_Theodore_Harold_19610413.pdf}
PD
source: http://www.google.com/patents?id
=b-lUAAAAEBAJ&printsec=abstract&zoom=4&s
ource=gbs_overview_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f
=false
[2] Description Ted Maiman Holding
First Laser.jpg English: Theodore
Maiman holding his invention of the
world's first laser (invented May 16,
1960) Date 16 May
1983(1983-05-16) Source
Template:TRW Author
Kathleenfmaiman Permission (Reusi
ng this file) PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/df/Ted_Maiman_Holding_Fi
rst_Laser.jpg
[04/12/1961 CE]
U.S.S.R.)
[1] The Vostok 1 capsule as recovered
after landing. Currently on display at
the RKK Energiya museum in Korolyov CC
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/7/70/Vostok_1_after_landing.jpg
[2] Description Yuri Gagarin in
Vostok 1 Source Mission
photography Portion used
Sufficient to show the face of
Gagarin in his spacesuit within the
capsule Low resolution?
yes COPYRIGHTED
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/en/b/b1/Vostok1.jpg
[04/13/1961 CE]
identified.
California, USA
[1] Lawrencium on the periodic
table GNU
source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law
rencium
[12/30/1961 CE]
amino acids in proteins is understood.
Cambridge, England
[1] Figure 1 from: F. H. C. CRICK,
LESLIE BARNETT, S. BRENNER & R. J.
WATTS-TOBIN, ''General Nature of the
Genetic Code for Proteins'', Nature
192, 1227 - 1232 (30 December 1961);
doi:10.1038/1921227a0 http://www.nature
.com/nature/journal/v192/n4809/abs/19212
27a0.html
{Crick_Francis_Harry_Compton_19611230.
pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v192/n4809/abs/1921227a0.html
[2] Francis Harry Compton Crick
UNKNOWN
source: http://scientistshowtell.wikispa
ces.com/file/view/FrancisHarryComptonCri
ck2.jpg/39149552/FrancisHarryComptonCric
k2.jpg
[10/08/1964 CE]
("Rutherfordium").
Laboratory of Nuclear Reactions)
Moscow, (U.S.S.R. now) Russia
[1] Figure 1 from: G.N. Flerov, Yu.Ts.
Oganesyan, Yu.V. Lobanov, V.I.
Kuznetsov, V.A. Druin, V.P. Perelygin,
K.A. Gavrilov, S.P. Tretiakova, V.M.
Plotko, ''Synthesis and physical
identification of the isotope of
element 104 with mass number 260'',
Physics Letters, Volume 13, Issue 1, 1
November 1964, Pages 73-75, ISSN
0031-9163, DOI:
10.1016/0031-9163(64)90313-0. http://ww
w.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6X4
4-46M7GWT-DM/2/d343ea63b0ce878c4dcd550b2
f8d8d22 {Flerov_Georgii_Nikolaevich_196
41008.pdf} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.sciencedirect.com/sci
ence/article/B6X44-46M7GWT-DM/2/d343ea63
b0ce878c4dcd550b2f8d8d22
[2] Georgy Nikolaevich FLEROV
UNKNOWN
source: http://159.93.28.88/flnr/history
/flerov.jpg
[07/14/1965 CE]
planet Mars, and to return images of
the surface, Mariner 4.
[1] Mariner 4 image 8E
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane
tary/image/mariner4_8e.gif
[03/01/1966 CE]
different planet, Venera 3 impacts the
surface of Venus.
[1] Venera 3 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane
tary/image/venera_3.jpg
[04/04/1966 CE]
body beyond the earth.
Kazakhstan (was Soviet Union)
[1] Luna 10 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/luna10.jpg
[2] First image of the far side of the
Moon Earth's Moon The Luna 3
spacecraft returned the first views
ever of the far side of the Moon. The
first image was taken at 03:30 UT on 7
October at a distance of 63,500 km
after Luna 3 had passed the Moon and
looked back at the sunlit far side. The
last image was taken 40 minutes later
from 66,700 km. A total of 29
photographs were taken, covering 70% of
the far side. The photographs were very
noisy and of low resolution, but many
features could be recognized. This is
the first image returned by Luna 3,
taken by the wide-angle lens, it showed
the far side of the Moon was very
different from the near side, most
noticeably in its lack of lunar maria
(the dark areas). The right
three-quarters of the disk are the far
side. The dark spot at upper right is
Mare Moscoviense, the dark area at
lower left is Mare Smythii. The small
dark circle at lower right with the
white dot in the center is the crater
Tsiolkovskiy and its central peak. The
Moon is 3475 km in diameter and north
is up in this image. (Luna 3-1) PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/imgca
t/hires/lu3_1.gif
[02/09/1968 CE]
Cambridge) Cambridge, England
[1] Figure 1 from: A. HEWISH, S. J.
BELL, J. D. H. PILKINGTON, P. F. SCOTT,
R. A. COLLINS, ''Observation of a
Rapidly Pulsating Radio Source'',
Nature 217, 709-713 (24 February 1968)
doi:10.1038/217709a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v217/n5130/abs/217709
a0.html {Hewish_Antony_19680209.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v217/n5130/abs/217709a0.html
[2] Antony Hewish Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/physics/laureates/1974/hewish.jpg
[07/21/1969 CE]
[07/21/1969 CE]
Humans
land and move around on the surface of
the moon of earth.
[1] English: Buzz Aldrin removing the
passive seismometer from a compartment
in the SEQ bay of the Lunar Lander. PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/8/8b/5927_NASA.jpg
[2] Neil Armstrong PD
source: http://www.aerospaceguide.net/sp
acehistory/neil_armstrong.jpg
[06/16/1970 CE]
the first artificial gene synthsized.
Wisconsin, USA
[1] Figure 1 from: K. L. AGARWAL, H.
BÃœCHI, M. H. CARUTHERS, N. GUPTA, H.
G. KHORANA, K. KLEPPE, A. KUMAR, E.
OHTSUKA, U. L. RAJBHANDARY, J. H. VAN
DE SANDE, V. SGARAMELLA, H. WEBER & T.
YAMADA , ''Total synthesis of the gene
for an alanine transfer ribonucleic
acid from yeast'', Nature 227, 27 - 34
(04 July 1970);
doi:10.1038/227027a0 http://www.nature.
com/nature/journal/v227/n5253/abs/227027
a0.html {Khorana_Har_Gobind_19700616.pd
f} COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v227/n5253/abs/227027a0.html
[2] Har Gobind Khorana Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/medicine/laureates/1968/khorana.jpg
[11/14/1971 CE]
planet.
[1] Mariner 9 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/mariner09.jpg
[2] Mariner 9 imagery of Olympus Mons
volcano on Mars compared to the eight
principal Hawaiian islands at the same
scale. (Mariner 9 image mosaic,
NASA/JPL) PD
source: http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/volc/fi
g38.gif
[11/27/1971 CE]
planet mars.
[1] Mars 3 Lander PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/mars3_lander_vsm.jpg
[2] Description Mars3
iki.jpg English: The Mars 3
spacecraft Date Source
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image/sp
acecraft/mars3_iki.jpg Author
NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/1/13/Mars3_iki.jpg
[07/18/1973 CE]
segments of DNA into bacteria DNA.
Medicine) Stanford, California, USA and
(University of California) San
Francisco, California, USA
[1] Figure 7 from: Stanley N. Cohen,
Annie C. Y. Chang, Herbert W. Boyer,
and Robert B. Helling, ''Construction
of Biologically Functional Bacterial
Plasmids In Vitro'', PNAS November 1,
1973 vol. 70 no. 11
3240-3244. http://www.pnas.org/content/
70/11/3240.short {Helling_Robert_B_1973
0718.pdf}
source: http://www.pnas.org/content/70/1
1/3240.short
[2] [t Verify this is the correct
Stanley N Cohen at Stanford] Stanley
N. Cohen, M.D. UNKNOWN
source: http://sncohenlab.stanford.edu/i
mages/stan_cohen.jpg
[12/03/1973 CE]
close images of planet Jupiter.
[1] Description
http://history.nasa.gov/SP-349/p142.jpg
English: Pioneer 10 Jupiter
encounter. Date Source
http://history.nasa.gov/SP-349/ch8.
htm Author
NASA Permission (Reusing this
file) PD
source: http://history.nasa.gov/SP-349/p
142.jpg
[2] Pioneer 10 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/image
/spacecraft/pioneer10-11.jpg
[10/20/1975 CE]
the first image from the surface of
another planet.
[1] Image of the surface of Venus from
Venera 9 PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/imgca
t/hires/v09_lander.gif
[2] Venera 9 Descent Craft PD
source: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/plane
tary/image/venera_9_lander.jpg
[11/30/1976 CE]
determined.
England
[1] Figure 1 from: Sanger, F., Air,
G.M., Barrell, B.G., Brown, N.L.,
Coulson, A.R., Fiddes, J.C., Hutchison
III, C.A., Slocombe, P.M. and Smith,
M., 1977. Nature (London) 265, pp.
687–695. http://www.nature.com/nature
/journal/v265/n5596/abs/265687a0.html {
Sanger_Frederick_19761130.pdf}
COPYRIGHTED
source: http://www.nature.com/nature/jou
rnal/v265/n5596/abs/265687a0.html
[2] Frederick Sanger Nobel Prize
photo COPYRIGHTED
source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_priz
es/chemistry/laureates/1958/sanger.jpg
[01/24/1986 CE]
close images of planet Uranus, its
moons and rings.
[1] Description Uranus.jpg English:
NASA photo of Uranus taken by Voyager
2. Caption: This pictures of Uranus was
compiled from images recorded by
Voyager 2 on January 10, 1986, when the
NASA spacecraft was 18 million
kilometers (11 million miles) from the
planet. The images were obtained by
Voyager's narrow-angle camera; the view
is toward the planet's pole of
rotation, which lies just left of
center. The picture has been processed
to show Uranus as human eyes would see
it from the vantage point of the
spacecraft. The dark shading of the
upper right edge of the disk is the
terminator, or day-night boundary. The
blue-green appearance of Uranus results
from methane in the atmosphere; this
gas absorbs red wavelengths from the
incoming sunlight, leaving the
predominant bluish color seen here.
Images shuttered through different
color filters were added and
manipulated by computer, greatly
enhancing the low-contrast details in
the original images. The planet reveals
a dark polar hood surrounded by a
series of progressively lighter
convective bands. The banded structure
is real, though exaggerated here. The
Voyager project is managed for NASA by
the Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Date
January 1986(1986-01) Source
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/ca
talog/PIA01360 Author NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/bb/Uranus.jpg
[2] Description
Voyager.jpg Voyager 1 / Voyager
2 English: NASA photograph of one of
the two identical Voyager space probes
Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 launched in
1977. The 3.7 metre diameter
high-gain antenna (HGA) is attached to
the hollow ten-sided polygonal body
housing the electronics, here seen in
profile. The Voyager Golden Record is
attached to one of the bus
sides. The angled square panel below
is the optical calibration target and
excess heat radiator. The three
radioisotope thermoelectric generators
(RTGs) are mounted end-to-end on the
left-extending boom. One of the two
planetary radio and plasma wave antenna
extends diagonally left and down, the
other extends to the rear, mostly
hidden here. The compact structure
between the RTGs and the HGA are the
high-field and low-field magnetometers
(MAG) in their stowed state; after
launch an Astromast boom extended to 13
metres to distance the low-field
magnetometers. The instrument boom
extending to the right holds, from left
to right: the cosmic ray subsystem
(CRS) above and Low-Energy Charged
Particle (LECP) detector below; the
Plasma Spectrometer (PLS) above; and
the scan platform that rotates about a
vertical axis. The scan platform
comprises: the Infrared Interferometer
Spectrometer (IRIS) (largest camera at
right); the Ultraviolet Spectrometer
(UVS) to the right of the UVS; the two
Imaging Science Subsystem (ISS) vidicon
cameras to the left of the UVS; and the
Photopolarimeter System (PPS) barely
visible under the ISS. Suggested for
English Wikipedia:alternative text for
images: A space probe with squat
cylindrical body topped by a large
parabolic radio antenna dish pointing
upwards, a three-element radioisotope
thermoelectric generator on a boom
extending left, and scientific
instruments on a boom extending right.
A golden disk is fixed to the
body. Date Source NASA
website http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/ima
ge/images/spacecraft/Voyager.jpg Author
NASA Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/Voyager.jpg
[08/25/1989 CE]
close images of planet Neptune, its
moons and rings.
[1] A picture of Neptune taken by
Voyager 2, showing off the Great Dark
Spot which has since disappeared from
the planet's surface. Original
Caption Released with Image: During
August 16 and 17, 1989, the Voyager 2
narrow-angle camera was used to
photograph Neptune almost continuously,
recording approximately two and
one-half rotations of the planet. These
images represent the most complete set
of full disk Neptune images that the
spacecraft will acquire. This picture
from the sequence shows two of the four
cloud features which have been tracked
by the Voyager cameras during the past
two months. The large dark oval near
the western limb (the left edge) is at
a latitude of 22 degrees south and
circuits Neptune every 18.3 hours. The
bright clouds immediately to the south
and east of this oval are seen to
substantially change their appearances
in periods as short as four hours. The
second dark spot, at 54 degrees south
latitude near the terminator (lower
right edge), circuits Neptune every
16.1 hours. This image has been
processed to enhance the visibility of
small features, at some sacrifice of
color fidelity. The Voyager Mission is
conducted by JPL for NASA's Office of
Space Science and
Applications. Source:
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog
/PIA00046 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/0/06/Neptune.jpg
[2] Description
Voyager.jpg Voyager 1 / Voyager
2 English: NASA photograph of one of
the two identical Voyager space probes
Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 launched in
1977. The 3.7 metre diameter
high-gain antenna (HGA) is attached to
the hollow ten-sided polygonal body
housing the electronics, here seen in
profile. The Voyager Golden Record is
attached to one of the bus
sides. The angled square panel below
is the optical calibration target and
excess heat radiator. The three
radioisotope thermoelectric generators
(RTGs) are mounted end-to-end on the
left-extending boom. One of the two
planetary radio and plasma wave antenna
extends diagonally left and down, the
other extends to the rear, mostly
hidden here. The compact structure
between the RTGs and the HGA are the
high-field and low-field magnetometers
(MAG) in their stowed state; after
launch an Astromast boom extended to 13
metres to distance the low-field
magnetometers. The instrument boom
extending to the right holds, from left
to right: the cosmic ray subsystem
(CRS) above and Low-Energy Charged
Particle (LECP) detector below; the
Plasma Spectrometer (PLS) above; and
the scan platform that rotates about a
vertical axis. The scan platform
comprises: the Infrared Interferometer
Spectrometer (IRIS) (largest camera at
right); the Ultraviolet Spectrometer
(UVS) to the right of the UVS; the two
Imaging Science Subsystem (ISS) vidicon
cameras to the left of the UVS; and the
Photopolarimeter System (PPS) barely
visible under the ISS. Suggested for
English Wikipedia:alternative text for
images: A space probe with squat
cylindrical body topped by a large
parabolic radio antenna dish pointing
upwards, a three-element radioisotope
thermoelectric generator on a boom
extending left, and scientific
instruments on a boom extending right.
A golden disk is fixed to the
body. Date Source NASA
website http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/ima
ge/images/spacecraft/Voyager.jpg Author
NASA Permission (Reusing this
file) PD-NASA PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/d/d2/Voyager.jpg
[07/01/2004 CE]
[1] * original caption: Jet Propulsion
Laboratory (JPL) workers use a
borescope to verify pressure relief
device bellows integrity on a
radioisotope thermoelectric generator
(RTG) which has been installed on the
Cassini spacecraft in the Payload
Hazardous Servicing Facility. The
activity is part of the mechanical and
electrical verification testing of RTGs
during prelaunch processing. RTGs use
heat from the natural decay of
plutonium to generate electric power.
The three RTGs on Cassini will enable
the spacecraft to operate far from the
Sun where solar power systems are not
feasible. They will provide electrical
power to Cassini on its 6.7-year trip
to the Saturnian system and during its
four-year mission at Saturn. The
Cassini mission is scheduled for an
Oct. 6 launch aboard a Titan
IVB/Centaur expendable launch vehicle.
Cassini is built and managed for NASA
by JPL. * date: 18. Dec 1997
* image ID: KSC-97PC-1070 *
source:
http://nix.ksc.nasa.gov/info;jsessionid=
1tplxxjif20rp?id=KSC-97PC-1070&orgid=5
PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/6/61/Cassini_assembly.jpg
[2] Original Caption Released with
Image: This is an artists concept of
Cassini during the Saturn Orbit
Insertion (SOI) maneuver, just after
the main engine has begun firing. The
spacecraft is moving out of the plane
of the page and to the right (firing to
reduce its spacecraft velocity with
respect to Saturn) and has just crossed
the ring plane. The SOI maneuver,
which is approximately 90 minutes long,
will allow Cassini to be captured by
Saturn's gravity into a five-month
orbit. Cassini's close proximity to the
planet after the maneuver offers a
unique opportunity to observe Saturn
and its rings at extremely high
resolution. Source:
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog
/PIA03883 PD
source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wiki
pedia/commons/b/b2/Cassini_Saturn_Orbit_
Insertion.jpg
[2015 CE]
robot assistants.
[2020 CE]
have at least a 500kb/s Internet
connection.
[2020 CE]
quantity, and available for public to
buy.
[2030 CE]
humans in most low-skill jobs
(fast-food, fruit and vegtable picking,
etc)
Many humans will be unemployed,
replaced by more efficient, more
predictable, less expensive walking
robots. However, the majority of
humans will vote for a basic standard
of living (eradicating starvation, etc)
for all humans in developed nations.
[2040 CE]
of traffic above the street level paved
roads.
Heli-cars are popular
alternative to ground cars because of
improvements to safety, for speed
because street-level roads are
overcrowded, and for only a little more
cost. These cars are basically low
flying, low-noise helicopters with
ground driving abilities built in.
These cars are required to travel over
the already exiting roads because of
sound level.
These vehicles may have 3 propellers
(or perhaps 1 propeller and 2 air
thrusters) to allow driving more like a
car without tilting.
People will at
first be hesitant to get into the
helicars, but eventually, overcrowded
traffic and a similar price will make
switching from ground car to flying-car
a simple choice.
[2040 CE]
artificial muscles are mass produced
and available for public to buy.
[2040 CE]
together, and other non-sexual forms of
pleasure for money decriminalized for
humans over the age of 18.
[2040 CE]
humans over the age of 18. No humans
are arrested for owning or selling
marijuana.
[2050 CE]
replaced humans in most low-skill jobs
(fast-food, fruit and vegtable picking,
etc)
[2050 CE]
muscles robot can fly like a bird by
flapping wings.
[2050 CE]
cars established.
[2060 CE]
buttock fondling for money
decriminalized for humans over the age
of 18. Humans over 18 are no longer
arrested for trading manual
masturbation, genital, breast or
buttock fondling for money.
[2080 CE]
humans over the age of 18. No humans
are arrested for receiving or providing
oral sex for money with no regard to
gender or either participant.
[2100 CE]
earth are aware that thought can be
seen and heard, almost 200 years after
its invention.
This includes the vast majority
seeing clear proof of this technology,
and understand the history starting in
1910.
[2100 CE]
[2100 CE]
cars. Most consumer land vehicles are
now driven by walking robots.
[2100 CE]
over the age of 18. No humans are
arrested for buying or selling cocaine.
[2120 CE]
flying cars (helicopters). Most flying
cars are now controlled by walking
robots.
[2130 CE]
[2140 CE]
atoms (Silicon, Aluminum, Iron, and
Calcium) into the much more useful H2,
N2 and O2. This allows humans to live
independently of earth, on planets and
moons without water.
This opens up large
cities on the waterless planets and
moons, and increases the supplies of H2
and O2 for those in between planets and
in planetary or steller orbit. This is
a simply process of separating atoms,
the most complex process of assembling
atoms from protons and neutrons, or
even from photons will take more time
to figure out.
Large scale conversion of
larger common atoms into smaller more
valuable atoms. Particle accelerators
turn abundant atoms like silicon, and
iron, into more useful smaller atoms
like hydrogen, oxygen, and other atoms
required by life, in particular as fuel
and food to go to other planets and to
provide air, water and food for life
growing on other planets and moons.
[2140 CE]
and cheese.
[2150 CE]
democratic, where the people vote
directly on the laws.
[2150 CE]
air on Earth.
[2150 CE]
Earth and build buildings.
[2150 CE]
gasoline for gas engines.
[2170 CE]
moon of Earth.
[2190 CE]
images and sounds to and from brains
and remote muscle moving
[2200 CE]
earth.
[2200 CE]
images and sounds to and from brains
and remote muscle moving is made
public.
Seeing, hearing and sending images and
sounds to and from brains (telepathy,
neuron reading and writing) is made
public in most major nations. Although
the public will still not be aware of
the hundreds of years that neuron
reading and writing was kept secret.
The majority of the public will now get
to see videos and windows in front of
their eyes, and talk openly about what
they see, to record and print out
copies of what they see and their
thought images and sounds.
[2200 CE]
[2210 CE]
China. All major nations representative
or fully democratic.
[2220 CE]
around on surface of asteroid.
[2230 CE]
planet Mars.
[2240 CE]
surface of an asteroid.
[2250 CE]
asteroid.
[2250 CE]
for the most developed nations on
earth. This ends arrests of humans for
owning, buying or selling images that
violate national secrecy, copyright,
patent, trademark, privacy, or are
graphically violent, are pornographic.
This greatly helps to lower the
quantity of violence and spread of
disease on earth.
[2250 CE]
decriminalized in most major nations.
This includes all forms of trading
money for physical pleasure.
[2250 CE]
decriminalized in most major nations.
[2250 CE]
around on the surface of planet
Mercury.
[2250 CE]
around on the surface of a moon of
Jupiter.
[2260 CE]
Mars.
[2260 CE]
around on the surface of a moon of
Saturn.
[2270 CE]
Mars.
[2275 CE]
developed nations are not religious.
These people
do not practice any religion, but may
still believe in a god or gods.
[2280 CE]
is electronic.
[2280 CE]
around on the surface of a moon of
Uranus.
[2280 CE]
other and do not talk out loud. The
majority of humans communicate through
thought images and sound. The images
and sounds are beamed directly to their
brains. People view other people in
windows which appear before their eyes,
squares which show the image a person
is thinking of, and other videos from
the person's life appear around the
image of the person. (Show image)
[2280 CE]
orbits the Sun.
[2290 CE]
transport huamns from Earth to the moon
of Earth.
[2300 CE]
on planet Mars.
[2300 CE]
around on the surface of Triton, the
moon of Neptune.
[2300 CE]
right to vote, to work, to pose nude,
and to have consensual sex.
[2300 CE]
[2310 CE]
[2320 CE]
surface of Venus.
[2325 CE]
developed nations do not believe in any
heaven or hell.
[2340 CE]
Mercury.
[2350 CE]
on the surface of Mercury.
[2350 CE]
[2350 CE]
system for all places in the universe.
[2350 CE]
letter equals one sound alphabet for
all human language.
[2400 CE]
moon of Jupiter.
[2400 CE]
robots to the stars of Alpha Centauri.
[2420 CE]
developed nations do not believe in any
gods.
[2500 CE]
earth orbit.
These may be employees of
businesses that own ships that people
visit, or possibly individual wealthy
people that prefer to live in orbit
living in "house" ships. Eventually,
earth orbit will be filled with single
family ships.
[2500 CE]
project is started.
This project removes the
Carbon from the atmosphere and converts
it to H2, O2. This process may be done
by thousands of surface (and/or low
orbit) machines working in parallel.
There is so much atmosphere on Venus,
that I think this process will take as
many as 1000 years.
Based on a conversion
rate of 1km3/day conversion by 1000
machines.
[2500 CE]
are not religious.
[2500 CE]
longer attend religious services at
least once a month.
[2500 CE]
virus, when caught early enough, can
kill human or any other species.
[2500 CE]
Humans use DNA
to end the effects of aging.
End of death by
aging, through genetic editing, humans
grow and develop to age 20, and then
hold that body shape indefinitely,
dying only from physical destruction.
Most humans will now live for thousands
of years, some even for millions of
years. This causes the human population
to grow at an extremely rapid pace.
[2550 CE]
surface of Venus (in supercooled
buildings?).
[2570 CE]
life. Multiple ships are used to create
a mass large enough to change the
motion of an asteroid using gravity.
[2600 CE]
uncomfortably large at 1 trillion
(1e12) humans.
Presumes no humans leave earth.
[2600 CE]
propulsion engine (either built into
the asteroid, or on a ship or ships
connected to the asteroid by cables to
pull the asteroid).
[2650 CE]
velocity and direction completely under
human control.
[2650 CE]
particles.
Humans create atoms from light
particles.
Humans assemble atoms from light
particles. This may have already
happened and was kept secret. This
process involved focusing light
particles to form protons, which are
Hydrogen ions. The hydrogen can then be
collided together to form larger atoms.
Building atoms may require extreme
precision and timing of how to make
pieces of matter group together without
dividing the accumulated cluster of
matter into smaller pieces. At first
this will probably be more of a
theoretical and scientific achievement
and not practical, the more practical
process being separating larger atoms
into smaller more useful atoms - like
converting Iron and Silicon into
Hydrogen, Oxygen and Nitrogen.
[2700 CE]
and live permanently in orbit of
Saturn.
[2750 CE]
different star.
Ship from Earth reachs a
different star, Proxima Centauri.
Ships with
walking robots arrive at and orbit
Proxima Centauri, 4 light years away
(36 trillion km/22 trillion miles).
Walking robots land ships and walk
around on the surface of a planet of
Proxima Centauri. This is perhaps 300
years after setting out from the star
of Earth. The ship must travel with a
velocity greater than 2% the speed of
light to reach Centauri within 300
years. The robots send back close up
images of the planets and moons
orbiting Proxima Centauri. The robots
then land ships on the planets, build
builds, perform chemical analysis,
sending all information back to the
humans of Earth. Some of the ships will
then move onto to Alpha Centauri A and
B .1 light year away. This will take
approximately 10 years. perhaps the
robots find that there is life on at
least one planet, but that it is the
equivalent of bacteria of earth. This
may provide proof that nucleic acids
molecules like DNA and RNA, and even
more evolved cells like bacteria and
viruses are common throughout the
universe, found on most planets of
every star. Or perhaps the robots will
find that the only life on the planets
of other stars is bacteria that has
arrived from earth. Seeing close-up
images of planets of a different star
will create a large amount of
excitement in the humans on Earth and
perhaps boost their confidence and
interest in exploration.
[2760 CE]
Alpha Centauri A and B. The robots send
back close up images of the planets
around those stars. The robots land
smaller probe ships on all the planets
and moons, capture and transmit images,
collect and analyze chemical samples.
[2800 CE]
not believe in any gods.
By the year 2800 CE
many estimates indicate that, at
current rates, all humans in developed
nations will not believe in any gods,
or any major religions.
[2800 CE]
not believe in any heaven or hell.
[2800 CE]
the molecular content of the air on
Earth. The quantity of O2, N2, CO2, etc
is under complete control by humans.
(to do: determine when if ever the
weather of Earth will be under complete
control.)
[2800 CE]
for the stars of Alpha Centauri and
will arrive successfully, perhaps 300
years later.
[2800 CE]
leave for Barnard's star, 6 light years
away and will arrive successfully,
perhaps 350 years later.
[2800 CE]
relative to the star and other planets.
The asteroid orbit is stopped, and the
asteroid is held stationary in a fixed
position relative to the star.
[2800 CE]
and live permanently in orbit around
planet Uranus.
[2800 CE]
purposely changed by humans. The motion
of Earth and the moon of earth are
purposely changed by orbiting ships.
The large quantity of ships in orbit
causes the motion of earth to be
carefully monitored and periodically
changed using mass organized ship
movements. By this time the planet
Earth and Moon are visibly surrounded
by millions of orbiting ships.
(show image)
[2900 CE]
become apparent as a result of living
many generations in low gravity. For
humans who live their lives in low
gravity, they may start to look more
like ocean organisms - most of which do
not walk on a surface but instead move
themselves around in by water
propulsion - for humans this being air
propulsion. Humans may also develop
more genitals and sex-related organs,
and more accentuated sex organs, larger
breasts, penises and scrotums, rounder
buttocks, etc. Humans may start to have
both sets of genitals, and converge to
a single gender, which both gametes,
like many plants. (perhaps should push
to later time.)
[2900 CE]
Neptune, and live permanently in orbit
of Neptune.[t]
[2900 CE]
Jupiter. Humans find that the size of
Jupiter is about 6 times the diameter
of planet earth (verify), and is
officially the second largest
terrestrial body of this star system
after the Sun. The surface of Jupiter
is found to be molten liquid metal,
mostly iron, silicon and the other most
abundant atoms.
[2900 CE]
leave for the stars of Sirius, 8 light
years away and will arrive
successfully, perhaps 450 years later.
[2950 CE]
Saturn. As expected, the diameter of
Saturn is 4 times that of Earth
(verify) and is molten metal like
Jupiter.
[3000 CE]
humans. Humans learn to change the
human genome in order to grow to a
certain age and maintain that age
without aging any farther. This has an
immediate impact on the population
growth of humans in the star system,
increasing the population very quickly,
limited only by water and food.
Humans will
then grow to age 20 and stay at that
age for many thousands or even millions
of years, unless they are destroyed by
some non-aging event, such as an
accident, or violent destruction.
Initially this is
done in single celled eukaryotes, and
then multicellular eukaryotes, fish,
reptiles, and mammals.
[3000 CE]
by life.
[3000 CE]
Uranus. The diameter is found to be
around 3 times that of earth (verify)
and is molten metal.
[3000 CE]
Neptune. Like Uranus, the diameter is
found to be around 3 times that of
earth (verify) and is molten metal.
[3100 CE]
Humans
reach a different star.
Humans orbit a
different star, Proxima Centauri.
Humans can now claim to be a two star
system civilization. This doubles the
chances of the human species surviving
and not going extinct. This brings the
humans of earth one step closer to
forming a globular cluster which would
greatly increase their chance of
survival long into the future. Humans
will reproduce at a regular rate around
Centauri, and in addition more humans
will arrive from the star of Earth.
(Track population of humans around
Proxima Cetauri.)
[3150 CE]
robots arrive at Barnard's star, 6
light years away, 350 years after
leaving the star system of Earth. The
robots send back close up images of the
planets and moons orbiting Barnard's
star. The robots then land ships on the
planets, build builds, perform chemical
analysis, sending all information back
to the humans of Earth. Humans now have
ships orbiting 3 different stars.
[3200 CE]
complete control by orbiting ships that
move and thrust to change the motion of
Mercury.
[3300 CE]
traditionally undeveloped nations are
not religious.
[3350 CE]
of Sirius. Humans now have ships
orbiting 5 different stars.
[3400 CE]
controlled by orbiting ships.
[3500 CE]
completed. Venus becomes second earth
(although without oceans and much more
efficiently organized).
Once temperatures came
down, more and more humans would be
living on the surface of Venus, in the
intermediate stage.
Again, based on a
conversion rate of 1km3/day conversion
by 1000 machines.
[3600 CE]
of Mars purposely controlled by
orbiting ships.
[3700 CE]
Jupiter to Nitrogen and Oxygen is
started.
[3800 CE]
reaches physical maximum of 250
trillion (250e12) humans.
[3800 CE]
orbiting ships.
[3800 CE]
different stars.
[3900 CE]
Mars reaches physical maximum of 500
trillion (500e12) humans.
[3900 CE]
orbiting ships.
[4000 CE]
orbiting ships.
[4100 CE]
orbiting ships.
[4100 CE]
atmosphere of Saturn project initiated.
This project will be completed 500
years later. The atmosphere of Saturn
will be replaced with a nitrogen and
oxygen atmosphere.
[4200 CE]
consumed by humans living there.
[4200 CE]
position relative to the star. The
motion of planet Mercury is stopped,
and the planet is held in a fixed
position relative to the Sun.
[4200 CE]
Uranus started. Atmosphere of Uranus
will be completely converted to a
nitrogen and oxygen atmosphere. This
will take 400 years to complete.
[4200 CE]
different stars.
[4300 CE]
undeveloped nations are not religious.
[4300 CE]
Jupiter.
(requires supercooled station?)
[4300 CE]
completely converted into a nitrogen
and oxygen atmosphere. This project is
completed 600 years after its start in
3700. The colder temperatures of
Jupiter and the 3 other largest planets
would cause oxygen and nitrogen to be
liquid, however, the surface of Jupiter
produces some heat, and human-made
heat-producing machines can be
distributed throughout the planet
surface where humans settle to keep the
gases warm enough to stay in gas form.
[4300 CE]
Neptune started.
[4400 CE]
Jupiter have been converted into matter
for fuel and food.
[4500 CE]
[4500 CE]
[4500 CE]
position.
[4500 CE]
Earth star are under complete control
of humans.
[4600 CE]
converted into an atmosphere of
nitrogen and oxygen.
[4600 CE]
converted into an atmosphere of
nitrogen and oxygen.
[4600 CE]
Neptune.
[4700 CE]
live in and on the surface of planets,
moons or asteroids.
[4700 CE]
converted into an atmosphere of
nitrogen and oxygen.
[4700 CE]
different stars.
[4800 CE]
physical maximum of 1 quadrillion
humans (1e15).
[4800 CE]
planet of the Earth star system,
overtaking earth in number of humans
living on and around it.
[5000 CE]
earth reaches a theoretical physical
maximum of 333 quadrillion (333e15)
humans.
[5000 CE]
translational (but not rotational)
movement of the earth star.
(Might humans stop the rotation of the
Sun? It seems clear that it would be
possible, by using gravitation to
present a countering force.)
[5100 CE]
life that evolved around a different
star.
Humans decode an image sent by life
that evolved around a different star.
Humans
capture and decode an image created by
a living object that evolved around a
different star. This is the first time
humans see images of living objects
that evolved around a different star
(presuming the images contain images
of light reflected off the species that
transmitted the image in light
particles). It seems unlikely to me
that a stream of particles that either
form an image, or encode and image,
could be sent very far without
intending to send the particles to be
received at very far distances, for
example around other stars. For
example, the light we see of the
nearest stars, represents only a tiny
fraction of the light emitted from the
star. This shows that a transmitter of
particles, would have to be very large
to be received from living objects
orbiting a distant star. Because of the
value of the potential information
gained, clearly trying to intercept
every particle entering this star
system will be and already is an
important activity. This searching for
intelligently coded particle beams from
living objects of other stars, is all
part of an information gathering
process that all advanced life must
participate in. This also involves
sending probe ships to all nearby
stars, not only to prospect for
potential future homes, but also to see
if any life has evolved around the
star, life which may be a potential
friend or enemy. Life of other stars
may be looked at with some amount of
curiosity and interest in learning what
natural chemical and other scientific
secrets have been unlocked, but also
life of other stars will be looked at
as an obvious expense to the finite
resources available, even at a galactic
scale.
[5200 CE]
completely used as fuel and food by
life of the earth star.
[5200 CE]
The human population is now: x. Humans
now have ships orbiting around 100
different stars.
[5500 CE]
closer together.Humans around the stars
of Centauri control enough mass to
start moving the three stars and
orbiting matter closer to the star of
Earth. At the same time the humans
orbiting the Earth star, move the
position of that star and orbiting
matter closer to the stars of Centauri.
This will make travel, communication
and trading of matter between the two
stars faster. The initial goal may be
to have all 4 stars under 1 light year
apart from each other.
[6000 CE]
evolved around a different star.
Humans
touch living objects that evolved
around a different star.
Humans touch living
objects that evolved around a different
star. Certainly, this will cause a
large amount of excitement for the many
billions of organisms of both star
systems.
[6500 CE]
cluster of 4 stars, the star of Earth,
and the 3 stars of Centauri, all within
1 light year apart from each other.
Humans occupy around 50 stars. In
addition humans have ships orbiting 500
different stars.
[8000 CE]
controls a globular cluster of 10
stars, and inhabits around 100 other
stars. Humans have ships orbiting 1000
different stars. Human population is
now: x.
[10000 CE]
have been used as fuel and food, all
that remains are ships that orbit the
Sun and capture the particles the Sun
emits to use for fuel, food, building
material, etc. The inside matter of
planets is utilized because otherwise,
it is precious matter that is going
unused. Most of this extracting of
matter occurs on the earth surface.
Massive holes are dug into the Earth
that extend deep into the inner Earth.
Two-leg robots (and perhaps some
humans) populate and work deep inside
the earth and the other planets moving
inner material to the surface.
[10000 CE]
controls a globular cluster of 100
stars, inhabits around 1000 other
stars, and has ships orbiting about
5000 other stars. Human population is
now: x.
[11000 CE]
humans that do not need to eat but get
starch from photosynthesis like plants.
[12000 CE]
the requirement of humans to urinate
and deficate.
[13000 CE]
humans that may not need oxygen.
Perhaps particles from stars produce
the necessary chemicals and reactions,
like oxygen, hydrogen, etc.
[14000 CE]
look extremely different from humans on
earth now. For example, our descendants
may be intelligent spherical blobs with
various extensions (like arms and hands
sex/pleasure organs), or perhaps they
will retain a rigid, muscular form, but
vastly different in shape and size.
(Note: it seems likely that this change
might not happen this quickly - clearly
primates have evolved over millions of
years - and those features are very
similar - but it could be this fast
because the change in surroundings is
so different.)
[15000 CE]
controls a globular cluster of 1,000
stars, inhabits 10,000 other stars, and
has ships orbiting around 100,000
stars. The human population is now: x.
will belong to a globular cluster.
It seems
safe to presume that by 100 million
years from now, all stars in the Milky
Way Galaxy will belong to a globular
cluster.
globular galaxy.
The Milky Way Galaxy is now a
globular galaxy.
The Milky Way Galaxy is now a
globular galaxy. No blue dust clouds
remain, and all stars are inhabited
yellow stars. It may be that the life
of the Milky Way, then will position
itself around each star to harvest
every last light particle. If true, the
external appearance of the Milky way
would then appear to be a large radio
source, blocking all light behind it.
It seems very unlikely to me that all
light particles could be held in some
volume of space. Globular clusters
start to pull in to center of galaxy.
(show evidence for this in images of
galaxies).
Humans may chose to feed the Earth star
and other stars under they ownership,
or simply use the mass of the stars
completely for food, fuel, building
materials, etc. The globular clusters
must feed their stars, using the matter
of large blue stars to reduce their
size to yellow stars, and then
consistently feeding the star to keep
it's mass constant. It seems more
likely that it would take much less
effort to simply consume stars
completely. New stars would then need
to be acquired. But yet, the fact
remains that there are very few red
stars in globular clusters (verify), so
this implies that stars are fed and
kept at a constant mass. But to feed a
star, mass needs to be acquired, and
probably more mass than is emitted from
surrounding stars, although light
particles from all the stars in a
globular cluster must slow the loss of
mass of the stars of the cluster.
Perhaps the red stars are simply too
dim to see. By examining stars of
globular clusters over long periods of
time, humans will be able to see
clearly if their mass does decrease.
Galaxies unite.
Milky Way and Magellanic
Cloud Galaxies integrate.
The Milky Way Globular
Galaxy integrates the matter of the
Magellanic Cloud Galaxies becoming
about twice as large as the original
size of the Milky Way globular galaxy.
unite.
Milky Way and Andromeda Galaxies
integrate.
The Andromeda Galaxy and Milky Way
collide and start the process of
joining together to form a single
galaxy which is twice the size of the
original Milky Way globular galaxy. The
Milky Way will then continue its
exploration, picking other galaxies to
move to, moving to those other
galaxies, integrating the matter of
those galaxies into the Milky Way and
continuing on to the next galaxy.
Interestingly, this process may be a
kind of massively large scale, "chase
and be chased" or "hunt and be hunted"
kind of occurance, as the Milky Way
will seek galaxies that are weaker,
while trying to out run galaxies that
are stronger than itself. It may be
that a galaxy may initially think that
they can control the living objects of
another galaxy, only to find that they
are evenly or even out matched, and
lose resources to the other galaxy.
Either way, there is probably always a
certain amount of equality because of
the similar nature of evolution of life
in any galaxy. All organisms would
probably all be somewhat evenly matched
- the major differences perhaps being
one only of size and quantity of
organisms.